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PRODUCTION OF PERENNIAL CROPS

These are crops whose life span is more than one year. They take more than one year
from the time of planting to the first harvest.
Advantages of establishing perennial crops;
They ensure a regular income to the farmer.
They may be used as security for acquiring loans from financial institutions.
Fewer operations are done after their establishment.
The cost of establishment is lower per annum.( it is spread over many years ).
Disadvantages;
They take long time to mature.
They give lower yields per unit area.
They require a lot of land to wide spacing recommended.
They are very difficult to improve because they take long to mature.
Some require a permanent source of water for irrigation.
They may require processing on the farm there by reducing the area available growing
crops.
Most are grown for sale thus may reduce food security in the area.

Examples of perennial crops grown in Uganda

English name Scientific (Botanical) name

Arabica coffee Coffea Arabica
Robusta coffee Coffea canephora
Tea Camellia sinensis
Sugarcane Saccharum officinarum
Cocoa Theobroma cacao
Sisal Agave spp

FRUITS
Pineapple Ananas comosus
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Citrus (Sweet orange) Citrus spp (Citrus sinensis)

Banana Musa spp
Pawpaw Carica papaya
Mango Mangifera indica

COFFEE PRODUCTION
Coffee belongs to the family Rubiaceae.
The two commonly grown species of coffee; Arabica coffee for highland areas and
Robusta coffee for lowland areas
Coffee is the major source of foreign exchange earnings of Uganda, and it is produced
by smallholder farmers in small individual plots of land.

Importance of coffee
 Coffee is a non-alcoholic beverage crop. It contains a stimulant called caffeine.
 Coffee husks are used as litter in the deep litter system of poultry keeping
 It is used to manufacture explosives/ammunitions
 It is a source of fuel ie the stems and husks.
 It’s a good source of income and employment to many people.

Plant characteristics
 Coffee is a woody plant.
 It has a tap root system and a dense network of feeder roots within the topsoil.
 The shoot exhibits truck; primary, secondary and tertiary branches.
 Branches have nodes which bear buds for leaves, flowers and berries.
 The leaves are borne on the branches in pairs at each node.
 White flowers are produced in clusters at the nodes on all branches.
 Flowering usually occurs in a flush and is stimulated by the onset of the rains
after a dry spell.
 Flowers wither and leave groups of berries on each node.
 The berry takes 8 – 9 months to ripen.
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Growth requirements
Rainfall. Coffee requires evenly distributed rainfall throughout the year within the range
of 1500 – 2250 mm. A dry spell of 2 – 3 months is needed to stimulate flowering.

Temperature and altitude. In Uganda, arabica grows best at higher altitudes where
temperatures are cool. Robusta grows well at lower altitudes where temperatures are
warmer by coffee leaf rust disease.

Soils. The soils should be deep, fertile and well drained. Volcanic soils are the best.
Soil pH should be between 4.2 and 6.2.

Field operations

(a) Propagation of coffee

Arabica and robusta coffee can be propagated by seed, or by vegetative propagation.

Propagation by seed
Seeds for planting should be selected from trees that are healthy high yielding.
Cherries are prepared and planted in a well prepared nursery bed.
After a month they germinate and are looked after properly.
After 6 months they are transplanted to the main field.

Vegetative propagation(from cuttings)

Vegetative propagation is the only method of producing and multiplying high yielding
clones. Coffee plants that are produced from cuttings are called clonal coffee.

A coffee cutting is usually 7.5 –10 cm long, with a node and one pair of leaves.
The cutting is dipped in the rooting powder (rooting hormone).
The cutting is then planted in the polythene bag/pot filled with the potting medium and
rooting medium.
Potted cuttings are placed in a nursery shed and are watered frequently until 4-6 leaves
are developed.
Cuttings are then removed and taken to the main garden.
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(b) Seed bed preparation

The land should be prepared at least 6 months before transplanting and preferably
longer. Primary and secondary tillage is done.

(c) Spacing
A spacing of 3 m x 3 m is recommended for Robusta coffee and for the case of arabica
the spacing is 2.4 m x 2.4 m.

(d) Digging out planting holes

Planting holes, 60 X 60 cm should be dug to accommodate topsoil mixed with compost
and a phosphate fertilizer.

(e) Transplanting
It should be carried out 2–4 weeks from the onset of rains, and in the evening when the
weather is cool. The seedlings are shaded and watered regularly until they take.

(f) Mulching
This is the covering of the soil surface with materials such as dry grass, maize stover,
wheat straw or coffee pulp (husks)

(g) Shading
After transplanting, provide a temporary shade to the seedlings for the first 2–3 weeks.
(h) Weeding
The most effective method is the use of herbicides, mulching, planting cover crops,
slashing.

(i) Fertilizer application

Young coffee requires phosphate and nitrogen fertilizers. Phosphorus is needed for root
development and establishment, while nitrogen is applied to increase vegetative growth.
(j) Pruning
The main objective of pruning coffee is to modify its growth habit and improve its
productivity and also facilitate harvesting.
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Methods of pruning

(i) Single stem pruning

Only one permanent stem is kept on each plant and is maintained at a height of 1.5 m
or 1.8 above the ground level. The coffee seedling is capped at a height of 53 cm in
order to stimulate the growth of suckers from nodes.

(ii) Multiple stem pruning

The aim of this system is to encourage the growth of two or more stems on each plant.
Capping of the seedling is carried out at a height of 38 cm when the seedling is 53 cm
tall.
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(iii) Agobiada system

Coffee seedlings are bent over at about 45 degrees and pegged down six months after
planting (about 90 cm tall) to stimulate production of suckers. Three suckers from the
base of the seedling are selected to form the bearing stems.

Annual pruning
In addition to the pruning that is done when training the coffee trees, there in regular
pruning that is done annually every after the picking season.

(k) Harvesting of coffee

The practice of harvesting coffee is called picking and is done manually using hands.
Only the berries (cherry) that will have turned from green to red should be picked.

(l) Coffee processing

Two methods can be used and these are, dry method and wet method

Dry method
This is commonly used to process robusta coffee. Harvested cherry is sun dried either
on cement barbecues or wire trays raised off the ground. The dry cherry is taken to the
Hullery to remove the outer skin and parchment.
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Wet method
This is used to process arabica coffee. Cherry is pulped within 36 hours after
harvesting.

(m) Pests of coffee

(i) Antestia bugs (Antestiopsis spp)

These are sucking insects that feed on flower buds and young berries causing them to
drop.
Attacked bigger berries produce soft cracked beans and rotten beans.
They sometimes attack the growing points causing multiple branching.
It is the most serious pest of arabica coffee.

Control measures
 Open pruning
 Using chemicals. such as Fenitrothion, Parathion and Fenthion.

(ii) Coffee berry borer (Hypothenemus hampei)

The adult female bores through the berry into the bean where it feeds and lays eggs.
Attacked beans turn bluish green, which lowers their quality.

Control measures
 Picking of coffee berries as soon as they are ripe
 Regular pruning
 Spraying occasionally with Endosulfan and Dieldrin.

(iii) Mealy bugs (Planococcus kenyae)

Attacks flower buds, berries and shoot tips and forms a white mass around them.
Control measures
 They are controlled by predators like a wasp.
 Painting the bases of stems with Dieldrin, Diazinon or Dursban.
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(iv) Lace bugs (Habrochila ghesquierei)

Heavy infestations can result in complete defoliation of the coffee trees.

Control measures
 Applying Fenitrothion.

(v) Leaf miners (Leucoptera meyricki and Leucoptera caffeina)

The larvae feed on the leaves causing premature leaf fall.

Control measures
 Spraying with Parathion, Fenitrothion or Fenthion.

(n) Diseases of coffee and their control.

(i) Coffee leaf rust
It is caused by a fungus called Hemileia vastatrix.
 Tiny pale yellow spots on the under surface of leaves, covered with a yellow-
orange powder.
 Affected leaves fall off prematurely.
The disease is spread by rain splash.

Control measures
 Improving air circulation within the plants by open pruning and weeding.
 Timely application of fungicides such as copper, Dithane M45, or Captafol.

(ii) Coffee berry disease (CBD)

It is caused by a fungus called Colletotrichum coffeanum. It is a major disease of
arabica coffee in East Africa It is spread by rain splash. It attacks coffee flowers and
fruits at all stages of growth.
Symptoms;
 Dark brown streaks on flowers.
 Small dark sunken patches on green
 Brown or dark sunken patches on ripe berries
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Control measures
 Timely application of fungicides such as copper oxychloride and Kocide 101.
 Proper pruning and weeding.

(iii) Coffee wilt disease (Tracheomycosis)

It is caused by a fungus called Fusarium xylaroides.
Symptoms;
 The leaves of attacked plants curl inwards and they may turn yellow.
 The leaves may also wilt and feel dry to the touch.
 Sudden leaf fall within a few days of first symptoms.
 Black or brown violet streaks/bands are observed in the wood when peeled.
 Crack or cankers may also occur at the collar region.

Control measures
 Farmers should observe sanitary measures during farm operations.
 Uprooting and burning infected plants on spot
 Restriction of the movement of infected plant parts, e.g., stems for firewood.
 Regular inspection of coffee field for early identification and destruction of infected
trees.
 Berries should not be harvested from diseased trees.
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BANANA PRODUCTION
Bananas belong to the family Musaceae. They originated from south-east Asia (China).
They have been grown by man longer than other crops.

Importance of Bananas
1) The fruit can be steamed or boiled when fresh and eaten in accompaniment by
any sauce.
2) The fruits can be cooked mixed with beans, peas or crushed groundnuts and
then eaten.
3) The fruit can be dried, ground into flour that can be mingled into ugali and eaten,
or the flour can be baked into biscuits and cakes.
4) The fruits of dessert banana are eaten raw when ripe
5) Some varieties are ripened and squeezed to produce juice which is drunk while
still fresh, or fermented to produce local beer and wine (e.g., Banapo wine).
6) After harvesting and peeling, the remains can serve as livestock feed and
mulching materials.
7) Dry banana fibres can be used as materials for thatching houses and making a
variety of handcrafts such as ropes, baskets, carpets, mats and bags.

Varieties of Bananas
The varieties of edible type of bananas are grouped into four, as below;

Grouping Examples
Cooking varieties Kivuvu, Nakabululu, Nakitembe, Nfuuka, Musakala.
Roasting varieties Gonja
Dessert varieties Sukari-Ndizi, Bogoya (Gros Michel)
Brewing varieties Kisubi, Kayinja, Kivuvu, Mbidde
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Plant characteristics
1) The banana is an herbaceous perennial plant, whose height varies between 2
and 4 m.
2) It consists of an underground true stem called a corm/rhizome, and the above
ground stalk called the pseudostem made up of sheaths.
3) From the rhizome arise the adventitious roots most of which concentrate within
the first 15 cm of the soil profile.
4) Suckers also arise from the buds on the corm close to the older sucker to form a
stool of pseudostems.
5) The flower stalk arises from the corm and grows upwards in the Centre of the
pseudostem and emerges at the tip as a terminal inflorescence which later bears
fruits. The first flowers to appear are female with non-functional stamens.
6) These produce fruits called fingers which form clusters and then a bunch
7) It has large or broad leaf blades and are extensions of the sheaths of the
pseudostem.
8) The leaves are attached to the sheaths by short petioles.

Growth requirements
Rainfall. Banana requires 1500 –2500 mm of rainfall well distributed throughout the
year.

Temperature and altitude. They grow at altitudes ranging from sea level up to 1800m.
Bananas flourish under uniformly warm conditions with an optimum monthly
temperature of 27 0C and high light intensity.

Strong winds. Bananas are badly affected by strong winds, which cause breakage of
pseudostems and toppling. Thus banana plants should be protected from winds by
planting windbreaks and propping.
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Soils. Deep well drained loam soils with high organic matter content and a pH between
5.6 and 7.5, favour banana production.

Field operations
(a) Propagation.
Bananas are vegetatively propagated. Different types of planting materials are used
they include;
(i) Peepers. These are very young suckers that have just emerged from the ground
and they have small leaves.
(ii) Sword suckers. These are young suckers, 30–60 cm tall and with narrow
elongated leaves.
(iii) Water suckers. These are relatively older and have broad leaves. They are not
the best for planting.
(iv) Maiden suckers. These are normally 1–2 m tall and they have already started
producing their own suckers.
(v) Bull heads. These are corms or rhizomes bearing buds that can give rise to
new suckers. They are used when the other planting materials are not available.
(vi) Tissue cultures. Seedlings produced by tissue culture technique are also
available and can be got from Agricultural Research Institutes like Kawanda,
Kabanyolo and private farms.

(b) Seed bed preparation

The most fertile portion of the farm should be selected and two rounds of ploughing are
done 3 months before planting to allow decomposition of organic matter.

(c) Planting
Should be carried out at the beginning of rains and healthy vigorous suckers should be
selected. Leaves and roots should be cut off the sucker and treated of pests.
The planting holes should be 60cm wide and 60cm deep.
Topsoil should be mixed with compost or farmyard manure and used to plant the
sucker.
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(d) Spacing
Spacing varies with varieties, soil fertility, management practices and amount of rainfall
of the area. On average, the spacing should be 3 m x 3 m.

(e) Mulching
The mulches [dry organic materials] help suppress weeds, conserve soil moisture,
prevent soil erosion, moderate soil physical and chemical properties and add nutrients
in the soil when they decompose.
Mulches should not be too close to the plants to avoid pests coming close to the corm.

(f) Weeding
This may not be necessary if all the weeds are killed during land preparation, if correct
spacing is used and if mulching is done.
Annual weeds should be uprooted using hands while perennial weeds can be controlled
using suitable herbicides.

(g) Fertilizer application

Bananas take up large amounts of nitrogen, potassium and magnesium from the soil.
These nutrients can be supplied to bananas by applying organic materials and inorganic
fertilizers. A phosphate fertilizer should be applied in the planting holes at the time of
planting to encourage root growth.
(h) Pruning and desuckering
This is done in order to control the size of bunches, and also to maintain a correct
spacing.
Banana plants usually produce many suckers on each stool these would compete
among themselves and produce small bunches.
About 2–4 suckers can be left on each stool to produce big and attractive bunches for
sale. Three plants at different stages of growth are recommended.
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(i) Staking/propping bananas

This refers to providing support to the banana plants bearing heavy bunch that cannot
be supported by the pseudostems. Usually a long pole that is forked at the tip is used.
(j) Pests of bananas
(i) Banana weevil (Cosmoplites sordidus)
The larvae bore and make tunnels within the corm (rhizome). This weakens the stem
and interferes with the uptake and movement of materials (sap) in the plant.
Young plants become stunted, take too long to put on a bunch, may eventually die,
plants produce small bunches and easily blown down by wind.

Control measures
 Using clean (healthy) planting materials
 Chopping and splitting the rhizome and pseudostem after harvesting
 Trapping the weevils and killing them.
 Applying chemicals such as Furadan, Primicid and Dusban.
(ii) Nematodes (Radopholus similis)
These attack and damage plant roots causing stunted growth, delayed maturity reduced
bunch weight (size) and toppling.

Control measures
 Applying nematicides such as Furadan, Nemagon and Nemacur
 Crop rotation
 Use of clean planting materials

(k) Diseases of bananas

(i) Fusarium wilt (Panama disease)

 It is caused by a soil borne fungus called Fusarium oxysporum cubense.
 It is spread by planting infected suckers and contaminated tools.
 Infected plants wilt and the leaves turn yellow. When the corm is cut and split, it
is found to have turned purple in colour.
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Control measures
 Growing resistant cultivars, such as cooking varieties and Cavendish.
 Use of clean planting materials, e.g., suckers produced using tissue culture
technique.

(ii) Banana leaf spot (Yellow Sigatoka disease)

It is caused by a fungus called Cercospora musae or Mycosphaerella musicola.
Symptoms; Long oval yellowish spots on leaves, which later develop into yellow
lesions parallel to the leaf veins. Severely attacked leaves dry up, beginning from the
edges.

Control measures
 Growing resistant varieties
 Applying fungicides.
(iv) Banana bacterial wilt;
It is caused by bacteria.
Symptoms; yellowing, wilting and drying of leaves, premature ripening of the fruit, milky
smelly fluid oozes from cut parts.
Control; plant resistant varieties, destroy infected plants, use clean tools on plants and
removal of the male bud early as possible.
(v) Cigar end rot;
It is a fungal disease common in areas with low night temperatures.
Symptom; ash like colouration of the fruits/fingers.
Control; remove the male bud and spray with copper fungicides.

(l) Harvesting bananas

Properly pruned bananas should produce the first crop between 10 –18 months after
planting depending on the planting material that was used, variety of the banana,
climatic and soil factors.
After harvesting the bunch the pseudostem should be chopped and split. This enables it
to dry up so that weevils do not breed in it, and also can serve as mulch.
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