CHAPTER 10

LEADERSHIP
AT WORK
Industrial/Organizational Psychology
Group 2
 WHAT IS
LEADERSHIP?
WHAT IS LEADERSHIP?
The process of influencing the
way others act, their perceptions,
and how they view their
environment through
cooperation.
LEADERSHIPS
Jago (1982) defines leadership as the use
of non-coercive means to ensure that
group tasks are accomplished.
Smircich and Morgan (1982) define
leadership as the process in which one
person attempts to define and succeeds
in defining the reality of others.
WHERE DOES THE
POWER TO LEAD
COME FROM?
ORIGIN OF
POWER TO LEAD
The act of leading is
intertwined with power and
influence.
WHAT IS POWER
The ability to influence or
control the behavior of
others.
FRENCH AND RAVEN’S BASES OF POWER (1959)
FRENCH AND RAVEN’S
BASES OF POWER (1959).

·Some of these powers come

from formal positions within an
organization such as being a
supervisor and having
legitimate, reward, and coercive
power. However, other types of
power can be possessed by
anyone within an organization
OUTCOMES OF
LEADERSHIP
 LEADERSHIP STUDIES
OUTCOMES OF LEADERSHIP
LEADERSHIP EMERGENCE
LEADERSHIP EFFECTIVENESS

Whether someone is perceived as What the leader actually

a leader within the work group. accomplishes.

Studies of leadership emergence There are multiple metrics

aim to identify characteristics that capturing leadership effectiveness
make someone seem “leader-like.” such as supervisor or subordinate
ratings of effectiveness

People who emerge as leaders are more likely to be promoted to

higher level positions, and later be rated as effective (Foti &
Hauenstein, 2007).
DO LEADERS REALLY MAKE A
DIFFERENCE IN ORGANIZATIONS?

“ROMANCE OF LEADERSHIP”
The idea that too much of a group’s or an
organization’s performance or effectiveness is
attributed to the influence of leaders.
WHO ARE LEADERS?

THE TRAIT APPROACH

TO LEADERSHIP
WHO ARE LEADERS?
Historians such as Scottish writer
Thomas Carlyle popularized the notion
that leaders are “great men.”
It was assumed also that leaders were
born, not made. When it came to
leadership, you either “had it” or you
didn’t.
 TRAIT APPROACH TO LEADERSHIP
The approach of of the five-
identifying a this approach the trait approach made a
factor
limited number of to the study of comeback more recently
traits that would leadership ran approach to
following the
predict out of steam personality
Faded Away development and
leadership following an
influential popularization
emergence and
review by
effectiveness.
Stogdill (1948)
Subsequent
analyses
suggested that
traits such as
personality and
intelligence had
non-trivial
relations with
both leadership
emergence and
effectiveness.
PERSONALITY AND LEADERSHIP
There were traits that mattered for both
leadership emergence and effectiveness.

Extraversion was by far the strongest correlate of

leadership (r = .31) followed by conscientiousness (r =
.28).

For leadership effectiveness in actual organizations,

however, extraversion and openness mattered most.
THERE IS ALSO EMERGING EVIDENCE THAT WHEN TRYING
TO UNDERSTAND THE EFFECTS OF LEADER TRAITS, WE
SHOULD NOT FORGET ABOUT THE FOLLOWERS.

Grant, Gino, and Hofmann (2011) showed that

extraverted leaders were most successful when
followers demonstrated low levels of proactive
behaviors such as suggesting new ideas.
In teams where followers displayed high levels of
proactivity, extraversion acted as a disadvantage for
group effectiveness.
probably due to their desire to be dominant, were less
receptive to ideas coming from their teams, whereas
introverted leaders were better at harnessing the
proactivity of the team.
THERE IS ALSO EMERGING EVIDENCE THAT WHEN TRYING
TO UNDERSTAND THE EFFECTS OF LEADER TRAITS, WE
SHOULD NOT FORGET ABOUT THE FOLLOWERS.

Even though there seems to be an extraversion

advantage to leadership, the advantage is not so large
as to be insurmountable. There are plenty of introverted
CEOs, perhaps most notably the person who
revolutionized how many people relate to each other:
the founder and CEO of Facebook, Mark Zuckerberg,
ARE SMART LEADERS MORE
EFFECTIVE, AND ARE SMART
PEOPLE MORE LIKELY TO BE
PERCEIVED AS LEADERS?
INTELLIGENCE AND LEADERSHIP

Implicit Leadership Theories

ILTs are prototypes of what we consider a leader’s traits that we
as individuals have in our minds.
It turns out that intelligence is a consistent part of ILTs across most
followers.
Lord, Foti, and De Vader (1984) showed that out of 59 such traits
examined (including honesty and charisma), intelligence was the
only consistent characteristic individuals identified as something all
leaders should possess.
INTELLIGENCE AND LEADERSHIP
Intelligent leaders can make sense of greater amounts of information,
can make better decisions, and may be more effective in leading their
teams to success.
Judge, Colbert, and Ilies (2004) conducted
a meta-analysis and found that individuals who
were perceived as intelligent were more likely to
be thought of as leaders.
Leader effectiveness and measured
intelligence were correlated at .25. Intelligence
matters for leadership emergence and
effectiveness, but intelligence as perceived by
followers seems more important than
intelligence test scores.
INTELLIGENCE AND LEADERSHIP

DIRECTIVE STYLE

PARTICIPATIVE STYLE
 IS GENDER RELATED TO
LEADERSHIP EMERGENCE OR
EFFECTIVENESS?
GENDER AND LEADERSHIP

Glass Ceiling
A discriminatory barrier that prevents women from
advancing to senior management.
“THINK MANAGER–THINK
MALE” SYNDROME VS
the “ideal leader” was
defined as someone
who is stereotypically
male: assertive,
dominant, and
confident.
“THINK MANAGER–THINK
FEMALE”
Research has shown that
the prototype of effective
leadership has become
increasingly feminine over
time, with traits including
being collaborative,
sensitive, and open.
Others are finding evidence that
effective leadership is neither
feminine nor masculine, but instead
is androgynous, or a blend of
stereotypically masculine and
feminine traits (Kark, Waismel-Manor,
& Shamir, 2012).

Meta-analytic results suggest that

the magnitude of difference is small
and largely determined by the
situation (Paustian-Underdahl,
Walker, & Woehr, 2014).
GENDER AND LEADERSHIP
There is some evidence that once individuals become leaders,
male and female leaders may adopt slightly different styles.

Consistent with the stereotype that women may be more

interpersonally oriented, one meta-analysis showed that women
had a greater tendency to behave more democratically
whereas male leaders were somewhat more likely to adopt an
authoritarian style (Eagly & Johnson, 1990).

A subsequent meta-analysis showed that female leaders were

less likely to adopt passive and ineffective styles of leadership
and more likely to engage in visionary and charismatic styles
(Eagly, Johannesen-Schmidt, & van Engen, 2003)
 WHAT EXPLAINS THE
UNDERREPRESENTATION
OF WOMEN IN HIGHER-
LEVEL POSITIONS, IF
NOT LEADERSHIP
ABILITY?
The perception that women have more
responsibilities at home is a factor.

When women are successful in a traditionally male-typed

job, they tend to be liked less and are derogated more,
suggesting that success comes at a cost, and performance
may not always translate to promotions.

Finally, even in their promotions, women may be facing a

glass cliff.
 GLASS CLIFF
Refers to the notion that women are overrepresented
in top leadership positions that are risky and fragile,
such as taking on the CEO role of a company about
to go bankrupt.
 RACE AND LEADERSHIP
CEO of Fortune 500 companies
10

8
Only six of the Fortune 500 companies are led by a
African-American CEO (1.2 percent of the total).
6
Furthermore, of these 500 companies, 9 (1.8 percent)
4
have Asian, and 10 (2 percent) have Latino CEOs
(DiversityInc, 2015).
2

0
African -American CEO Asian CEO Latino CEO
IS THIS UNDERREPRESENTATION OF
MINORITIES IN THE HIGHEST LEVELS
OF ORGANIZATIONS DUE TO A LACK
OF QUALIFIED AND INTERESTED
CANDIDATES? OR ARE THERE
SYSTEMATIC BARRIERS THAT HOLD
BACK QUALIFIED INDIVIDUALS FROM
RISING TO THESE POSITIONS?
RACE AND LEADERSHIP
Research to date examining any leadership style differences based on race
revealed few, if any, systematic differences based on race (Ospina & Foldy,
2009).
Sy and colleagues (2010) conducted an experiment where subjects gave
higher leadership ratings to the person described when they thought they
were rating a Caucasian, as opposed to an Asian leader.
Interestingly, among those reading about an Asian leader, leadership
capabilities were rated higher if the leader was described as an
engineering leader as opposed to a sales leader, suggesting that
stereotypes about occupations and leader-occupation fit may also be in play,
similar to what research has shown for women in leadership.
INTERSECTIONALITY

How different aspects of a person’s identity combine

in different ways to shape their reality.

For example: an African-American female leader’s

experiences will likely be different from those of a
Caucasian female or an African-American male leader
One limitation of these studies is that they involve experiments where the leader is
only described on paper.
At the same time, it is unnerving that even when presented with identical
information, the results favor Caucasian and male leaders. This tendency is also not
necessarily restricted to “paper people” (those described in résumés only).
Park and Westphal (2013) surveyed CEOs and journalists, asking them to comment
on low firm performance (disappointing earning disclosures) of their competitors.
Caucasian CEOs commenting on the poor performance of competitor firms were
more likely to blame the poorly performing company’s CEO (rather than external
circumstances) when the CEO in question was a minority.
Further, this tendency to blame the minority CEO was stronger when the journalist
was Caucasian.
In summary, the available evidence indicates that
race plays a role in how organizational actors react
to others and evaluate each other, resulting in
systematic biases favoring some groups while
excluding others. Organizations need to take
meaningful action to create a merit-based
organization that provides opportunities to assume
leadership roles and thrive in these roles
regardless of their race
 WHAT DO
LEADERS DO?
THE
BEHAVIORAL
APPROACH
BEHAVIORAL APPROACH
TO LEADERSHIP
The leadership approach that
attempted to identify the behaviors
that distinguished between
effective and ineffective leaders.
TWO TYPES OF
BEHAVIORS:
Initiating structure:
Task-oriented behaviors leaders display, such as clarifying
roles, ensuring that employees perform up to standards, and
communicating standards of performance.
Consideration:
Relational behaviors leaders engage in, including looking
out for the well-being of members, being approachable, and
being a good listener.
KEY PROBLEM:
The researchers’ assumption was that these two types of
behaviors would predict leadership effectiveness under all
situations.
Contingency approach to leadership: Theories that
specify the situational factors affecting when different
leadership behaviors and styles are more appropriate.
 TRAITS OR
BEHAVIORS:
WHAT MATTERS
MORE
What leaders do—their behaviors—holds
greater importance in influencing follower
attitudes and satisfaction compared to who
they are—their traits.
 CONTINGENCY
APPROACHES
TO LEADERSHIP
CONTINGENCY APPROACHES
TO LEADERSHIP
Theories that specify the situational factors
affecting when different leadership
behaviors and styles are more appropriate.
FIEDLER’S CONTINGENCY
MODEL OF LEADERSHIP
predicted that leadership effectiveness would depend on the match
between the behavior of the leader and the characteristics of the
situation.

Least Preferred Co-Worker (LPC) Scale

A questionnaire a leader would be put through to identify whether
the leader is task- or relationship-oriented.
3 characteristics in which the leader operates:

1. Leader-Follower Relations
2. Structure of the Task
3. Position Power of the Leader
Figure 10.2 A summary of Fiedler’s (1964) contingency model of leadership.
Path-Goal Theory of
Leadership
Path-goal theory viewed effective leadership as an
interaction between the leader’s style and the context.
The path-goal theory is so named because it proposes
that the leader’s job is to identify the road blocks in the
way of subordinates that prevents them from reaching
their goals (House, 1971).
It is the leader’s job to ensure that goal accomplishment
is rewarding for the individual in question.
House and Mitchell (1974) proposed that
leaders may display one of four styles:

DIRECTIVE LEADERSHIP
SUPPORTIVE LEADERSHIP
PARTICIPATIVE LEADERSHIP
ACHIEVEMENT-ORIENTED LEADERSHIP
Vroom’s Normative
Model of Leadership
The model is presented in the form of a decision aid, and asks
the leader to answer a series of questions regarding the context
in which the decision-making will take place.
The assumption of the model is that as the leader is in a situation
where subordinates have the information the leader needs, or
implementing the decision requires the leader to convince
employees, then a more participative approach will work better.
In contrast, if employee interests are not aligned with
organizational interests or the leader has more information than
employees, a more authoritarian style will become more
appropriate.
According to the normative model, the leader may display
one of five different styles:
Decide (making the decision alone).
Consult individually (the leader goes to members individually for
input, but makes the decision alone), Consult group (the leader
shares the problem with the group, invites them to give opinions,
then makes the decision alone).
Facilitate (the leader jointly solves the problem with the group),
Delegate (the leader plays no direct role beyond answering
questions or being there when needed).
CONTEMPORARY
APPROACHES TO
LEADERSHIP
Each contemporary theory provides a framework for what leaders do and the
different styles they might display. Contemporary theories usually start by
describing a particular leadership style, and subsequent researchers test this
style to identify the conditions under which that particular style becomes more or
less effective.
01. Transformational
Leadership Theory
Characterized by four distinct behaviors: idealized influence
(charisma), inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation, and
individualized consideration.

Charisma: Rare personal qualities of leaders that creates high

levels of devotion and enthusiasm on the part of followers.

Transactional leaders - Leaders who demonstrate contingent

reward, active management by exception, passive
management by exception, and laissez-faire leadership styles.
Transformational
and transactional
leader behaviors
(Bass, 1991).
02. Leader-
Member Exchange
(LMX) Theory
The theory’s premise is that leaders lead through the
unique and dyadic relationships they build with each
of their employees (Bauer & Erdogan, 2015).
“The secret” of leadership resides not in who the
leader is or what they do, but in the relationships they
build with employees (Dansereau, Graen, & Haga,
1975).
TWO TYPES OF LMX
RELATIONSHIPS
A. HIGH-QUALITY LMX RELATIONSHIPS
In high-quality LMX relationships, the leader and the
employee feel a certain degree of mutual obligation to
support each other and not let each other down.

B. LOW-QUALITY LMX RELATIONSHIPS

In low-quality LMX relationships, the relationship is
based on lower levels of liking, loyalty, and respect.

Perhaps the biggest distinction between high- and low-quality exchanges is the
degree of trust. LMX researchers have shown that LMX development is a process
of trust development.
Benefits of having a high LMX relationships
03. Authentic
Leadership
Leadership theory describes
authentic leaders as those who
“remain true to themselves.” These
leaders display self awareness,
honesty, and sincerity.
CHARACTERISTICS OF
AN AUTHENTIC
LEADER
1. “Remain true to themselves”
2. Self-aware
3. Display honesty and sincerity in their actions with
others
4. Do not hide their weaknesses, and they are not
afraid to display vulnerability
5. Do not engage in “ego-defensive” behaviors.
6. Do not pretend to be someone they are not
7. Have a strong sense of what is right and what is
wrong
 ADVANTAGES
Higher chances of satisfying the needs of
their employees–improving employee
performance

The Develops a higher-quality relationship

(LMX) with their employees

Advantages Helps employees become more resilient

in the face of difficulties, become more

and optimistic, more hopeful about the future,

and to feel more confident

Disadvantages DISADVANTAGES

of Authentic Organizational life may be necessarily

Leadership
inauthentic – we monitor our behaviors,
consider the impact on the group, and manage
our impressions
Being true to themselves does not necessarily
imply being ethical
Authentic leadership skills are a challenge to
teach. This is because authentic leadership is
thought to develop as a result of one’s critical
life events and career history.
SERVANT
LEADERSHIP
 SERVANT LEADERS
are those who lead by serving their followers and helping them reach
their full potential.

EMPOWERING & DEVELOPING EMPLOYEES ACCEPTING OTHERS

HUMILITY AND MODESTY PROVIDING DIRECTION

AUTHENTICITY SERVING THE BROADER COMMUNITY

ABUSIVE
SUPERVISION
 ABUSIVE SUPERVISION
sustained display of hostile and demeaning behaviors, excluding
physical contact

RIDICULING EMPLOYEES RUDE TO EMPLOYEES

REMINDING THEM OF PERSONAL

INVADING THEIR PRIVACY
FAILURES OR MISTAKES
 ABUSIVE SUPERVISION
Employees are more likely to;

QUIT THEIR JOB

EXPERIENCE LOWER LEVELS OF JOB SATISFACTION,

ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT, A SENSE THAT WORK
INTERFERES WITH THEIR FAMILY LIVES, AND STRESS

EXPERIENCE LOWER SENSE OF ORGANIZATIONAL

FAIRNESS
 ABUSIVE SUPERVISION

ABUSIVE BEHAVIORS SUPERVISORS ENGAGE IN SEEM TO

SPREAD TO OTHER PEOPLE

SUPERVISORS’ OWN ABUSIVE BEHAVIORS TOWARD

EMPLOYEES MAY STEM FROM HOW THEY ARE TREATED
BY THEIR OWN SUPERIORS.
HOW DO WE CULTIVATE GOOD
LEADERSHIP?

is leadership inborn or learned?

 WAYS TO CULTIVATE LEADERSHIP

360 Feedback, Coaching, and Mentoring

By feeding information from subordinates, colleagues, and

higher-level managers back to the focal manager, organizations
can create self-awareness.
WAYS TO CULTIVATE LEADERSHIP

Developmental Assignments

Through carefully planned assignments, managers are placed

in positions where they acquire skills and knowledge that they
will need in a higher-level managerial role
WAYS TO CULTIVATE LEADERSHIP

Formal Leadership Training

Off-the-job training conducted in a classroom or online setting.

It is a systematic effort employed by companies to develop
leadership skills and competencies. This type of training typically
includes structured programs aimed at enhancing leadership
capabilities through instruction, workshops, and interactive
learning experiences.