Unit 2.1 BJT

LEARNING MATERIAL FOR
ANALOG AND DIGITAL ELECTRONICS

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
YEAR-2nd , SEMESTER- 3RD
PREPARED BY- SHAMIK CHATTARAJ
UNIT-2.1.4 BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR
CLASS DURATION- 1
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OBJECTIVES: After completion of the chapter the student will be able to-
2.1.1 Explain the operation of NPN & PNP transistor.(U/CK)
2.1.2 Draw the symbol of transistor(R/FK)
2.1.3 Draw different transistor configuration circuit(R/FK)
2.1.4 Explain I/P and O/P characteristics of each configuration (U/CK)
2.1.5 Compare between three configuration (AN/CK)
2.1.6 Relate between three configuration (AN/CK)
2.1.7 Explain transistor parameter (U/CK)
2.1.8 Define Transistor specification . (R/FK)
2.1.9 Explain basic concept of amplification. (U/CK)
2.1.10 Justify the selection of Q point & stabilization of transistor. (EV/CK)
2.1.11 Explain the need of biasing (U/CK)
2.1.12 Explain voltage Divider biasing arrangement. (U/CK)
2.1.13 Define the classification of Power amplifier. (R/FK)
2.1.14 Explain the operation of class A, class B, class AB Push-pull amplifier. (U/CK)
PRE-REQUISITES: 1. Knowledge of Basic Electronics.
2. Knowledge of Analog & Digital Electronics
2.1.4 - Q POINT - In order to produce distortion free output in amplifier circuits, the supply
voltages and resistances establish a set of de voltage VCEQ and ICQ to operate the transistor in the
active region.
These voltages and currents are called quiescent value which determine the operating point or Q-point
for the transistor.
The process of g i v ing p r o per supply voltages and resistances for obtaining the desired Q-Point is
called Biasing.
The circuits used for getting the desired and proper . operating point are known as biasing circuits.
To establish the operating point in the active region biasing is required for transistors to be used as an
amplifier. For analog circuit operation, the Q-point is plated so the transistor stays in active mode (does not
shift to operation in the saturation region or cut-off region) when input is applied. For digital operation, the Q-
point is placed so the transistor does the contrary - switches from "on" to "off' state. Often, Q-point is
established near the center of active region of transistor characteristic to allow similar signal swings in
positive and negative directions. Q-point should be stable. In particular, it should be insensitive to variations
in transistor parameters (for example, should not shift if transistor is replaced by another of the
same type), variations in temperature, variations in power supply voltage and so forth. The circuit must be
practical: easily implemented and cost•effective.
Transistor biasing: The proper flow of zero signal collector current and the maintenance of proper·
collector -emitter voltage during the passage of signal is known as transistor biasing.
The basic purpose of transistor biasing to keep the base-emitter
junction properly forward biased & collector-base junction properly reverse biased during the
application of signal.
concept of DC load Line:

It is the line on the output characteristics of
a transistor circuit which gives the values of IC and VCE corresponding to zero signal or dc conditions.
DC load Line -
DC load line can be constructed by locating the two end points IC(Sat) and VCE(off).
i) When transistor is saturated,VCE=O
ii) When transistor is off Ic(Sat) = Vcc/RE
Selection operating point (Q-point) J

Q point means the quiescent point its depend upon the collector current
when collector current is stable then it is stable its can be find from load line diagram where AC
load line an~ DC load line intersect its called Q point.
Three operating points of transistor operating in common emitter amplifier.
1. Near cut off
2. Near saturation
3. In the middle of active region
If the operating point is selected near the cutoff region, the output is clipped in negative half cycle as
shown in fig. A.
Fig. A
If the operating point is selected near saturation region, then the output is
clipped in positive cycle as shown in fig. B.
If the operating point is selected in the middle of active region, then

· there is no clipping and the output follows input faithfully as shown in fig. C.
Need of Stabilisation:
The process of making operating point independent of temperature Changes or variations in transistor
parameters is known as stabilisation.
Need for stabilization - Stabilisation of the operating point is necessary due to the following
reasons :
(i) Temperature dependence of IC

(ii) Individual variations
(iii)Thermal runaway
Voltage Divider Biasing Circuit -

The voltage divider is formed using external resistors Rl and R2. The voltage across R2 forward biases the
emitter junction. By proper" selection of resistors RI and R2, the operating point of the transistor can be
made independent of β. ln this circuit, the voltage divider holds the base voltage fixed independent of
base current provided the divider current is large compared to the base 'current Required base bias is
obtained from the power supply through potential divider RI & R2
Whenever there is increase in this collector circuit voltage across RE increases causing base current to
diverse which compensate the increase in collector current. This circuit can be used with low collector
resistance.
C \ ob
~ .
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2.1.7 Classification of power amplifiers – Class-A, Class-B, Class-AB, Class-C
Power Amplifier
After the audio signal is converted into electrical signal, it has several voltage amplifications done, after
which the power amplification of the amplified signal is done just before the loud speaker stage. This is
clearly shown in the below figure.
While the voltage amplifier raises the voltage level of the signal, the power amplifier raises the power level of
the signal. Besides raising the power level, it can also be said that a power amplifier is a device which
converts DC power to AC power and whose action is controlled by the input signal.
Classification Based on Mode of Operation
On the basis of the mode of operation, i.e., the portion of the input cycle during which collector current flows,
the power amplifiers may be classified as follows.
 Class A Power amplifier − When the collector current flows at all times during the full cycle of
signal, the power amplifier is known as class A power amplifier.
 Class B Power amplifier − When the collector current flows only during the positive half cycle of the
input signal, the power amplifier is known as class B power amplifier.
 Class C Power amplifier − When the collector current flows for less than half cycle of the input
signal, the power amplifier is known as class C power amplifier.
There forms another amplifier called Class AB amplifier, if we combine the class A and class B amplifiers so
as to utilize the advantages of both.
a) Operation of Class-A Push-pull amplifier:-
A Class A power amplifier is one in which the output current flows for the entire cycle of the AC input
supply. Hence the complete signal present at the input is amplified at the output. The following figure shows
the circuit diagram for Class A Power amplifier.
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From the above figure, it can be observed that the transformer is present at the collector as a load. The use of
transformer permits the impedance matching, resulting in the transference of maximum power to the load e.g.
loud speaker.
The operating point of this amplifier is present in the linear region. It is so selected that the current
flows for the entire ac input cycle. The below figure explains the selection of operating point
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Efficiency calculation –
b) Operation of Class-B Push-pull amplifier:-
When the collector current flows only during the positive half cycle of the input signal, the power amplifier is
known as class B power amplifier.
Class B Operation
The biasing of the transistor in class B operation is in such a way that at zero signal condition, there will be no
collector current. The operating point is selected to be at collector cut off voltage. So, when the signal is
applied, only the positive half cycle is amplified at the output.
The figure below shows the input and output waveforms during class B operation.
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When the signal is applied, the circuit is forward biased for the positive half cycle of the input and hence the
collector current flows. But during the negative half cycle of the input, the circuit is reverse biased and the
collector current will be absent. Hence only the positive half cycle is amplified at the output.
As the negative half cycle is completely absent, the signal distortion will be high.
In order to minimize the disadvantages and achieve low distortion, high efficiency and high output power, the
push-pull configuration is used in this class B amplifier.
Class B Push-Pull Amplifier

Though the efficiency of class B power amplifier is higher than class A, as only one half cycle of the input is
used, the distortion is high. Also, the input power is not completely utilized. In order to compensate these
problems, the push-pull configuration is introduced in class B amplifier.
Construction -
The circuit of a push-pull class B power amplifier consists of two identical transistors T1 and T2 whose bases
are connected to the secondary of the center-tapped input transformer Tr1. The emitters are shorted and the
collectors are given the VCC supply through the primary of the output transformer Tr2.
The circuit arrangement of class B push-pull amplifier , is same as that of class A push-pull amplifier except
that the transistors are biased at cut off, instead of using the biasing resistors. The figure below gives the
detailing of the construction of a push-pull class B power amplifier.
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Operation
The circuit of class B push-pull amplifier shown in the above figure clears that both the transformers are
center-tapped. When no signal is applied at the input, the transistors T1 and T2 are in cut off condition and
hence no collector currents flow. As no current is drawn from VCC, no power is wasted.
When input signal is given, it is applied to the input transformer Tr1 which splits the signal into two signals that
are 180o out of phase with each other. These two signals are given to the two identical transistors T1 and T2.
For the positive half cycle, the base of the transistor T1 becomes positive and collector current flows. At the
same time, the transistor T2 has negative half cycle, which throws the transistor T2 into cutoff condition and
hence no collector current flows.
For the next half cycle, the transistor T1 gets into cut off condition and the transistor T2 gets into conduction,
to contribute the output. Hence for both the cycles, each transistor conducts alternately. The output
transformer Tr3 serves to join the two currents producing an almost undistorted output waveform.
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Class AB Power Amplifier

As the name implies, class AB is a combination of class A and class B type of amplifiers. As class A has the
problem of low efficiency and class B has distortion problem, this class AB is emerged to eliminate these two
problems, by utilizing the advantages of both the classes.
The cross over distortion is the problem that occurs when both the transistors are OFF at the same instant,
during the transition period. In order to eliminate this, the condition has to be chosen for more than one half
cycle. Hence, the other transistor gets into conduction, before the operating transistor switches to cut off state.
This is achieved only by using class AB configuration, as shown in the following circuit diagram
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Therefore, in class AB amplifier design, each of the push-pull transistors is conducting for slightly more than
the half cycle of conduction in class B, but much less than the full cycle of conduction of class A.
MCQ -
Q1. A transistor has …………………
1. one pn junction
2. two pn junctions
3. three pn junctions
4. four pn junctions
Answer : 2
Q2. The number of depletion layers in a transistor is …………
1. four
2. three
3. one
4. two
Answer : 4
Q3. The base of a transistor is ………….. doped
1. heavily
2. moderately
3. lightly
4. none of the above
Answer : 3
Q4. The element that has the biggest size in a transistor is ………………..
1. collector
2. base
3. emitter
4. collector-base-junction
Answer : 1
Q5. In a pnp transistor, the current carriers are ………….
1. acceptor ions
2. donor ions
3. free electrons
4. holes
Answer : 4
Q6. The collector of a transistor is …………. doped
1. heavily
2. moderately
3. lightly
Answer : 2
Q7. A transistor is a …………… operated device
1. current
2. voltage
3. both voltage and current
Answer : 1
Q8. In a npn transistor, ……………. are the minority carriers
1. free electrons
2. holes
3. donor ions
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4. acceptor ions
Answer : 2
Q9. The emitter of a transistor is ………………… doped
1. lightly
2. heavily
3. moderately
Answer : 2
Q10. In a transistor, the base current is about ………….. of emitter current
1. 25%
2. 20%
3. 35 %
4. 5%
Answer : 4
Q11. At the base-emitter junctions of a transistor, one finds ……………
1. a reverse bias
2. a wide depletion layer
3. low resistance
Answer : 3
Q12. The input impedance of a transistor is ………….
1. high
2. low
3. very high
4. almost zero
Answer : 2
Q13. Most of the majority carriers from the emitter ………………..
1. recombine in the base
2. recombine in the emitter
3. pass through the base region to the collector
Answer :3
Q14. The current IB is …………
1. electron current
2. hole current
3. donor ion current
4. acceptor ion current
Answer : 1
Q15. In a transistor ………………..
IC = IE + IB
IB = IC + IE
IE = IC – IB
IE = IC + IB
Answer : 4
Q16. The value of α of a transistor is ……….
 more than 1
 less than 1
 1
 none of the above
Answer : 2
Q17. IC = αIE + ………….
1. IB
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2. ICEO
3. ICBO
4. βIB
Answer : 3
Q18. The output impedance of a transistor is ……………..
1. high
2. zero
3. low
4. very low
Answer : 1
Q19. In a tansistor, IC = 100 mA and IE = 100.2 mA. The value of β is …………
1. 100
2. 50
3. about 1
4. 200
Answer : 4
Q20. In a transistor if β = 100 and collector current is 10 mA, then IE is …………
1. 100 mA
2. 100.1 mA
3. 110 mA
Answer : 2
Q21. The relation between β and α is …………..
1. β = 1 / (1 – α )
2. β = (1 – α ) / α
3. β = α / (1 – α )
4. β = α / (1 + α )
Answer : 3
Q22. The value of β for a transistor is generally ………………..
1. 1
2. less than 1
3. between 20 and 500
4. above 500
Answer : 3
Q23. The most commonly used transistor arrangement is …………… arrangement
1. common emitter
2. common base
3. common collector
Answer : 1
Q24. The input impedance of a transistor connected in …………….. arrangement is the highest
1. common emitter
2. common collector
3. common base
Answer : 2
Q25. The output impedance of a transistor connected in ……………. arrangement is the highest
1. common emitter
2. common collector
3. common base
Answer : 3
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Q26. The phase difference between the input and output voltages in a common base arrangement is
…………….
1. 180o
2. 90o
3. 270o
4. 0o
Answer : 4
Q27. The power gain in a transistor connected in ……………. arrangement is the highest
1. common emitter
2. common base
3. common collector
Answer : 1
Q28. The phase difference between the input and output voltages of a transistor connected in common
emitter arrangement is ………………
1. 0o
2. 180o
3. 90o
4. 270o
Answer : 2
Q29. The voltage gain in a transistor connected in ………………. arrangement is the highest
1. common base
2. common collector
3. common emitter
Answer : 3
Q30. As the temperature of a transistor goes up, the base-emitter resistance ……………
1. decreases
2. increases
3. remains the same
Answer : 1
Q31. The voltage gain of a transistor connected in common collector arrangement is ………..
1. equal to 1
2. more than 10
3. more than 100
4. less than 1
Answer : 4
Q32. The phase difference between the input and output voltages of a transistor connected in common
collector arrangement is ………………
1. 180o
2. 0o
3. 90o
4. 270o
Answer : 2
Q33. IC = β IB + ………..
1. ICBO
2. IC
3. ICEO
4. αIE
Answer : 3
Q34. IC = [α / (1 – α )] IB + ………….
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1. ICEO
2. ICBO
3. IC
4. (1 – α ) IB
Answer : 1
Q35. IC = [α / (1 – α )] IB + […….. / (1 – α )]
1. ICBO
2. ICEO
3. IC
4. IE
Answer : 1
Q36. BC 147 transistor indicates that it is made of …………..
1. germanium
2. silicon
3. carbon
Answer : 2
Q37. ICEO = (………) ICBO
1. β
2. 1+α
3. 1+β
Answer : 3
Q38. A transistor is connected in CB mode. If it is not connected in CE mode with same bias voltages,
the values of IE, IB and IC will …………..
1. remain the same
2. increase
3. decrease
Answer : 1
Q39. If the value of α is 0.9, then value of β is ………..
1. 9
2. 0.9
3. 900
4. 90
Answer : 4
Q40. In a transistor, signal is transferred from a …………… circuit
1. high resistance to low resistance
2. low resistance to high resistance
3. high resistance to high resistance
4. low resistance to low resistance
Answer : 2
Q41. The arrow in the symbol of a transistor indicates the direction of ………….
1. electron current in the emitter
2. electron current in the collector
3. hole current in the emitter
4. donor ion current
Answer : 3
Q42. The leakage current in CE arrangement is ……………. that in CB arrangement
1. more than
2. less than
3. the same as
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Answer : 1
Q43. A heat sink is generally used with a transistor to …………
1. increase the forward current
2. decrease the forward current
3. compensate for excessive doping
4. prevent excessive temperature rise
Answer : 4
Q44. The most commonly used semiconductor in the manufacture of a transistor is ………….
1. germanium
2. silicon
3. carbon
Answer : 2
Q45. The collector-base junction in a transistor has ……………..
1. forward bias at all times
2. reverse bias at all times
3. low resistance
Answer : 2
SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTION-
Q1. Explain why an ordinary junction transistor is called bipolar?

Because the transistor operation is carried out by two types of charge carriers (majority and minority carriers),
an ordinary transistor is called bipolar.
Q2. Why transistor is called current controlled device?
The output voltage, current or power is controlled by the input current in a transistor. So it is called the current
controlled device.
Q3. What is the significance of the arrow-head in the transistor symbol?
Arrow head is always marked on the emitter. The direction indicated the conventional direction of current
flow( from emitter-to-base in case of p-n-p transistor and from base-to-emitter in case of n-p-n transistor).
Generally no arrow head is marked for collector since its reverse leakage current is always opposite to the
direction of emitter current.
Q4. Discuss the need for biasing the transistor.

For normal operation, base-emitter junction should be forward biased and the collector-base junction reverse
biased. The amount of bias required is significant for the establishment of the operating or the Q-point which is
dictated by the mode of operation desired.
In case the transistor is not biased properly, it would :
 work inefficiently
 produce distortion in the output signal
 with the change in transistor parameters or temperature rise, the operating point may shift and the
amplifier output will be unstable.
Q5. What are ‘emitter injection efficiently’ and ‘base transport factor’ and how do they influence the
transistor operation?
The ratio of current of injected carriers at emitter junction to the total emitter current is called the emitter
junction efficiency. The ratio of collector current to base current is known as transport factor
i.e. β* = IC/IB
The larger the value of emitter injection efficiency, the larger the injected carriers at emitter junction and this
increases the collector current. The larger the β* value the larger the injected carriers across collector junction
and hence collector current increases.
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Q6. Which of the transistor currents is always the largest? Which is always the smallest? Which two
currents are relatively close in magnitude?
The emitter current IE is always the largest one. The base current IB is always the smallest. The collector
current IC and emitter current IE are relatively close in magnitude.
Q7. Why silicon type transistors are more often used than germanium type?
Because silicon transistor has smaller cut-off current ICBO, small variations in ICBO due to variations in
temperature and high operating temperature as compared to those in case of germanium type.
Q8. Why collector is made larger than emitter and base?
Collector is made physically larger than emitter and base because collector is to dissipate much power.
Q9. Why the width of the base region of a transistor is kept very small compared to other regions?
Base region of a transistor is kept very small and very lightly doped so as to pass most of the injected charge
carriers to the collector.
Q10. Why emitter is always forward biased?
Emitter is always forward biased w.r.t base so as to supply majority charge carriers to the base.
Q11. Why collector is always reverse-biased w.r.t base?
Collector is always reverse-biased w.r.t baseso as to remove the charge carriers from the base-collector
junction.
Q12. Can a transistor be obtained by connecting tow semiconductor diodes back-to-back?
No. Because in case of two discrete back-to-back connected diodes there are four doped regions instead of
three and there is nothing that resembles a thin base region between an emitter and a collector.
Q13. How α and β are related to each other?
α and β are related as below:
α= β/(1+ β) or β= α/(1- α)
Q14. Define beta of a transistor.
The β factor transistor is the common emitter current gain of that transistor and is defined as the ratio of
collector current to the base current :
Β = IC/IB
Q15. Why is there a maximum limit of collector supply voltage for a transistor?
Although collector current is practically independent of collector supply voltage over the transistor operating
range, but if VCB is increase beyond a certain vale collector current IC is eventually increases rapidly and
possibly destroys the device.
Q16. Explain why ICEO >> ICBO?

The collector cut-off current denoted by ICBO is much larger than ICBO. ICEO is given as :
ICEO = ICBO/(1-α)
Because α is nearly equal to unity (slightly less than unity), ICEO >> ICBO
Q17. Why CE configuration is most popular in amplifier circuits?
CE configuration is mainly used because its current, voltage and power gains are quite high and the ratio of
output impedance and input impedance are quite moderate.
Q18. Why CC configuration is called a voltage buffer? What is other name?
Because of its high input impedance and low output impedance, the common collector circuit finds wide
application as a buffer amplifier between a high impedance source and low impedance load. it is called a
voltage buffer. Its other name is emitter follower.
Q19. What are the main purposes for which a CC amplifier may be used.
Because of its high input impedance and low output impedance, the common collector circuit finds wide
application as a buffer amplifier between a high impedance source and low impedance load.
Q20.Which configuration among CE, CB, CC gives highest input impedance and no voltage gain?
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Common collector configuration has the highest input impedance and has voltage gain less than unity.
Q21. What do you understand by collector reverse saturation? In which configuration does it have a
greater value?
When input current (IE in case of CB configuration and IB in case of CE configuration) is zero, collector
current IC is not zero although it is very small. In fact this is the reverse leakage current or collector reverse
saturation current (ICBO or simply ICO in CB configuration and ICEO in CE configuration). In case of CE
configuration it is much more than that in case of CB configuration.
Q22. What is meant by operating point?
Quiescent point is a point on the dc load line which represents VCE and IC in the absence of ac signal and
variations in VCE and IC take place around this point when ac signal is applied.
Q23. Explain how BJT can be used as an amplifier.
A transistor operates as an amplifier by transfer of the current from low impedance loop to high impedance
loop.
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Unit 2.1 BJT

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Unit 2.1 BJT

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LEARNING MATERIAL FOR

ANALOG AND DIGITAL ELECTRONICS

concept of DC load Line:

Selection operating point (Q-point) J

If the operating point is selected in the middle of active region, then

(i) Temperature dependence of IC

Voltage Divider Biasing Circuit -

2.1.7 Classification of power amplifiers – Class-A, Class-B, Class-AB, Class-C

b) Operation of Class-B Push-pull amplifier:-

Class B Push-Pull Amplifier

Class AB Power Amplifier

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTION-

Q1. Explain why an ordinary junction transistor is called bipolar?

Q4. Discuss the need for biasing the transistor.

Q16. Explain why ICEO >> ICBO?

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