METALS

Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
1.1 Properties of metals
(a) describe the general physical properties of metals (as solids
having high melting and boiling points;
malleable; good conductors of heat and electricity) in terms of
their structure
(b) describe an alloy as a mixture of a metal with another
element, e.g. brass; stainless steel
(c) identify representations of metals and alloys from diagrams of
structures
(d) explain why alloys have different physical properties from
their constituent elements
1.2 Reactivity series
(a) place in order of reactivity: aluminium (see also 9.5(b)), calcium, copper,
(hydrogen), iron, lead,
magnesium, potassium, silver, sodium and zinc by reference to
(i) the reactions, if any, of the metals with water, oxygen, steam and dilute
hydrochloric acid,
(ii) the reduction, if any, of their oxides by carbon and/or by hydrogen
(b) describe the reactivity series as related to the tendency of a metal to form
its positive ion, illustrated
by its reaction with
(i) the aqueous ions of the other listed metals
(ii) the oxides of the other listed metals
(c) deduce the order of reactivity from a given set of experimental results
(d) describe the action of heat on the carbonates of the listed metals and
relate thermal stability to the
reactivity series
1.3 Extraction of metals
(a) describe the ease of obtaining metals from their
ores by relating the elements to their positions in
the reactivity series
(b) describe metal ores as a finite resource and hence
the need to recycle metals
(c) discuss the social, economic and environmental
advantages and disadvantages of recycling metals,
e.g. aluminium and copper
1.4 Iron
(a) describe and explain the essential reactions in the extraction of iron using haematite,
limestone and coke in the blast furnace
(b) describe steels as alloys which are a mixture of iron with carbon and often other
metals and how controlled use of these additives changes the properties of the iron, e.g.
high carbon steels are strong but brittle whereas low carbon steels are softer and more
easily shaped
(c) state the uses of mild steel (e.g. car bodies; machinery) and stainless steel (e.g.
chemical plant;cutlery; surgical instruments)
(d) describe the essential conditions for the corrosion (rusting) of iron as the presence of
oxygen and water; prevention of rusting can be achieved by placing a barrier around the
metal (e.g. painting; greasing; plastic coating; galvanising)
(e) describe the sacrificial protection of iron by a more reactive metal in terms of the
reactivity series where the more reactive metal corrodes preferentially (e.g. underwater
pipes have a piece of magnesium attached to them)
1.5 Aluminium
(a) outline the manufacture of aluminium from pure aluminium oxide
dissolved in cryolite (starting
materials and essential conditions, including identity of electrodes should be
given together with
equations for the electrode reactions but no technical details or diagrams are
required)
(b) explain the apparent lack of reactivity of aluminium
(c) state the uses of aluminium and relate the uses to the properties of this
metal and its alloys, e.g. the
manufacture of aircraft; food containers; electrical cables
Properties of metals
METAL
A metal is an element that readily forms positive ions (cations) and has
metallic bonds
PROPERTIES
• Ductality
• Ductility of metals can be defined as the property of metals to form
into different shapes like wire. The metal gets elongated before it
fails.

• Ductility is an important property of metals. If the metal is not ductile

you can not give it a different shape which means that it will have
limited real-life applications. Ductility of metals can be improved by
different heat treatment techniques.
• Toughness
• Toughness is the property of metals that absorb energy and plastically deform without
fracturing. Toughness required metals to be ductile as well as strong.

• The toughness of metals can be defined as the energy per unit volume that it can absorb
before failure. A typical application of tougher material is turret press, hammer, power
press, etc.

• Hardness
• Hardness is the property of metal to resist local plastic deformation due to mechanical
indentation or abrasion .

• The hardness of metal depends on its ductility, plasticity, elasticity, and toughness.
• Brittleness
• Brittleness is the property of a metal to resist fracture. Usually, if a
metal is less ductile, it is more brittle. Brittle metals it has a little
elastic or plastic deformation. When more load is applied it easily gets
fractured.
• Elasticity
• Elasticity is the property of metals that helps metals to regain its
shape when the load is removed. We all know that metals deform
when an external load is applied. But when that load is removed
metals should go back to their original shape and that is called
elasticity.
• Malleability
• Malleability is the property of metals by virtue of which it can undergo
severe compressive stress without getting fractured.
• Conductivity
• Conductivity is a property of metals by virtue of which you can say how
good the metal is for electricity transmission. If the metal has good
conductivity it is better suited for electricity. If the metal does not have
electric conductivity, then it is called insulators.

• Copper and aluminum are two widely used metal known for good electric
conductivity. Since both are ductile, so they are used in manufacturing
electric wires and equipment.
• Thermal Conductivity
• Thermal conductivity decides how good a metal can transfer heat
energy. More the thermal conductivity, better the metal is for
transferring heat energy. For example aluminum can quickly heat up
and dissipates heat compare to steel.. That is why you may notice
aluminum insulation or wrapper in industrial applications.
ALLOY
An alloy is a mixture of two or more metals or a
metal and a nonmetal, where at least one element
is a metal. Many alloys are mixtures of two or
more metals.
Alloys often have properties that can be very different to the metals they contain, for example they can have more
strength, hardness or resistance to corrosion or extreme temperatures

Alloys contain atoms of different sizes, which distorts the normally regular arrangements of atoms in metals
This makes it more difficult for the layers to slide over each other, so alloys are usually much harder than the pure
metal

Converting pure metals into alloys often increases the strength of the product. For example, brass is an alloy of
copper and zinc. It is stronger than copper or zinc alone.
STEEL
• Steel is an alloy of iron with about 1% carbon
and may contain some other elements like
manganese, etc. Steel is made as it posses
the property of being tough, hard, and
corrosion-resistant.
• Use: Being a cheap alloy, it is used widely in
the construction of roads, railways, airports,
bridges, skyscrapers, etc. Not only this, steel
is used in the manufacturing of major
appliances, and also in making of different
construction materials, household products,
etc.
• Carbon Steel: Carbon steel is a steel which consists of carbon up to
2.1% by weight.
• Stainless Steel: Stainless steel is also known as inox steel which
consists of a minimum proportion of 11% chromium by mass and
maximum of 1.2% of carbon by mass.
• Tool Steel: Tool steel is a high-quality carbon and alloy steels with the
carbon content of 0.5% and 1.5%. It is used the manufacturing of
tools, which are required in shaping the other materials.
• Alloy Steel: Alloy steel is made by combining carbon steel with one or
more alloying elements like manganese, silicon, nickel, titanium,
copper, chromium, and aluminum.
BRASS
• Brass is similar to Bronze; the only difference is that
bronze is an alloy of copper and tin, while brass is an
alloy of copper and zinc with some other elements like
arsenic, lead, phosphorus, aluminum, manganese, and
silicon.
• This alloy is made to improve the electrical and
mechanical properties.
• Explaining alloy strength

• Solid metals have a regular lattice structure. When a force is applied

to a metal, layers of atoms can move past each other. The more
difficult it is for the layers to move, the more force is needed and the
stronger the metal.

• Copper and zinc atoms are different sizes. This distorts the regular
lattice structure in brass, so layers of atoms cannot slide over each
other so easily. This makes brass stronger than copper or zinc alone.
• Uses of alloys
• Iron is alloyed with other metals to produce a
range of alloy steels. Steels have different
properties, depending on their composition. For
example:

• mild steel is useful for making car body parts

because it is easily pressed into shape
• tool steel is useful for making drill bits because
it is hard and not easily damaged by the heating
caused by friction during drilling
• Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc and is
much stronger than either metal
• Alloys of iron with tungsten are
extremely hard and resistant to high
temperatures
• Alloys of iron mixed with chromium or
nickel are resistant to corrosion
• Aluminum is mixed with copper,
manganese and silicon for aircraft body
production as the alloy is stronger but
still has a low density
Alloys are mixtures of substances, they are not
chemically combined and an alloy is not a compound.
Reactivity series
Determining the Order of Reactivity of
Metals
A) Reaction of Metals with Cold Water or Steam
The more reactive metals tend to react with cold water to form metal hydroxide (alkaline solution) and
hydrogen gas.

This reaction can be easily represented by the following word equation:

• Metal + Water → Metal Hydroxide + Hydrogen Gas

• Note that a more reactive metal will react more violently with cold water.

Some metals such as zinc and iron, do not react with cold water but they do react with steam. Such
metals will react with steam to form metal oxide and hydrogen gas.

This reaction can be easily represented by the following word equation:

• Metal + Steam → Metal Oxide + Hydrogen Gas

Determining the Order of Reactivity of
Metals
B) Reaction of Metals with Dilute Hydrochloric Acid
Most metals react with dilute acids to form a salt solution and hydrogen gas.

This reaction can be easily represented by the following word equation:

• Metal + Dilute Acid → Salt Solution + Hydrogen Gas

• The reactions of the metals with the dilute acids will also indicate how
reactive the metals are and this is used to place them in the Reactivity
Series.

• A more reactive metal will react more violently with the dilute acid.
When hydrochloric acid is being used, the initial reaction between lead
and hydrochloric acid will form an insoluble layer of lead (II) chloride.
This becomes a protective layer and prevents further reaction of the
hydrochloric acid with the underlying lead metal.
As such, reaction slows down and eventually stops.
Hence, lead does not appear to react with hydrochloric acid.
 Displacement reactions of solutions to determine
Reactivity
• A more reactive metal will displace a less reactive metal from a
solution of one of its salts. For example:

• magnesium + copper(II) sulfate → copper + magnesium sulfate

• Mg(s) + CuSO4(aq) → Cu(s) + MgSO4(aq)

• In this reaction, the blue colour of the copper(II) sulfate fades

as it is used up (magnesium sulfate solution is colourless). We
would also see copper metal forming.

• Reactions between metals and solutions of metal salts allow us

to put a selection of metals into a reactivity series. Using
metals J, K and L:
Investigate the reactivity of metals
• In this experiment we will determine the relative reactivity of 4
metals:

Copper, Iron, Zinc, and Magnesium

Apparatus and chemicals
• Test-tube rack
• Test-tubes x3
• Copper(II) sulfate solution (0.5 mol/dm3)
• Magnesium sulfate solution (0.5 mol/dm3)
• Zinc sulfate solution (0.5 mol/dm3)
• Iron(II) sulfate solution (0.5 mol/dm3)
• Pieces of copper foil (3 small pieces approx. 1 cm2)
• Zinc (3 small granules or pieces of foil approx. 1 cm2)
• Iron (3 small ungalvanised nails)
• Magnesium ribbon (3 small pieces 1 cm length)
Method
reactivity of copper

• Half-fill separate test-tubes with magnesium sulfate, iron(II) sulfate

and zinc sulfate solutions.
• Add a piece of copper to each test-tube.
• Leave for 3 minutes, record observations.
• Name of Solution Observations at the start Observations after 3 minutes Displacement reaction? Yes/No
• Method: reactivity of iron

• Half-fill separate test-tubes with copper(II) sulfate, magnesium sulfate

and zinc sulfate solutions.
• Add a piece of iron to each test-tube.
• Leave for 3 minutes, record observations.
• Name of Solution Observations at the start Observations after 3 minutes Displacement reaction? Yes/No
• Method: reactivity of zinc

• Half-fill separate test-tubes with copper(II) sulfate, magnesium sulfate

and iron(II) sulfate solutions.
• Add a piece of zinc to each test-tube.
• Leave for 3 minutes, record observations.
• Name of Solution Observations at the start Observations after 3 minutes Displacement reaction? Yes/No
Position of Hydrogen in reactivity series
• Hydrogen is not a metal but forms positive ions(Cation).For this
reason it is included in the reactivity series.
• Hydrogen reduces some metal oxides to metals. If hydrogen is more
reactive than a metal, it can displace oxygen from metal oxide, and
reduces the metal oxide to its metal. Conversely, if hydrogen cannot
remove oxygen from metal oxide, hydrogen is less reactive than the
metal in the reactivity series of metal.
Experiment: Reducing copper II Oxide using
Hydrogen
 • Safety
• Procedure
• Recording data
• Questions:
1. What evidence is there to indicate that a chemical reaction has
occurred?
2. Why was it necessary to continue to pass hydrogen through the
apparatus while it cooled?
 Why was it necessary to continue to pass
hydrogen through the apparatus while it
cooled?

Remove the Bunsen burner and allow the reduction

tube to cool with the hydrogen still passing over the
copper and the excess gas still burning. This prevents
air coming into contact with the hot copper and
converting it back to oxide. When the tube is cool
enough to handle, turn off the hydrogen at the
cylinder, remove the bung and weigh the tube and
contents
Remember:

The more reactive a metal is the more likely it is to form a compound.

The more reactive a metal, the more stable its compound.

The more reactive a metal the more difficult it is to extract from its compounds.

Copper, silver and gold appear as elements in the earth due to their unreactivity with their
environment. They are easy to extract.

Reactive metals are more difficult to extract. They are often found as compounds or ores.

A method of extraction known as Electrolysis is used to remove the element from the
remaining compound.
EXTRACTION OF METALS

Many metals are found in the Earth's crust as ores. An ore is

usually a compound of the metal mixed with impurities. When
the metal is dug up, a method must be used to separate the
metal from the rest of the ore. This is called extracting the
metal.
The method of extraction depends on how reactive the
metal is. The more reactive the metal, the more difficult it
is to extract from its compound.
OTHER METHODS OF EXTRACTION
Heating with Carbon monoxide: Used for extracting iron
from iron ore using the blast furnace.
Roasting in Air: Used in extracting copper from copper (I)
sulphide (copper pyrites).
Extraction of Iron
EXTRACTION OF IRON
Iron is extracted from iron ore in a huge container
called a blast furnace. Iron ores such as haematite
contain iron(III) oxide, Fe2O3.
Three substances are needed to enable to extraction of iron from
its ore. The combined mixture is called the charge:

Iron ore, haematite - often contains sand with iron

oxide, Fe2O3.
Limestone (calcium carbonate).
Coke - mainly carbon.
The charge is placed a giant chimney called a blast furnace.
The blast furnace is around 30 metres high and lined with
fireproof bricks. Hot air is blasted through the bottom.
STAGE 3
Carbon is more reactive than iron, so it can displace iron
from iron(III) oxide. Here are the equations for the reaction:
Iron(III) oxide + carbonmonoxide → iron + carbon dioxide
Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(s) → 3Fe(l) + 3CO2(g)
In this reaction, the iron(III) oxide is reduced to iron, and the carbon is
oxidised to carbon dioxide.
STAGE 4:Removing impurities

The calcium carbonate in the limestone thermally decomposesto form

calcium oxide.
calcium carbonate → calcium oxide + carbon dioxide
CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)
The calcium oxide then reacts with silica (sand) impurities in the haematite,
to produce slag - which is calcium silicate.
calcium oxide + silica → calcium silicate
CaO(s) + SiO2(s) → CaSiO3(l)
Role of limestone (calcium carbonate) in the extraction of iron

Limestone removes impurities present in the iron ore. This is achieved because, at
high temperatures, calcium carbonate will undergo thermal decomposition to
calcium oxide.

CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)

The calcium oxide then reacts with the acidic impurities (mainly silica) present in the
iron ore to form molten slag (calcium silicate).

CaO(s) + SiO2(s) → CaSiO3(l)

The slag floats on top of the molten iron, because it is less dense than the iron, and
is tapped off separately.

Slag is used in the construction of roads.

PIG IRON
CAST IRON
WROUGHT IRON
USES
Iron and steel
Iron is an element. Steel is an alloy of iron with carbon and sometimes other elements in
very small quantities. Steel is harder and stronger than iron and less likely to rust.
Production of Steel
Pig iron contains impurities
Oxygen is blown into molten Pig Iron
to oxidise these impurities
This is done in a oxygen converter.
It used to make mild steel.
Production of Steel
Electric arc furnace
only for cold scrap iron
Electric current generates enough
heat to melt the metal.
This makes high quality alloy steels.
To make stainless steel.
QUESTIONS
1.NAME THE THREE SUBSTANCES LOADED INTO THE TOP OF THE
BLAST FURNACE
2.a)What is the main reducing agent in the blast furnace?
b)Give a pair of chemical equations including state symbols to show
how this reducing agent is formed from coke.
3. Give a chemical equation including state symbols for the formation
of iron from its ore.
4.Explain the role of limestone in the blast furnace process.
 5.Iron is extracted by reducing iron ore in a blast furnace. The raw
materials used are iron ore, coke, air and limestone.
(a) Name an ore of iron.
(b) Explain, by reference to the chemical reactions involved, why
limestone is used in the blast furnace.
(c) Coke burns in oxygen to form carbon dioxide. Explain, in terms of
bond breaking and bond making, why this reaction is exothermic.
(d) In the centre of the blast furnace iron(III) oxide, Fe2O3 , is reduced
by carbon monoxide to form iron and carbon dioxide. Near the bottom
of the blast furnace the remaining iron(III) oxide is reduced by carbon
to form iron and carbon monoxide. Write equations for both of these
reactions.
(e) When cold, the iron obtained from the blast furnace is brittle. How
can this iron from the blast furnace be converted to mild steel?
Rusting
Rust: A chemical reaction between Iron, Water and
Oxygen to form Iron (III) Oxide. The corrosion of iron.
Rusting is an oxidation reaction.
iron + water + oxygen → hydrated iron(III) oxide
Conditions for Rusting
Oxygen

Water
In the experiment below, the nail does not rust when air (containing oxygen) or water is not present:
Boiling the water removes the oxygen and the
layer of oil prevents it from re-entering.
Anhydrous calcium chloride removes water
vapour from the air.
Salt dissolved in water does not cause
rusting, but it does speed it up – as does acid
rain.
 Prevention of Rust

Barrier Methods:
oiling – for example, bicycle chains

greasing – for example, nut and bolts

painting – for example, car body panels

coating with a thin layer of plastic

● However, if the coatings are washed away or scratched, the Iron is once again
exposed to water and Oxygen and will rust.
2. Galvanising / Sacrificial Protection:

Galvanising is a method of rust prevention. The iron or

steel object is coated in a thin layer of zinc. This stops
oxygen and water reaching the metal underneath – but the
zinc also acts as a sacrificial metal. Zinc is more reactive
than iron, so it oxidises rather than the iron object.
Magnesium and zinc are often used as sacrificial metals. They are
more reactive than iron and lose their electrons in preference to iron.
This prevents iron from losing its electrons and becoming oxidised.

Blocks of metals may be attached to be sacrificed in order to protect it

from rusting.
Example: Boats, pipes.
3.Tinning

Coating clean iron or mild steel in a very thin layer of the

metal Tin.
acts as a protective barrier / layer
However,if Tin corrodes away and Iron is exposed,it leads
to serious problems since Tin speeds up the rusting
process as it is below Iron in reactivity series.
QUESTIONS
1.Why is it necessary to replace sacrificial anodes attached to the legs
of a steel drilling rig used to drill for oil out at sea at regular intervals?
2.Name three metals suitable for use as sacrificial anodes to protect
steel hull of ship from rusting
3.Explain why lead cannot be used as a sacrificial anode to protect steel
from rusting?
 4. Aluminium and iron are both metals. Iron rusts in the presence of
oxygen and water. Rusting involves a series of reactions. Initially iron
atoms lose electrons to form iron(II) ions.
Fe(s) Fe2+(aq) + 2e–
At the same time oxygen, O2 , and water molecules react to form
hydroxide ions.
O2 (g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e– 4OH– (aq)
Aqueous iron(II) ions then react with aqueous hydroxide ions to form
solid iron(II) hydroxide. Finally the iron(II) hydroxide is oxidised to give
hydrated iron(III) oxide (rust).
(a) (i) Explain why the formation of iron(II) ions from iron atoms is an example of oxidation.
 (ii) Write the ionic equation, including state symbols, for the reaction
between iron(II) ions and hydroxide ions.
(b) The table shows part of the reactivity series of metals

An iron object plated with either zinc or tin will not rust. (i) Suggest
how tin stops iron from rusting.
(ii) An iron object plated with tin will start to rust if the layer of tin is scratched. An iron object plated with
zinc will not rust if the layer of zinc is scratched. Use the information in the table to explain these two
observations.
(c) Explain why aluminium will not corrode in the presence of oxygen
and water.
(d) State a use of aluminium and explain why this metal is particularly
suited for the stated use.
Answer
Extraction Of Aluminium
Production Of Aluminium
Aluminium is the most abundant metal on Earth. But it is expensive, largely
because of the amount of electricity used in the extraction process.
ORE: BAUXITE
Bauxite is aluminium-rich ore that is used for aluminium production
 The Process of Aluminium Extraction by Electrolysis

● The Bauxite is first purified to produce Aluminium Oxide Al2O3

● The insoluble impurities are separated by filtration.

This is purified to form ALUMINA before undergoing
electrolysis.
The extraction is done by electrolysis. But first the
aluminium oxide must be melted so that electricity can
pass through it.
However, aluminium oxide has a very high melting point
(over 2000°C) so it would be expensive to melt it.
● Aluminium Oxide has a very high melting point so it is first dissolved in
molten Cryolite producing an electrolyte with a lower melting point, as
well as a better conductor of electricity than molten aluminium oxide.
This also reduces expense considerably
Instead, it is dissolved in molten cryolite Na3AlF6 - an aluminium
compound with a lower melting point than aluminium oxide.
The use of molten cryolite as a solvent reduces some of the energy
costs involved in extracting aluminium.
The diagram shows an aluminium oxide
electrolysis cell. Both the negative
electrode (cathode) and positive
electrode (anode) are made of graphite,
a form of carbon.

Aluminium ions receive electrons at the negative

electrode and are reduced to aluminium atoms:

Al3+ + 3e- → Al

The molten aluminium sinks to the bottom of the cell,

where it is tapped off.

Oxide ions lose electrons at the positive electrodes and

are oxidised to oxygen gas:

2O2- → O2 + 4e-
This oxygen reacts with the carbon of the positive electrodes, forming
carbon dioxide, so they gradually burn away. As a result, the positive
electrodes have to be replaced frequently. This adds to the cost of the
process.
During electrolysis:
● positively charged aluminium ions gain electrons from the
cathode, and form molten aluminium
● oxide ions lose electrons at the anode, and form oxygen
molecules
USES OF ALUMINIUM
● it is used in the aerospace industry because of its low density
● it is used in the home as foil for wrapping and storing foodbecause its
protective oxide layer prevents it from reacting with the chemicals in
food.Aluminium does not react with water. Its surface is protected by a natural
layer of aluminium oxide that allows the metal to resist corrosion. Aluminium foil is
used in the home for wrapping and storing food because it does not react to
substances in food. It is malleable, so it is easily folded into shape around the
food.
● it is used in high voltage power lines in the National Grid because it is a good
conductor of electricity, and its low density prevents the wires from sagging too
much or breaking under their own weight
● For making car bodies
● aluminium does not corrode easily because it has a protective layer of aluminium
oxide. Therefore, a car body made from aluminium will corrode less than one made
from steel. It should last longer as a result.
Recycling
Why?

Advantages

Disvantages