Fuel 253 (2019) 887–903

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Fuel
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/fuel

Study on flame structures and emission characteristics according to various T

swirl combinations and fuel compositions in a CH4/H2/CO syngas swirl-
stabilized combustor
Minsung Choia,b, Yeseul Parka, Xinzhuo Lia, Yonmo Sungc, Seik Parkd, Keunhyeok Moone,
⁎
Gyungmin Choia,
a
School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National University, Busan 46241, Republic of Korea
b
Department of Clean Fuel and Power Generation, Korea Institute of Machinery & Materials (KIMM), Daejeon 34103, Republic of Korea
c
Energy Technology Development Team, Hyundai Steel Company, Chungcheongnam-do 31719, Republic of Korea
d
Clean Power Generation Laboratory, KEPCO Research Institute, Daejeon 34056, Republic of Korea
e
Eco Fuel Procurement & Development Team, Korea East-West Power Co., Ltd., Ulsan 44543, Republic of Korea

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In an integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) power plant, the initial operating procedure is driven by
IGCC natural gas first, and then by H2/CO syngas. This study attempted to find the optimal operating procedure in the
Syngas combustion fuel changeover section, such as from natural gas to syngas. Therefore, the influences of various swirl combi-
Fuel changeover nations and syngas compositions on flame structures and NOx and CO emissions characteristics were investigated
Swirling flame structure
through experimental and numerical analyses in a partially premixed dual swirl combustor. To observe the
Modified unmixedness
NOx emissions
various flame structures, such as lifted, tubular, and attached flames, the two-dimensional particle image ve-
locimetry (PIV) technique was applied and compared with the results obtained by computational fluid dynamics
(CFD). The combustion characteristics of co– and counter-swirling flames were observed, and the optimal swirl
combination was subsequently confirmed by using the parameter of modified unmixedness. When the flame
shape and fuel and air mixing efficiency are considered, Sco, 1.3/1.46 condition is the optimal swirl combination
for stable conversion of the syngas fuel. In addition, the operating parts with a methane content of 25% and a
hydrogen content of 75% are considered to be avoided in the operating part of fuel changeover. The operating
part of fuel changeover can be divided into 10 paths for stable syngas operation. The optimal operating pro-
cedure to control the content of hydrogen and carbon monoxide after the syngas operation with the Path No. 2,
such as H2 = 25% and CO = 75%.

1. Introduction
Globally, power generation markets are making efforts to improve
the efficiency of energy production and meet social needs through the
increasing use of various forms of renewable energy, such as wind
turbines, bio energy, and solar energy [1]. The Korean government
plans to increase the capacity of renewable energy to 20% by 2030;
however, it faces many difficulties regarding the stability of power
generation to balance demand and supply [2]. The regulations for coal-
based power generation systems are becoming more stringent due to
the depletion of coal resources and higher pollutant emissions, such as
NOx, CO2, and particulate matter, compared to other fuel sources.
However, coal based electricity generation is cheap and easy, and it
generates the greatest amount of electricity after nuclear power [3].
Recently, integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) has become
one of the most attractive power plants among the eco-friendly power
generation technologies using coal-based fuel [4–7]. A gasifier is used
to convert coal-based fuel to syngas [8]. In this process, hydrogen and
carbon monoxide are produced, and methane is used to run the IGCC
power plant for flame stability in the initial operating stages. In Korea, a
Taean 300 MWth IGCC of Korea Western Power Co., Ltd. started com-
mercial operations in August 2016 and completed the pilot operation in
May 2017. However, in 2017, the power generation amount was
1285 GW, which only attained a 38.4% utilization factor. A reason for
this was start-up failures due to combustion instability in the gas tur-
bine combustor. Unlike gas turbine power generation using natural gas,

⁎
Corresponding author at: School of Mechanical Engineering, Pusan National University, 2, busandaehak-ro 63beon-gil, Geumjeong-gu, Busan 46241, Republic of
Korea.
E-mail address: choigm@pusan.ac.kr (G. Choi).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2019.05.049
Received 3 February 2019; Received in revised form 11 April 2019; Accepted 9 May 2019
Available online 22 May 2019
0016-2361/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M. Choi, et al. Fuel 253 (2019) 887–903

Nomenclature →
g gravitational body force
h enthalpy
→
ANN artificial neural networks Jj diffusion flux of species j
CCD charge-coupled device keff effective conductivity
CFD computational fluid dynamics Mw molecular weight
DO discrete ordinate n temperature exponent
EDC eddy dissipation concept p pressure
IGCC integrated gasification combined cycle R universal gas constant
IRZ inner recirculation zone Ri net reaction of production of species i
ISL inner shear layer Sco swirl number of co-swirling combination
LES large-eddy simulation Sct swirl number of counter-swirling combination
LHV lower heating value Sh heat of chemical reaction
ORZ outer recirculation zone Si swirl number of inner 1st swirler
OSL outer shear layer Sn swirl number
PIV particle image velocimetry So swirl number of outer 2nd swirler
RANS Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes Sct turbulent Schmidt number
RHT radiative heat transfer Stk Stokes number
RMS root-mean-square T temperature
A pre-exponential factor t time
a concentration exponent of fuel →
v velocity vector
b concentration exponent of oxidizer Yi mass fraction of species i
Di,m mass diffusion coefficient of species i θ swirl vane angle
DT,i thermal diffusion coefficient of species i Ì¿
τ stress tensor
di inner diameter of swirler
τeff effective conductivity
do outer diameter of swirler
μt turbulent viscosity
E energy
ω̇k reaction rate
Ea activation energy
→ ρ density
F external body force

which mainly comprises methane, syngas extracted from coal-based
fuel accounts for 34–44% of hydrogen and carbon monoxide in the fuel
composition. Therefore, combustion instability may occur when chan-
ging the fuel composition. To solve such problems, studies on flame
structure, combustion, and emission characteristics for stable IGCC
operation have been continuously conducted in the syngas-based gas
turbine combustor.
Natarajan et al. [9] measured the laminar flame speeds of lean H2/
CO/CO2 syngas fuel mixtures on a conical Bunsen flame over a range of
fuel compositions (5–95% for H2 and CO and up to 40% for CO2 by
volume), reactant preheat temperatures (up to 700 K), and pressures
(1–5 atm). They primarily studied the effects of CO2 dilution, pre-
heating, and pressure on laminar flame speed in a combustion en-
vironment with H2/CO syngas fuel by using a Chemkin code and
compared the results with experimental results. The effects of fuel di-
lution, such as N2 and CO2, and recirculation zone on lean blowoff of
syngas flame have been studied by Li et al. [10,11]. They confirmed
that the syngas flame is more prone to lean blowout upon inert dilution.
In addition to the thermal quenching effect of N2 and CO2, the chemical
effect of CO2 also plays an important role in undermining the flame
stability by modifying the kinetics of syngas flame. In particular, they
studied the effects of fuel composition and air flow on ignition behavior
by varying the fuel composition and air flow velocity. In the study, a
significant amount of H2 (about 50%) is needed to dominate auto-
ignition behavior and other fuel components, such as CH4 and CO, have
little influence on ignition. Joo et al. [12] studied the combustion
performance of H2/CO/CH4 syngas fuel compositions in a partially
premixed model gas turbine combustor. They investigated the NOx
emissions concentrations and the combustion characteristics of flame
temperature and flame length by using overlapped OH*, CH*, and C2*
chemiluminescence images. Moreover, they utilized artificial neural
networks (ANN) to estimate EINOx trends and determine the effec-
tiveness of the NOx mechanism. To analyze fuel interchangeability for
industrial gas turbines, Park et al. [13,14] conducted a combustion test
with H2/CO syngas fuel at pressurized conditions to compare
combustion characteristics (exhaust gas emission characteristics, tem-
perature profile, endoscopic flame visualization, etc.) based on changes
to the combustion chamber pressure, fuel gas composition ratio, and N2
dilution ratio for the fuel. They confirmed that partial damage to the
nozzle from flashback occurred when the hydrogen content of the
syngas fuel was ≥60%. Quattrocchi et al. [15] investigated the liftoff
and blowout behavior of nonpremixed syngas flames by using a time-
accurate computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation with a de-
tailed description of transport and chemistry. In the study, for H2 mole
fractions above 30%, the flame liftoff and blowout behavior become
less sensitive to syngas composition and temperature, implying that the
behavior is now largely determined by H2. Zheng et al. [16] studied a
lean-premixed swirling combustor with H2/CO syngas fuel in non-re-
acting and reacting cases by using large-eddy simulation (LES). They
investigated the effects of the fuel composition, Reynolds number,
equivalence ratio, and pressure on the flame structures and NOx emis-
sions. In particular, they examined the influence of various operating
conditions on the recirculation zone, vorticity breakdown, and mixing.
They also investigated the dilution effects of CO2 and H2O on partially
premixed swirling syngas flames by using an LES method [17]. Samiran
Fig. 1. Schematic of operating procedure in CH4/H2/CO syngas.

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M. Choi, et al.
Fig. 2. (a) Schematic of dual-swirl burner system and (b) photographs of the inner and outer swirlers.
et al. [18] investigated the combustion performance of H2-rich model
syngas by using a premixed swirl flame combustor. They observed the
flame color through direct flame imaging. The high hydrogen content in
syngas fuel shows a flame reaction zone length that is more intense and
shorter due to reduced flame thickness when compared to that of
moderate H2-enriched syngas. Aliyu et al. [19] studied the results of
experimental and numerical investigations of oxy-combustion H2-en-
riched-CH4 diffusion flames in an atmospheric-pressure swirl-stabilized
gas-turbine model combustor. As the swirl vane angle increased from
55° to 75°, the flame temperature decreased. They concluded that the
increasing swirl vane angle enhanced the rate of mixing of the fresh
cold oxidizer mixture with the hot burned gases and, as a result, the
combustion temperature was lowered.
Regarding the above results, one of the most important flow features
produced by an apparatus equipped with the swirler is a recirculation
zone, which enhances the mixing rate of fuel and air. In the zone where
recirculation flow occurs, flame stability is increased by the mixture of
burned gas, which is a hot region, and unburned gas, which is a cold
region. The recirculation zone is divided into 2 regions, the inner re-
circulation zone (IRZ) and the outer recirculation zone (ORZ), based on
the inner shear layer (ISL) and the outer shear layer (OSL), respectively.
In particular, Sung et al. [20–23] analyzed the effects of the behavior of
the IRZ on NOx emissions, concluding that the swirl intensity and swirl
arrangement are the critical factors for controlling IRZ and NOx emis-
sions. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to observe the NOx and CO
emissions characteristics of various swirl combinations and CH4/H2/CO
syngas compositions in a swirl-stabilized combustor. Most of the
aforementioned studies have only covered H2/CO syngas combustion.
However, in the IGCC power plant, the initial operating procedure is
driven by natural gas first, and by H2/CO syngas afterwards, as shown
in Fig. 1. This study is motivated by the lack of information of the
optimal operating procedure in the fuel changeover, such as from
natural gas to syngas. In addition, the flame structures and NOx and CO
emissions characteristics were observed at each path in order to find the
optimal operating procedure in the fuel changeover.
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Fuel 253 (2019) 887–903
2. Experimental setup and methods
2.1. Dual swirl burner system
Fig. 2(a) shows a schematic for the dual swirl burner system. The
burner comprises three coaxial tubes and dual axial swirlers, which are
fitted at annulus 1 (inner 1st swirler) and annulus 2 (outer 2nd swirler).
The heights of the burner rims are 30 and 35 mm for annulus 1 and
annulus 2, respectively. The swirlers were designed with six vanes of
2 mm thickness. The 1st and 2nd swirlers consist of three types of vanes
inclined at 40°, 50°, and 60° to the mainstream direction, as shown in
Fig. 2(b). Identical directions of movement between the 1st and 2nd
swirlers indicate a co-swirling flow. On the other hand, opposing di-
rections between the 1st and 2nd swirlers indicate a counter-swirling
flow. The geometric swirl number (Sn) is calculated using the following
approximations suggested by Gupta et al. [24].
2 ⎡ 1 − (d i/ d o )3 ⎤
Sn = 2
tanθ
3⎢⎣ 1 − (d i/ d o ) ⎥⎦ (1)
Here, di is the inner diameter of the swirler and do is the outer diameter
of the swirler. Thus, Sn primarily depends on the swirl vane angle (θ).
The swirl numbers of the inner 1st swirler vane angle for 40°, 50°, and
60° are evaluated as Si = 0.63, 0.9, and 1.3, respectively. Additionally,
the swirl numbers of the outer 2nd swirler vane angle for 40°, 50°, and
60° are So = 0.71, 1, and 1.46, respectively. The symbol of Sco and Sct
indicate the co– and counter-swirling combinations, respectively.
2.2. Experimental conditions
Fig. 3(a) shows a schematic of the flow arrangement. A syngas-air
mixture was supplied to annulus 1. The CH4/H2/CO syngas was well
mixed by an impeller-type fuel mixer using a speed control motor
(K6IG6NC-SU, GGM). The syngas and air flow rates were controlled by
a mass flow controller (KOFLOC-3660, Kojima instruments). To observe
the flame structure by using particle image velocimetry (PIV)
M. Choi, et al. Fuel 253 (2019) 887–903

Table 2
Physicochemical parameters of the chemical reaction rates.
A n Ea [J/kgmol] [A] [B] a b

5.012E11 0 2.0E08 CH4 O2 0.7 8

2.239E12 0 1.7E08 CO O2 1 0.25
5.0E08 0 1.7E08 CO2 – 1 –
9.87E08 0 3.1E07 H2 O2 1 1

Table 3
Reaction rate constant of the reaction steps for thermal NO formation.
Forward reaction [m3/mol-s] Backward reaction [m3/mol-s]

kf,1 1.8 × 108e(−38370/T) kr,1 3.8 × 107e(−425/T)

kf,2 1.8 × 104Te(−4580/T) kr,2 3.81 × 103Te(−20820/T)

kf,3 7.1 × 107e(−450/T) kr,3 1.7 × 108e(−24560/T)

strain and low vorticity regions [25]. Table 1 summarizes the operating
conditions. The syngas was supplied to annulus 1 at a rate of
0.28–1.25 kg/h. The primary and secondary air were supplied to an-
nulus 1 and annulus 2 at rates of 5.78 kg/h and 7.23 kg/h, respectively.
The syngas-air mixture was partially premixed, and then the overall
equivalence ratio was changed from 0.26 to 1.32, which covered fuel-
lean, stoichiometric, and rich conditions.

2.3. Optical non-intrusive measurements

Fig. 3(b) shows a schematic of the optical system to observe the

Fig. 3. (a) Schematic of flow arrangement and (b) optical measurement system.
technique, a screw-type feeder (FEEDCON-µM, Nisshin engineering)
was utilized to supply silicon dioxide (SiO2) seeding particles (45 µm).
The mass flow rate of the seeding particles was controlled by regulating
the rotational speed of the direct-current motor driving the screw-type
feeder; subsequently, the seeding particles were supplied to the main
air flow of annulus 1. The seeding particles were carried by the feeder at
a rate of 0.35 kg/h. The relaxation time (or particle response time)
corresponding to a mean mean diameter of 45 µm for a bulk density of
1389.87 kg/m3 is approximately 8.58 ms. The Stokes number (Stk) for
the relationship between the particle size and the turbulent intensity is
approximately 0.455. The most common explanation proposed is that
the particles with Stk ≈ 1 are preferentially concentrated in the high
flame structure and temperature. A digital camera (D90, Nikon) was
used to visualize the direct flame photos. The flame temperature was
measured by an R-type thermocouple with a fine-wire diameter of
50 µm. In this experiment, the 2-D PIV technique was applied to the
turbulent swirling flame to observe the flame structures of syngas
combustion. The PIV system (TSI Inc.) comprised a double-pulse
Nd:YAG laser (EverGreen 200, Quantel), which had a maximum energy
output of 200 mJ/pulse at a wavelength of 532 nm, with laser sheet
optics; a digital charge-coupled device (CCD) camera (TSI PowerView
Plus 2MP) with a resolution of 1600 × 1200 pixels and a pixel size of
7.4 × 7.4 µm2; a synchronizer (LaserPulse, TSI Model 610036); and a
computer. The time delay between the two PIV frames was 100 µs, with
a repetition rate of 14.5 Hz. The CCD camera was equipped with a
Nikon 50-mm lens and an optical band-pass filter (532 nm ± 5 nm) to
reduce the influence of flame luminosity. The magnification of the
imaging lens resulted in a spatial resolution of approximately 170 µm/
pixel, corresponding to 272 × 204 mm2, and 500 image pairs were
recorded for each case. Data processing was performed on the 500
image pairs by using the TSI Insight TM 4G software. Details regarding
the optical measurements and experimental setup were presented in

Table 1
Operating conditions.
Parameter Case 0 Case 1-1 Case1-2 Case1-3 Case 2-1 Case 2-2 Case 2-3 Case 2-4 Case 3-1 Case 3–2 Case 3–3 Case 4–1 Case 4–2

CH4 [mole fraction, %] 100 75 50 25 75 50 25 0 50 25 0 25 0

H2 [mole fraction, %] 0 0 0 0 25 25 25 25 50 50 50 75 75
CO [mole fraction, %] 0 25 50 75 0 25 50 75 0 25 50 0 25
Annulus 1 fuel flow rate [kg/h] 0.80 0.95 1.10 1.25 0.63 0.78 0.92 1.07 0.45 0.60 0.75 0.28 0.43
Annulus 1 air flow rate [kg/h] 5.78
Annulus 2 air flow rate [kg/h] 7.23
Syngas/air input temperature [K] 293
Syngas/air input pressure [atm] 1
1st equivalence ratio 2.97 2.38 1.78 1.19 2.38 1.78 1.19 0.59 1.78 1.19 0.59 1.19 0.59
Overall equivalence ratio 1.32 1.06 0.79 0.53 1.06 0.79 0.53 0.26 0.79 0.53 0.26 0.53 0.26
Lower heating value [kJ/kg] 11.96 9.57 7.19 4.80 16.13 13.74 11.36 8.97 20.30 17.92 15.54 24.48 22.10
Inner 1st swirl number [Sn (°)] 0.63 (40), 0.9 (50), 1.3 (60)
Outer 2nd swirl number [Sn (°)] 0.71 (40), 1 (50), 1.46 (60)

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M. Choi, et al. Fuel 253 (2019) 887–903

Fig. 4. Numerical domain of combustor with dual-swirl burner system. (a) Geometry of combustor, (b) boundary conditions of inlet section, and (c) mesh showing
combustor and swirl vanes.

previous works [20–23,26]. species j.

The species transport equation takes the following general form:
3. Physical models and numerical methods ∂ →
(ρYi ) + ∇∙ (ρ→
v Yi ) = −∇∙ Ji + Ri
∂t (5)
3.1. Governing equations
where Yi is the local mass fraction of each species i and Ri is the net rate
In this study, the continuity, momentum, energy, and species of production of species i by chemical reaction. In turbulent flows, the
transport equations were utilized to simulate the flow field in the swirl- mass diffusion is expressed in the following form:
stabilized combustor. The unsteady three-dimensional governing → μ ∇T
equations are solved as follows. Ji = −⎛ρDi, m + t ⎞ ∇Yi − DT , i
⎜ ⎟

⎝ Sct ⎠ T (6)
The continuity equation is
∂ρ where Sct is the turbulent Schmidt number, Di,m is the mass diffusion
+ ∇∙ (ρ→
v)=0 coefficient for species i in the mixture, and DT,i is the thermal diffusion
∂t (2)
coefficient.
The momentum equation is The equation of state can be written in terms of pressure and tem-
perature as follow:
∂ →
(ρ v ) + ∇ ·(ρ→→ →+→
v v ) = −∇p + ∇ ·(¯τ¯) + ρg F
∂t (3) p
ρ=
→ → (R/ Mw ) T (7)
in which p is the static pressure, τ̄¯ is the stress tensor, and ρg and F are
the gravitational body force and external body forces, respectively. Based on the above equations, the Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes
The energy equation is (RANS) equations were adopted with a realizable k-ɛ turbulent model
using enhanced wall treatment. The SIMPLE algorithm scheme was
∂ ⎛ → ⎞ used to handle the pressure-velocity coupling. The governing equations
(ρE ) + ∇∙ (→
v (ρE + p)) = ∇∙ k eff ∇T − ∑ hj Jj + (τeff ∙→
v ) + Sh
∂t ⎜ ⎟ were discretized using the second order upwind scheme for momentum,
⎝ j ⎠
turbulent kinetic energy, turbulent dissipation rate, and energy. The
(4)
PRESTO! and QUICK schemes were applied for pressure and species,
→
in which keff is the effective conductivity and Jj is the diffusion flux of respectively. For radiative heat transfer (RHT) models, the discrete

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M. Choi, et al. Fuel 253 (2019) 887–903

Fig. 5. Representative flame characteristics for lifted flame (Case 0), tubular flame (Case 1-2), and attached flame (Case 2-2) with Sct, 0.9/1. (a) Photographs, (b) axial
velocity contours, (c) temperature contours, and (d) heat release rate contours.

ordinate (DO) model was used. The details of its implementation and E
ω̇k = AT nexp ⎛− a ⎞ [A]a [B]b
validation can be found in textbooks on fluid mechanics [27–32]. In ⎝ RT ⎠ (12)
addition, all numerical conditions were performed by using the com-
mercial CFD software, ANSYS Fluent 16.1 [33]. The physicochemical parameters in Eq. (12) are listed in Table 2,
where A is the pre-exponential factor, n is the temperature exponent,
and Ea is the activation energy.
3.2. Chemical reaction equations

For a chemical reaction model, the four-step global reaction me-
chanism for syngas combustion [34–37] was employed in the present
study, based on the eddy dissipation concept (EDC) model. The four-
step global reaction mechanism for the syngas-air mixture is given as
CH 4 + 1.5O2 → CO + 2H2 O
CO + 0.5O2 → CO2
3.3. Nox prediction models
Nitrogen oxides are generally termed NOx and take the forms of
N2O, NO, NO2, and N2O5. In particular, thermal NOx accounts for the
highest NOx emissions and depends exponentially on the flame tem-
(8) perature (higher than 1800 K) that is required to break the strong triple
bond between the nitrogen molecules. The reactions are described by
(9) the Zeldovich mechanism with the rate equations given below [38]:

CO2 → CO + 0.5O2 (10) N2 + O→ NO + N (13)

H2 + 0.5O2 → H2 O (11) N+ O2 → NO + O (14)

The reaction rates for Eqs. (8)–(11) are of the Arrhenius form,
N+ OH → NO + H (15)
generated from

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M. Choi, et al. Fuel 253 (2019) 887–903

Fig. 6. Radial profiles of axial velocity with experimental results and three different meshes at y/D = 0.25, 0.50, 0.75, 1.00, 1.50, and 2.50 from x/D = 0 to x/
D = 1.5. (a) Case 0, (b) Case 1-2, and (c) Case 2-2.

⎛1 − kr ,1 kr ,2 [NO] 2 ⎞
2 formation is ignored because syngas does not contain fuel-N.
d [NO] kf ,1 [N2] kf ,2 [NO]
= 2kf ,1 [O][N2] ⎝ ⎠
dt
( kf ,1 [NO]
1 + k [O ] + k [OH ]
f ,2 2 f ,3 ) (16)
4. Results and discussion

where subscripts f and r denote the forward and reverse reactions, re- 4.1. Comparison between experimental and numerical results, and mesh
spectively [39]. The rate constants for each reaction step are listed in setup
Table 3.
Another mechanism of NO in the reaction zone of ethylene-air The three-dimensional geometry of the swirl-stabilized combustor
flames (prompt NOx) is observed by Fenimore [40]. Considerable to be simulated is shown in Fig. 4 along with the corresponding ex-
concentrations of NOx, which are proportional to that of N2, is promptly perimental setup. The numerical domain, which has three major parts,
formed in the flame via intermediate hydrocarbon radicals. Compared is connected to a cylindrical liner, as shown in Fig. 4(a). As previously
with thermal NOx, the concentration is not highly dependent on tem- mentioned at the Subsections 2.1 and 2.2, the burner consists of the
perature and reaches a maximum under fuel-rich conditions. The ra- dual swirlers with six vanes of 2 mm thickness. The syngas and primary
dical of CH reacts with nitrogen molecules, N2, leading to the genera- air are supplied to annulus 1; the secondary air to annulus 2. The
tion of CN or HCN, which convert to NO through the following syngas–air mixture is injected tangentially through annulus 1. There-
reactions: fore, the syngas-air mixture is partially premixed in annulus 1 of the
CH + N2 → HCN + N (17) burner, as shown in Fig. 4(b). The length of the combustor is 575 mm
along the y-axis and its diameter is 300 mm along the x- and z-axis. The
C+ N2 → CN + N (18) exhaust part was designed considering the exhaust hood shape used in
the experiment. The mesh generation of the numerical domain was
N+ O2 → NO + O (19)
created using ANSYS Gambit 2.4.6, as shown in Fig. 4(c).
d [NO] RT ⎞
a+1
−Ea As a representative for the mesh dependency test, a counter-swirling
= 1.2 × 107 ⎛⎜ ⎟ [O2]a [N2][FUEL] exp RT flame (Sct, 0.9/1) was adopted to evaluate various flame shapes, as
dt ⎝ p ⎠ (20)
shown in Fig. 5(a). The typical combustion regimes can be more or less
Compared with thermal and prompt NOx, which are generated by explicitly divided into three main groups: lifted flame (Case 0), tubular
nitrogen in the air, fuel NOx is formed by fuel-N that is rapidly con- flame (Case 1-2), and attached flame (Case 2-2) [41]. When the lifted
verted to NO2 at the flame front. In this study, the impact of fuel NOx flame is compared with the tubular flame, the IRZ (solid red line) of the

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M. Choi, et al.
Fig. 7. Radial profiles of temperature with experimental results and three different meshes at y/D = 0.25, 0.50, 0.75, 1.00, 1.50, and 2.50 from x/D = 0 to x/
D = 1.5. (a) Case 0, (b) Case 1-2, and (c) Case 2-2.
lifted flame is observed in a wide region, as shown in Fig. 5(b).
Therefore, the tubular flame shows a higher temperature distribution
than the lifted flame, as shown in Fig. 5(c). It can be seen that the heat-
release region is formed in a wide region between the lifted flame and
the tubular flame, as shown in Fig. 5(d). In the case of the attached
flame, the axial velocity distribution is higher than the other two con-
ditions because the hydrogen content in syngas fuel is 25%, as given in
Table 1. On the whole, the attached flame shows a high temperature
distribution owing to high lower heating value (LHV) (LHV; methane:
11.955 Mcal/kg, hydrogen: 28.67 Mcal/kg, carbon monoxide:
2.415 Mcal/kg). In addition, the flame is attached to the burner rim
owing to the high burning velocity of hydrogen (burning velocity;
methane: 37 cm/s, hydrogen: 289 cm/s, carbon monoxide: 19 cm/s).
The combustion is terminated in a narrow region as can be seen from
the heat-release region in Fig. 5(d). The overall equivalence ratio is not
observed in the range 0.26–0.53 in the experimental condition owing to
the lean blow-out limit and flashback with high hydrogen syngas.
An efficient mesh configuration can increase the accuracy of the
calculation results and reduce the computational cost. For accurate
numerical results, the mesh dependency test was conducted on three
different meshes with 0.85 (coarse mesh), 1.45 (medium mesh), and
2.00 (fine mesh) million hexahedral cells. Fig. 6 shows the results of the
mesh dependency test for the axial velocity distribution. Fig. 6(a)–(c)
show the experimental and numerical results for Cases 0, 1-2, and 2-2,
respectively. For three different meshes, the dotted blue line, solid black
line, and dashed red line indicate coarse, medium, and fine meshes,
respectively. For each condition, the results are monitored at the po-
sitions y/D = 0.25, 0.50, 0.75, 1.00, 1.50, and 2.50 along x/D = 0 to
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Fuel 253 (2019) 887–903
1.5 in the radial direction. It is found that all of the three different
meshes have similar tendencies compared with the experimental results
at most locations; however, the accuracy of the coarse mesh is lower
than the other two meshes near the burner exit. All three meshes show
high prediction results in downstream regions. The prediction of the
attached flame is higher than that of the lifted and tubular flames.
These results show that the coarse mesh has low accuracy for flames
with a high turbulence intensity. Fig. 7 shows the results of the mesh
dependency test for temperature distribution. Compared with the axial
velocity distribution, all three meshes have a relatively low accuracy. In
particular, the temperature distribution is higher than that of the ex-
perimental results in most locations. It is considered that the tem-
perature distribution is slightly higher owing to the high reactivity
because the numerical simulation is performed assuming complete
combustion by all chemical reactions. It is found that the accuracy of
the coarse mesh in the lifted and tubular flames with high turbulence
intensity is lower than the other two meshes as in the axial velocity
distribution. However, in the case of the attached flame on the burner
rim and flames with a relatively stable shape, all three meshes show
similar results. Especially for all the flames, the medium and fine mesh
show similar results. Although the values of temperature are not in
agreement, the overall temperature distribution is similar. Therefore,
considering the computational cost, all the results in this study were
obtained using the medium mesh condition with 1.45 million hexahe-
dral cells.
M. Choi, et al.
Fig. 8. (a) Axial velocity and (b) temperature contours with a hydrogen content of 0% in CH4/H2/CO syngas fuel for the co-swirling flame (left-hand side) and the
counter-swirling flame (right-hand side).
4.2. Effect of swirl condition and syngas composition on flame structure and
temperature
Fig. 8(a) and (b) show the axial velocity and temperature distribu-
tions with a hydrogen content of 0% in CH4/H2/CO syngas fuel, re-
spectively. In each figure, the left-hand side shows the condition of the
co-swirling flame; and, the right-hand side, the counter-swirling flame.
In the axial velocity distribution, the solid line indicates the boundary
with zero velocity; and, the dotted line, the recirculation zone with the
reverse velocity component. The representative recirculation zone of
the swirl flame is divided into an IRZ and ORZ generated from the inner
895
Fuel 253 (2019) 887–903
and outer shear layers based on the flame front, respectively. In the case
of the co-swirling flame, the IRZ is formed in a wide region as the swirl
intensity increases. As shown in the temperature distribution of the co-
swirling flame, it can be seen that the local high temperature region is
considerably reduced. As the swirl intensity is increased, the radial
momentum of the jet increases leading to a larger pressure drop along
the center of the flame, which causes the backflow observed. On the
other hand, in the case of the counter-swirling flame, it is confirmed
that the IRZ is hardly observed. As can be seen from Fig. 8(b) in the
counter-swirling flame, the local region of high temperature distribu-
tion is formed in the center of the flame compared with the co-swirling
M. Choi, et al.
Fig. 9. (a) Axial velocity and (b) temperature contours with a hydrogen content of 25% in CH4/H2/CO syngas fuel for the co-swirling flame (left-hand side) and the
counter-swirling flame (right-hand side).
flame. The flame length decreases with increase in swirl intensity. This
is because a higher swirl intensity leads to a relatively higher radial
momentum and lower axial momentum, which creates a larger IRZ. For
the Case 1-3 of Sco, 0.9/1 and Sco, 1.3/1.46 with a methane content of 25%,
unstable axial velocity and temperature distributions are observed
compared with the other conditions. This means that the flame in-
stability occurs when the methane content is below 25% with a high
swirl intensity.
Fig. 9(a) and (b) show the axial velocity and temperature distribu-
tions with a hydrogen content of 25% in CH4/H2/CO syngas fuel, re-
spectively. As can be seen, the axial velocity is higher than when the
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Fuel 253 (2019) 887–903
hydrogen content is 0%. This is because of the high burning velocity of
hydrogen, as discussed in Subsection 4.1. In the case of the co-swirling
flame, the IRZ is hardly observed when the vane angle is 40°. This is
because the flame stretches to the downstream region owing to the high
diffusion coefficient of hydrogen compared with methane (diffusion
coefficient; methane: 0.21 cm2/s, hydrogen: 0.756 cm2/s, carbon mon-
oxide: 0.208 cm2/s at atmospheric pressure and 293 K in air). On the
other hand, when the vane angle is 50° or higher, the IRZ is developed
by high radial momentum. In the case of the counter-swirling flame,
high axial velocity distribution along the centerline is observed because
the swirling flow is offset by the opposite flow pattern between the 1st
M. Choi, et al.
Fig. 10. (a) Axial velocity and (b) temperature contours with a hydrogen content of 50% in CH4/H2/CO syngas fuel for the co-swirling flame (left-hand side) and the
counter-swirling flame (right-hand side).
and 2nd swirls. High temperature distribution is observed under all
conditions except Case 2-4 with a methane content of 0%, as shown in
Fig. 9(b). This is because the high value of low heating is confirmed by
the LHV in Table 1 compared with a hydrogen content of 0%. The re-
gion of high temperature expands downstream of the combustor with
increase in the methane content. It is considered that the axial velocity
distribution in each condition is similar but the LHV is increased by
increasing the methane content in the syngas fuel. The region of high
temperature is moved to the vicinity of the burner tip with increase in
swirl intensity. In particular, the Case 2-4 with a methane content of 0%
shows a significantly lower temperature distribution throughout the
combustor even though it has a higher heating value than those of Cases
1-2 and 1-3. This is a result of lean blow-out limit with low equivalence
ratio. Therefore, the axial velocity tends to decrease relatively com-
pared to the other conditions, as shown in Fig. 9(a).
Fig. 10(a) and (b) show the axial velocity and temperature dis-
tributions with a hydrogen content of 50% in CH4/H2/CO syngas fuel,
respectively. In the case of the co-swirling flame, the IRZ is developed at
the swirl intensity Sco, 0.9/1 or more. In the case of the counter-swirling
flame, the IRZ is extended as the swirl intensity increases. However, the
region is still formed in a relatively narrow area compared with the co-
swirling flame. For the temperature distribution, a phenomenon in
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Fuel 253 (2019) 887–903
which the local high temperature region is moved to the burner tip at
the methane content of 25% or less is observed as in the result of the
hydrogen content of 25%. The hydrogen content in syngas fuel has a
major effect on the flame temperature, emission characteristics, and
flame length. In particular, syngas combustion, which is the most
dominant in thermal NOx as discussed in Subsection 3.3, is considered
to result in high NOx and CO emissions with the generation of local high
temperature region near the burner tip.
Fig. 11(a) and (b) show the axial velocity and temperature dis-
tributions with a hydrogen content of 75% in CH4/H2/CO syngas fuel,
respectively. The IRZ size increases substantially with increase in the
swirl intensity owing to the higher radial momentum, while the geo-
metric recirculation zone formed seems unaffected at the hydrogen
content. In general, when excessive content of hydrogen is included in
the syngas fuel, the combustor nozzle is damaged by flashback [13].
This is because the burning velocity of hydrogen is higher than of CO
and other hydrocarbon-based fuel. In the operating part of fuel chan-
geover, a hydrogen content of 75% has a high risk due to the damage of
combustor and flame instability. Therefore, it is confirmed that this
condition should be excluded inevitably in syngas operation.
M. Choi, et al.
Fig. 11. (a) Axial velocity and (b) temperature contours with a hydrogen content of 75% in CH4/H2/CO syngas fuel for the co-swirling flame (left-hand side) and the
counter-swirling flame (right-hand side).
4.3. Effect of swirl condition and syngas composition on NOx emissions
To investigate the effect of swirl condition and syngas composition
on NOx emissions, Fig. 12 shows the NOx emissions from the combustor
exit based on 15% O2 concentration. Fig. 12(a)–(d) show that the hy-
drogen content in syngas fuel is 0%, 25%, 50%, and 75%, respectively,
for the co-swirling flame. Fig. 12(e)–(h) show that the hydrogen content
in the syngas fuel is 0%, 25%, 50%, and 75%, respectively, for the
counter-swirling flame.
In the case of the hydrogen content of 0% in the syngas fuel, the NOx
emissions decrease with the increase of the swirl intensity for both co–
and counter-swirling flames, as shown in Fig. 12(a) and (e). In addition,
the NOx emissions increase with the increase of the carbon monoxide
content in the syngas fuel. This is because of the presence of oxygen
atom in CO, which promotes the NOx formation through dissociations
[12]. The maximum values of the NOx emissions are observed in Case 1-
3 with S0.9/1 and S1.3/1.46 for both co– and counter-swirling flame. This
result shows the change of the local high temperature region and inner
recirculation zone due to flame instability, as shown in Fig. 8. This is
the reason why the NOx emissions are slightly lower than that of Case 1-
2 in the case of S0.63/0.71. Moreover, the abundant C radical and lack of
H radical promotes the production of CH and CH2 radicals that are
critical for the formation of HCN, which is a precursor responsible for
the formation of prompt NOx emissions. In the case of a hydrogen
content of 25% in syngas fuel, high NOx emissions are observed in Cases
2-2 and 2-3 where the CH4/H2/CO syngas coexist, as shown in
Fig. 12(b) and (f). This is because the flame length regarding the igni-
tion temperature of the three fuels is different from each condition
(ignition temperature; methane: 810 K, hydrogen: 773 K, carbon mon-
oxide: 882 K). In contrast to the diffusion and premixed flames, NOx is
generated in the broad combustion zone in a partially premixed flame.
Before the flame is ignited, the syngas and air begin to combine near the
burner exit where the flame is formed. Although the flame length is
shorter, the amount of heat released from it is relatively high.
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Fuel 253 (2019) 887–903
Therefore, the high NOx emissions can be emitted from the short flame
structure in a partially premixed flame. However, Case 2-2 with Sco, 1.3/
1.46 shows that the NOx emissions sharply decrease. This may be at-
tributed to the higher mixing uniformity for the case of Sco, 1.3/1.46 re-
garding three different fuels. As previously observed, in the case of a
hydrogen content of 50% in syngas fuel, high NOx emissions char-
acteristics are exhibited under the condition that the CH4/H2/CO
syngas coexist, as shown in Fig. 12(c) and (g). In the operating part of
fuel changeover, the coexistence of CH4/H2/CO syngas is assumed to be
excluded when converting fuel from natural gas to syngas, but it in-
evitably goes through this part because of the operating procedure.
Therefore, it would be optimal to include Case 2-2 with Sco, 1.3/1.46 for
the coexistence of CH4/H2/CO syngas in this operating part: Case 2-2
has the lowest amount of NOx among Cases 2-2, 2-3, and 3-2. Mean-
while, under the condition that only the H2/CO syngas is operated, the
NOx emissions tend to increase with the increase of the swirl intensity
such as Cases 2-4 (H2:CO = 1:3), 3-3 (H2:CO = 1:1), and 4-2
(H2:CO = 1:0.3). This is because the overall temperature of the com-
bustor increases with the increase of the swirl intensity. As previously
mentioned at the Subsections 3.3, the main generation of NOx emissions
in a partially premixed flame based on syngas combustion is thermal
NOx.
4.4. Effect of swirl conditions on fuel and air mixing uniformity
Fig. 13 shows the fuel and air mixing characteristics for all swirl and
operating conditions. The unmixedness parameter was used to de-
termine the fuel and air mixing characteristics [42]. The results were
monitored at the position of y/D = 0.25, 0.50, 0.75, 1.00, 1.50, and
2.50 along the radial direction from x/D = −3 to 3. Because this study
was performed for the steady state using the RANS model, the original
unmixedness parameter is modified based on a spatial distribution. The
equation to determine modified unmixedness is as follows
M. Choi, et al. Fuel 253 (2019) 887–903

Fig. 12. NOx emissions from combustor exit based on 15% O2 concentration. (a) to (d): a hydrogen content of 0% to 75% for the co-swirling flame and (e) to (h): a
hydrogen content of 0% to 75% for the counter-swirling flame.

(f − faver )2aver
Um = ,
faver (1 − faver ) (21)
where f denotes fuel mass fraction and faver denotes its average over a
cross-sectional area, that is, the subscript, “aver,” indicates an area-
averaged value. It still represents has the f root mean square (RMS) of
fluctuation; however, this is represented in space and not in time [43].
The lower the modified unmixedness, the more uniform is the mixture
of fuel and air. Similar co– and counter-swirl conditions are exhibited
for S0.63/0.71, and the value of modified unmixedness decreases with an
increase in swirl intensity, as shown in Fig. 13. This is because as the
swirl intensity increases, the wide area exhibits a high turbulent
intensity and the uniform mixing of fuel and air is promoted. For S0.9/1
and S1.3/1.46, the co-swirl condition exhibits a significantly lower values
of unmixedness at all positions compared with those of the counter-
swirl condition. This indicates that the co-swirling promotes more
uniform fuel and air mixing than counter-swirling. Particularly, for Sco,
1.3/1.46, the highest mixing efficiency is shown from the upstream end at
y/D = 0.25 to the downstream end at y/D = 2.50. Therefore, when the
flame shape and fuel–air mixing efficiency are considered, optimal swirl
conditions are achieved when Sco, 1.3/1.46.

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M. Choi, et al. Fuel 253 (2019) 887–903

4.5. Optimum operating procedure for fuel changeover

Fig. 13. Profiles of modified unmixedness at y/D = 0.25, 0.50, 0.75, 1.00, 1.50,
and 2.50 from x/D = −3 to x/D = 3 with increasing Sn. (a) Co-swirling flame
and (b) counter-swirling flame.
From the results, we can conclude that the optimal swirl conditions
in terms of the uniformity of fuel-air mixing and flame stability uses a
swirl vane angle of 60° in the same direction between the 1st and 2nd
swirls. Namely, Sco, 1.3/1.46 provides the most optimal swirl conditions
for the stable conversion of syngas fuel. In addition, the operating part
of fuel changeover should avoid the use of fuels with a methane content
of 25% and a hydrogen content of 75% because of high NOx emissions
and the high risk owing to flashback. Therefore, the operating process
of fuel changeover can be divided into 10 paths for stable syngas op-
eration from Case 0 (initial natural gas; CH4/H2/CO = 100%/0%/0%)
to Case 2-4 (syngas; CH4/H2/CO = 0%/25%/75%) and Case 3-3
(syngas; CH4/H2/CO = 0%/50%/50%). The optimum operating pro-
cedure is summarized in Table 4.
Fig. 14 shows the NOx and CO emissions and the heat release rate
characteristics with a syngas fuel composition of H2 = 25% and
CO = 75% in the process of fuel changeover under the Sco, 1.3/1.46
condition. The heat release rate is high in the reaction zone of the
flame, which is formed along the flame front. Fig. 14(a)–(d) show Path
Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4, corresponding to Table 4, respectively. It can be seen
that high NOx emissions are exhibited at a methane content of 25% for
all paths. Particularly, in the cases of Path Nos. 1, 3, and 4, which in-
clude Case 2-3, NOx emissions are seen to temporarily reach values
greater than 2000 ppm. The region of heat release moves to the rim of
the 1st burner, and the flame is assumed to be instable here. On the
other hand, in the case of Path No. 2, the maximum value of NOx
emissions is 218.4 ppm; this is the lowest NOx emission value observed
for this section. CO emissions are found to decrease considerably when
the carbon monoxide content in syngas fuel is equal to or higher than its
methane content. Consequently, when the composition of syngas fuel is
H2 = 25% and CO = 75%, the NOx and CO emissions generated during
operation are 46.2 ppm and 0.506 ppm, respectively. Therefore, Path
No. 2 is considered to be the optimal way to convert natural gas to
syngas with H2 = 25% and CO = 75%.
Fig. 15 shows the NOx and CO emissions and the heat release rate
characteristics with a syngas fuel composition of H2 = 50% and
CO = 50% in the process of fuel changeover under the Sco, 1.3/1.46
condition. For Path Nos. 5, 6, and 7, high NOx emissions are observed at
the fuel changeover region, where CH4/H2/CO syngas coexist, as shown
in Fig. 15(a)–(c), respectively. However, lowest values of NOx emissions
during the process of fuel changeover in this region are observed in
Case 3-2 (524.5 ppm). CO emissions tend to decrease when the carbon
monoxide content in syngas fuel is equal to or higher than the methane
content, as validated for syngas operation at H2 = 25% and CO = 75%.
Consequently, when the composition of syngas fuel is H2 = 50% and
CO = 50%, the NOx and CO emissions generated during operation are
105.7 ppm and 0.261 ppm, respectively. Therefore, Path Nos. 6, 7, and
9 are the optimal ways to convert natural gas to syngas for operation at

Table 4
Optimum operating conditions.
Target H2/CO Path No. Fuel composition H2/CO

Natural gas operation Fuel changeover operation Syngas operation

25%/75% Case 2-4 1 0%/0% Case 0 25%/0% Case 2-1 25%/25% Case 2-2 25%/50% Case 2-3 25%/75% Case 2-4
2 0%/25% Case 1-1 0%/50% Case 1-2 0%/75% Case 1-3
3 25%/50% Case 2-3
4 25%/25% Case 2-2 25%/50% Case 2-3

50%/50% Case 3-3 5 0%/0% Case 0 25%/0% Case 2-1 25%/25% Case 2-2 25%/50% Case 2-3 50%/50% Case 3-3
6 50%/25% Case 3-2
7 50%/0% Case 3-1 50%/25% Case 3-2
8 0%/25% Case 1-1 25%/25% Case 2-2 25%/50% Case 2-3
9 50%/25% Case 3-2
10 0%/50% Case 1-2 25%/50% Case 2-3

900
M. Choi, et al.
Fig. 14. Heat release rate contours and profiles of NOx and CO emissions with syngas fuel composition at H2 = 25% and CO = 75% in the process of fuel changeover
under Sco, 1.3/1.46 condition. (a) to (d): Path Nos. 1 to 4.
H2 = 50% and CO = 50%. These paths are considered to be the most
optimum operating procedure to control the content of hydrogen and
carbon monoxide, after syngas operation with Path No. 2, that is
H2 = 25% and CO = 75%.
5. Conclusions
The effects of various swirl combinations and syngas compositions
on flame structures and NOx and CO emissions were investigated by
experiments and a numerical analysis in a partially premixed dual-swirl
combustor. The main results of this study are summarized as follows.
(1) A counter-swirling flame (Sct, 0.9/1) was adopted to evaluate the
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Fuel 253 (2019) 887–903
mesh dependency and various flame shapes, such as the lifted flame
(Case 0), tubular flame (Case 1-2), and attached flame (Case 2-2).
All the three different meshes exhibit a trend similar to the ex-
perimental results at most locations; however, the accuracy of the
coarse mesh is lower than that of the other two meshes near the
burner exit. In addition, the coarse mesh exhibits a low accuracy for
the flame with the high turbulence intensity. Taking the computa-
tional cost into account, all the results in this study were obtained
using the medium mesh condition with 1.45 million hexahedral
cells.
(2) The axial velocity and temperature distributions were obtained at a
hydrogen content of 0%, 25%, 50%, and 75%. As the swirl intensity
increases, the radial momentum of the jet increases, leading to a
M. Choi, et al. Fuel 253 (2019) 887–903

Fig. 15. Heat release rate contours and profiles of NOx and CO emissions with syngas fuel composition at H2 = 50% and CO = 50% in the process of fuel changeover
under Sco, 1.3/1.46 condition. (a) to (f): Path Nos. 5 to 10.

902
M. Choi, et al.
larger pressure drop along the center of the flame; as a result, the
backflow observed. The IRZ increases substantially in size with an
increase in the swirl intensity, while the geometric recirculation
zone formed is observed to be unaffected by the hydrogen content.
The axial velocity and temperature are found to increase with an
increase in the hydrogen content owing to the high burning velocity
and high LHV. The local high-temperature region shifts to the
burner tip at a methane content of 25% or lower. When the syngas
fuel contains a high hydrogen content, the combustor nozzle may
be damaged owing to flashback. In the operating process of fuel
changover, fuel with a hydrogen content of 75% exhibits a high risk
owing to combustor damage and flame instability.
(3) NOx emissions decrease with an increase in the swirl intensity for
both co– and counter-swirling flames. High NOx emissions are ob-
served in Cases 2-2 and 2-3, where CH4/H2/CO syngas coexist.
However, Case 2-2 with Sco, 1.3/1.46 shows that NOx emissions de-
crease sharply owing to a high uniformity of mixing. Regarding the
uniformity of fuel-air mixing and flame stability, Sco, 1.3/1.46 ex-
hibits an optimal swirl combination for the stable conversion of
syngas fuel. The operating part of fuel changeover can be divided
into 10 paths for stable syngas operation from Case 0 (initial natural
gas; CH4/H2/CO = 100%/0%/0%) to Case 2-4 (syngas; CH4/H2/
CO = 0%/25%/75%) and Case 3-3 (syngas; CH4/H2/CO = 0%/
50%/50%). When the composition of syngas fuel is H2 = 25% and
CO = 75%, the NOx and CO emissions generated during operation
are 46.2 ppm and 0.506 ppm, respectively. Path No. 2 is considered
to be the optimal way to convert natural gas to syngas for opera-
tion.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the Human Resources Development
program (No. 20184030202060) of the Korea Institute of Energy
Technology Evaluation and Planning (KETEP) grant funded by the
Korean government Ministry of Trade, Industry and Energy; and this
study was funded by KEPCO and MHPS, a global gas turbine manu-
facturer for power generation. The test facility and database were de-
veloped as part of a collaborative research project between MHPS and
Pusan National University. The authors appreciate their support and
invaluable assistance.
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