The Marketing of World War II in the US,

1939-1946: A Business History of the

US Government and the Media and
Entertainment Industries Albert N.
Greco
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://textbookfull.com/product/the-marketing-of-world-war-ii-in-the-us-1939-1946-a-b
usiness-history-of-the-us-government-and-the-media-and-entertainment-industries-al
bert-n-greco/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

Outside In the transnational circuitry of US history

1st Edition Preston

https://textbookfull.com/product/outside-in-the-transnational-
circuitry-of-us-history-1st-edition-preston/

Foreign Policy and the Media: The US in the Eyes of the

Indonesian Press 1st Edition Jarno S. Lang (Auth.)

https://textbookfull.com/product/foreign-policy-and-the-media-
the-us-in-the-eyes-of-the-indonesian-press-1st-edition-jarno-s-
lang-auth/

Public Debt Dynamics of Europe and the US 1st Edition

Dimitris N. Chorafas (Auth.)

https://textbookfull.com/product/public-debt-dynamics-of-europe-
and-the-us-1st-edition-dimitris-n-chorafas-auth/

Marketing at the Confluence between Entertainment and

Analytics Proceedings of the 2016 Academy of Marketing
Science AMS World Marketing Congress 1st Edition
Patricia Rossi (Eds.)
https://textbookfull.com/product/marketing-at-the-confluence-
between-entertainment-and-analytics-proceedings-of-
the-2016-academy-of-marketing-science-ams-world-marketing-
The US Role in NATO’s Survival After the Cold War Julie
Garey

https://textbookfull.com/product/the-us-role-in-natos-survival-
after-the-cold-war-julie-garey/

Law s Wars The Fate Of The Rule Of Law In The US War On

Terror Richard L. Abel

https://textbookfull.com/product/law-s-wars-the-fate-of-the-rule-
of-law-in-the-us-war-on-terror-richard-l-abel/

Understanding the Business of Media Entertainment

(American Film Market Presents) 2nd Edition Bernstein

https://textbookfull.com/product/understanding-the-business-of-
media-entertainment-american-film-market-presents-2nd-edition-
bernstein/

Destructive Creation American Business And The Winning

Of World War II 1st Edition Mark R. Wilson

https://textbookfull.com/product/destructive-creation-american-
business-and-the-winning-of-world-war-ii-1st-edition-mark-r-
wilson/

The book of real-world negotiations: successful

strategies from business, government, and daily life
1st Edition Joshua N. Weiss

https://textbookfull.com/product/the-book-of-real-world-
negotiations-successful-strategies-from-business-government-and-
daily-life-1st-edition-joshua-n-weiss/
The Marketing of World
War II in the US, 1939–1946
A Business History of the US
Government and the Media
and Entertainment Industries

Albert N. Greco
The Marketing of World War II
in the US, 1939–1946
 Albert N. Greco

The Marketing
of World War II
in the US, 1939–1946
A Business History of the US
Government and the Media
and Entertainment Industries
Albert N. Greco
Fordham University
Bronx, NY, USA

ISBN 978-3-030-39518-6 ISBN 978-3-030-39519-3 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-39519-3

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2020
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher,
whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting,
reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical
way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software,
or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt
from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in
this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor
the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained
herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with
regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Cover illustration: © Melisa Hasan

This Palgrave Pivot imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
For Elaine
 Preface

The published literature on the years 1939–1946 is staggering. There are

superb analyses of Franklin D. Roosevelt as the Commander-in-Chief
as well as riveting studies of the major land (e.g., D-Day), sea (e.g., the
Battle of Midway), and air battles (notably the 8th Air Force in Europe
and Custis LeMay’s bombardment of Japan). The US home front has
been the subject of major historical books and articles; and many of these
books presented excellent “macro” histories about large cities (e.g., New
York City) or the transformation of a domestic industry into a major war
machine (e.g., the automobile industry Detroit was converted to produce
heavy bombers).
However, I thought it would be useful to analyze the impact of the
marketing of World War II and the relationship between the Roosevelt
Administration and the vast media and entertainment industries (i.e.,
radio; newspapers; magazines; motion picture films, documentaries, and
newsreels; books; and music) on the people in an average small town.
According to statistical analyses from the US Department of Commerce,
Bureau of the Census, in 1940 the “center of population” was “located
in Haddon Township, Sullivan County, Indiana.”1

vii
viii Preface

The Census Bureau defined an urban area as “made up for the most
part of cities and other incorporated places having 2500 inhabitants or
more… The rural population is by no means identical with the farm
population, that is the population living on farms…”2 So, in 1940 using
Census’ data, the US population was 132,164,569. Of that total, urban
areas accounted for 74,423,702 million (56.31%); and small rural (non-
farm) towns and communities in this nation totaled 57,245,773 million
(43.31%).3 In 1940, the population of New Jersey was 4,160,165. Of
that total, 3,394,773 (81.6%) was urban, and 765,392 (18.4%) was
rural.4
Census reported that, in 1940, there were 16,752 cities and towns.
Of that amount, 3464 (20.68%) were classified as urban; and 1422
(41.05%) had a population between 2500 and 5000, the remaining
urban areas had a population more than 5000. And 13,284 (79.32%)
were listed as rural-nonfarm towns and communities, with 3205
(24.12%) recorded a population between 1000 to 2500; and 10,083
(75.88%) had a population under 1000.5 So, of the 16,752 urban and
rural-nonfarm communities in the US in 1940, 10,075 (60.15%) had a
population under 1000.
After some research, I selected Bay Head, New Jersey to determine
the impact of the Government’s work with the media and entertainment
industries on average American citizens. This small town was nestled on
a small barrier island; and, on its East was the Atlantic Ocean, and on
the West Barnegat Bay and Point Pleasant Boro, NJ. On the North was
Point Pleasant Beach; and Mantoloking was just to the South. In 1940,
Bay Head’s population was 499.
During the early days of war, many in Bay Head worried about their
safety, German submarines had attacked and sunk an oil tanker just a few
miles offshore Bay Head near the town of Manasquan (about 4.4 miles
from Bay Head). More than three dozen men from Bay Head served
in the military during the war, and one died in combat. Many women
worked with the Red Cross; older men too old to serve in the military
and young boys in high school volunteered for the Civilian Defense.
These residents patrolled the town’s board walk every night, working
with armed Coast Guard sailors on horseback (who were accompanied
by a watch dog), looking for submarines, saboteurs launched from a
 Preface ix

German sub, or the floating tell-tale remnants of war (e.g., during the
war, these volunteers found floating or on the shore Chase & Sanborn
coffee cans, life preservers; clothing etc.) from sunk US or Allied ships. In
1944 a storm destroyed the town’s board walk, which was never replaced;
so, during the last months of the war, these volunteers patrolled on the
town’s two miles beach.
During the war, dozens of men worked in the local boat manufac-
turing factory building more than 1000 lifeboats for the US military.
Local school children participated in paper and metal drives. Adults gave
blood and donated clothing for the war effort.
These were difficult years for this small town, but their resilience
during rationing, price and wage controls, blackouts, air raid sirens,
and constant concerns about the well-being of their young men at war
enabled them to get through an unsettling war. Bay Head was typical
of the countless thousands of small towns across America during the
war; and during those years, they coped with rationing, wage and price
controls; and shortages of clothing and footwear; and many sent their
sons, brothers, uncles, and friends to war.
During those turbulent years, all gave some. And some gave all.

Bronx, USA Albert N. Greco

Notes
1. US Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. US Summary;
9. https://www2.census.gov/library/publications/decennial/1940/popula
tion-volume-1/33973538v1ch02.pdf. All numbers rounded off and may
not always equal 100%.
2. Ibid., 10.
3. Ibid., 18–19.
4. Ibid., 14.
5. Ibid., 25. Also see Marcello, Ronald E. 2014. “Small Town America in
World War II: War Stories from Wrightsville, Pennsylvania.” Oral History
Review 41 (2, Summer/Fall): 387–388; Goodwin, Doris Kearns. 1995.
No Ordinary Time: Franklin D. Roosevelt and Eleanor Roosevelt the Home
Front in World War II , 44–384. New York: Simon & Schuster. Goodwin,
x Preface

in her book that won the Pulitzer prize for history, remarked that, in
1940, the vast majority of all Americans lived in small towns; and that,
until the war, most Americans tended to live in or near these small towns
that formed a firm bedrock of community and democracy.
 Acknowledgements

I want to thank the support of Marcus Ballenger, Sam Stocker, and

the superb staff at Palgrave Macmillan in the US and abroad for their
tremendous assistance in the development and publication of this book.
During my research, I received great cooperation from key people in
Bay Head, New Jersey, representative of small towns in America during
the war. The following provided access to Bay Head’s town council
records during World War II, including: Mayor William W. Curtis;
Mary Glass, the Chair of the Public Safety Committee; and Patricia M.
Applegate, Municipal Clerk.
I must also thank: Cathie Coleman, from the Bay Head Historical
Society; Charles Tillson, for his inciteful comments and recollections
about Bay Head during the war; and the helpful librarians at the Bay
Head, NJ Reading Center, the Ocean County Library in Toms River,
the Point Pleasant Boro, NJ Library, and the Point Pleasant, Beach, NJ
Library.

xi
 Introduction

World War II was a turning point in the history of the US. During the
war (often called the war between 1941 and 1945 and even to today),
the US defeated enemies in both the European and Pacific Theaters of
Operations, had a nuclear arsenal, and air and naval armadas unrivaled
in the history of warfare. In 1945, it helped create a series of interna-
tional monetary, financial, and diplomatic organizations. By September
2, 1945, when Japan signed the instrument of surrender on the deck
of the USS. Missouri in Tokyo harbor, the US was unquestionably the
strongest and richest nation in the world; in 1947, this nation controlled
over 70% of all of the gold in the world.
However, this book is a business history not a military history of
World War II. This book describes the complex and often contentious
“double helix” relationships between various US departments, offices,
agencies, and the very independent media and entertainment industries
(i.e., radio; newspapers; magazines; books; and Hollywood and popular
songs) during a period of great uncertainty and fear between December
7, 1941 and September 2, 1945.

xiii
xiv Introduction

In addition, the book evaluates the impact of the war on the US

home front. Now the US faced entrenched, well equipped enemies in
both the Europe and the Pacific. After December 7, 1941, the entire
apparatus of the US Government was mobilized to “market” the war to
Americans who were incredulous and horrified about the attack at Pearl
Harbor. Americans wanted immediate, accurate, and detailed informa-
tion from the US Government and the nation’s media and entertain-
ment companies about the recent military disasters at Pearl Harbor and
in the Philippines. This meant that Americans had to understand and
accept: (1) the complete mobilization of the US economy; (2) severe
wartime rationing; (3) the disruption of families with 16.5 million men
and women drafted or enlisted in the military forces of the nation; (4)
the impact of massive US military casualties: the US sustained 407,316
military deaths; and 617,278 members of the military were wounded;
(5) the staggering cost to wage war in Europe and the Pacific: the war
cost the US Government $296 billion in 1945 dollars; and +$4.22 tril-
lion in inflation adjusted 2020 dollars; (6) and an intense marketing
push to encourage Americans to buy US war bonds; convincing Amer-
icans to pay high US income taxes (e.g., Internal Revenue Service tax
law revisions increased the numbers of those paying some income taxes
from 7% of the US population in 1940 to 64% by 1944); and justi-
fying the need to have significantly higher I.R.S. tax rates (reaching up
to 94% for income over $200,000 in 1944 or slightly more than $2.92
million in 2020 dollars); (7) severe wartime rationing of consumer goods
(e.g., meat; sugar; butter; coffee; shoes; etc.); (8) “stringent” but “vol-
untary” US Government censorship policies; (9) major concerns about
sabotage on the docks and in war plants and anti-war propaganda; (10)
the internment of Japanese-American citizens; and (11) segregation in
the US military and in American communities.
Generating support for the war placed a heavy burden on every US
Government department and agency. The US Government (e.g., the
Office of War Information, OWI; the Office of Censorship; etc.) had to
work with the diverse media industries (e.g., advertising agencies; trade
associations; radio; book publishers; newspapers; magazines) and the
entertainment industries (e.g., radio; the Hollywood studios; recorded
music industry; live entertainment; etc.) to “market” support for the war
 Introduction xv

to every American. This was, clearly, the largest, and most successful
marketing campaign in the history of the US; and these efforts were,
at best, a very difficult undertaking.
Compounding the impact of war on every segment of American
society was the lingering deep-seated and pervasive fear of another
depression after the end of the war. In essence, Americans wondered how
the nation could handle: the demobilization of +16.5 million Ameri-
cans; and the stark reminder that far too many veterans would require
major medical treatment after they returned.
Marketing as an academic discipline was relatively new; the Journal
of Marketing was only created in 1936; so many of the well-established
marketing principles and theories of today (e.g., the 4Ps, product, price,
placement, and promotion; Michael E. Porter’s “Five Forces;” Alfred D.
Chandler’s views of the need for strategies and structures; and Ted Levitt’s
“marketing myopia”) did not emerge until decades after the end of the
war.
However, the Franklin D. Roosevelt (FDR) administration was well
acquainted with the time-tested procedures and theories related to adver-
tising and the handling of public opinion; after all, FDR won major pres-
idential elections in 1932, 1936, 1940, and 1944; and he was elected
Governor of New York before he became president. And the FDR war
administration was filled with former executives from the advertising
world and various entertainment formats (e.g., radio; newspapers).
This book also addresses the policies and procedures crafted to influ-
ence public opinion by addressing the efforts of the Government working
with the diverse and often prickly media and entertainment industries in
what was, clearly, a case of do or die.
 Contents

1 The US Confronts the Great Depression and World

War II: 1929–1941 1

2 Franklin D. Roosevelt’s Domestic Policies, Executive

Orders, and the Home Front During World War II 13

3 The US Government and the Advertising, Radio,

Newspaper, and Magazine Industries Confront the War 31

4 The US Government and the Entertainment Industries

Confront the War: Motion Pictures, Music, and Book
Publishing 71

5 The Impact of Wartime Cooperative Relationship

Between the US Government and the Media
and Entertainment Industries on American Society
and Consumers 109

xvii
xviii Contents

Bibliography 125

Index 135
 List of Tables

Table 1.1 Impact of the Great Depression 1929–1941: Gross

Domestic Product, unemployment, and the US
Population (current US dollars) 2
Table 1.2 US government receipts and expenditures 1929–1941
(current US$ million) 3
Table 1.3 US total receipts 1934–1941 (current US$ million) 5
Table 2.1 US Government receipts and expenditures 1942–1946
(current US million dollars) 15
Table 2.2 US total receipts 1942–1946 (current US million
dollars) 15
Table 2.3 Impact of World War II 1942–1946: Gross Domestic
Product, unemployment, and the US population
(current US dollars) 17
Table 2.4 Personal savings and private investments 1940–1946
(current US dollars) 18
Table 2.5 US World War II expenditures and manpower
mobilization 1940–1946 (current US dollars) 19
Table 2.6 Selected list of military equipment production during
World War II: 1941–1946 20

xix
xx List of Tables

Table 3.1 US advertising expenditures: 1939–1946 (US$

billions) 35
Table 3.2 US population 1939–1946 35
Table 3.3 The US radio industry 1940–1946: number of
stations, radio sets, and households with radio 40
Table 3.4 US radio advertising revenues 1940–1946 ($ millions) 41
Table 3.5 US newspaper industry 1940–1946: number of
newspapers 47
Table 3.6 Population of the 20 largest urban places: 1940 48
Table 3.7 The US magazine industry: 1940–1946 51
Table 3.8 Gross national advertising in general magazines
1939–1946 52
Table 3.9 Advertising revenues of Curtis Publishing Company:
1939–1946 53
Table 4.1 Motion picture revenues: 1940–1945 83
Table 4.2 New book title output 93
Table 5.1 The US Gross Domestic Product (GDP), Personal
Consumption Expenditures, National Income, and
Unemployment Rates: 1945–1949 ($ Billions)
(thousands of individuals) 114
Table 5.2 Annual percent increases in the US Consumer Price
Index: 1945–1949 115
Table 5.3 US Government receipts. Outlays, and surplus or
deficit ($ millions) 115
Table 5.4 US households (millions) 115
Table 5.5 Radio and television industry statistics: 1945–1949 116
Table 5.6 Number of US television households by television
season: 1949–1951 116
Table 5.7 Radio industry advertising revenues: 1945–1949
($ millions) 117
Table 5.8 Number of newspapers: 1945–1949 117
Table 5.9 Newspaper industry: 1945–1949 118
Table 5.10 Number of magazines: 1945–1949 118
Table 5.11 Total number of new books: 1945–1949 119
 1
The US Confronts the Great Depression
and World War II: 1929–1941

Abstract One of the time periods in US history most discussed is 1929–

1941 because in October 1929 the Great Depression started, impacting
every American. The response of Franklin D. Roosevelt’s “New Deal” to
confront the severe, debilitating impact of the Depression and America’s
entry into World War II form a critical era in American history. This
chapter addresses some of the substantive events of the years between
1929 and 1941.

Keywords Great Depression · National Bureau of Economic Research ·

Herbert Hoover · Franklin D. Roosevelt · The New Deal · Major
legislation · Preparations for war · Pearl Harbor and America’s entry
into World War II

America and the Great Depression 1929–1939

Many business historians peg the start of the Great Depression with the
stock market crash (often called “The Great Crash”) on “Black Tuesday,”
October 29, 1929. “Tuesday, October 29, was the most devastating day
in the history of the New York stock market, and it may have been the
most devastating day in the history of the markets.”1 On that day, the
© The Author(s) 2020 1
A. N. Greco, The Marketing of World War II in the US, 1939–1946,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-39519-3_1
2 A. N. Greco

Dow Jones Industrial Average (DOIA) fell almost 23%, triggering a stag-
gering market loss of more than $8 billion in value (the equivalent of
more than $120.4 billion in 2020 dollars).2 But it was just one in a series
of momentous events that undermined the very foundations of American
society.
Between 1929 and 1933, the US Gross Domestic Product (GDP;
the GDP is the sum of the market values, or prices, of all final
goods and services produced in an economy during a period of time)
declined 45.56%; unemployment rose from 3.2 to 24.9%; the popu-
lation increased at relatively modest rates, but well below the averages
during the 1920s.3 By late 1929, and into the early 1930s, bread lines
emerged in large cities and small townships. There was an increase in
the number of vagrants; and thousands of large and small businesses
closed their doors. Farms were abandoned because of the steep declines
in prices, and more than 9000 banks failed.4 Table 1.1 has some of the
economic statistics.
As the jobless population grew, President Herbert Hoover’s adminis-
tration faced steep declines in US Government receipts, declining from

Table 1.1 Impact of the Great Depression 1929–1941: Gross Domestic Product,
unemployment, and the US Population (current US dollars)
US Gross US
Domestic % Unemployment population %
Year Product (GDP) Change rate (%) total Change
1929 $104.6 billion 5.30% 3.2 121,767,000 1.04%
1930 $92.2 billion −11.85% 8.7 123,076,741 1.07%
1931 $77.4 billion −16.05% 15.9 124,039,648 0.78%
1932 $59.5 billion −23.13% 23.6 124,840,471 0.64%
1933 $57.2 billion −3.87% 24.9 125,578,763 0.59%
1934 $66.8 billion +16.78% 21.7 126,373,773 0.63%
1935 $74.3 billion +11.23% 20.1 127,250,232 0.69%
1936 $84.9 billion +14.27% 16.9 128,053,180 0.63%
1937 $93.0 billion +9.54% 14.3 128,824,829 0.60%
1938 $87.4 billion −6.02% 19.0 129,824,939 0.77%
1939 $93.5 billion +6.98% 17.2 130,879,718 0.81%
1940 $102.9 billion +10.05% 14.6 132,122,446 0.95%
1941 $129.4 billion +25.75% 9.9 133,402,471 0.96%
Source The Statistical Abstract of the United States; various years. All numbers
rounded off and may not always equal 100%
 1 The US Confronts the Great Depression and World War II … 3

$4058 million in 1930 to $1924 million in 1932. Table 1.2 has the
details. However, Hoover resisted calls from city, county, state, and
federal officials to have the US Government combat the growing unem-
ployment problem by financing public service jobs. Hoover maintained
that local and state governments should pay for them. When Americans
lost jobs, and the ability to pay rents or mortgages, many abandoned
their homes and apartments and moved into shantytowns (known as
Hooverville’s).4
The 1932 presidential campaign was between Hoover and Franklin
Delano Roosevelt (FDR). FDR campaigned on a platform addressing
“the forgotten man at the bottom of the economic pyramid.” Roosevelt
easily won, and he became the President on March 4, 1933. At his inau-
guration, Roosevelt declared that “the only thing we have to fear is fear
itself. But FDR faced herculean challenges. He confronted a massive
banking crisis; and staggering unemployment meant that between 13 and
15 million workers had no jobs. FDR convinced the Congress to declare
a nationwide “bank holiday” to provide the government time to create
viable strategies and structures to address the debilitating Depression.5

Table 1.2 US government receipts and expenditures 1929–1941 (current US$

million)
Year Total receipts Total expenditures Surplus or deficit (−)
1929 $3862 $3127 $734
1930 $4058 $3320 $738
1931 $3116 $3577 −$462
1932 $1924 $4659 −$2735
1933 $1997 $4598 −$2602
1934 $2955 $6541 −$3586
1935 $3609 $6412 −$2803
1936 $3923 $8228 −$4304
1937 $5387 $7580 −$2193
1938 $6751 $6840 −$89
1939 $6295 $9141 −$2846
1940 $6548 $9468 −$2920
1941 $8712 $13,653 −$4941
Source https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/BUDGET-2019-TAB/pdf/BUDGET-
2019-TAB/pdf. All numbers rounded off and may not always equal 100%
4 A. N. Greco

FDR’s “New Deal,” in its first 100 days, convinced Congress to pass
a tremendous number of laws to address and defeat the ravages of
the Depression. Some of these laws addressed or created: (a) reforms
in the banking system; and banking deposits were insured up to a
certain limit; (b) regulations regarding the stock market including the
creation of the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) to regulate
the stock market; (c) home mortgages were protected; (d) agricultural
and industrial production were stabilized; (e) the Civilian Conservation
Corps (CCC) was initiated, and it provided federally funded jobs for
unemployed Americans; (f ) the Civil Works Administration (CWA) was
launched to address wide spread unemployment, and it employed more
than 4 million men and women building and repairing roads, bridges,
parks, playgrounds, etc.; and (g) the Works Progress Administration
(WPA), which also employed millions of Americans, built hydroelectric
dams to bring power to the rural South.
Other major pieces of legislation included: (a) the National Labor
Relations Act (NLRA) which guaranteed employees “the right to self-
organization, to form, join, or assist labor organizations, to bargain
collectively through representatives of their own choosing, and to engage
in concerted activities for the purpose of collective bargaining or other
mutual aid and protection,” (b) the Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA)
led to a massive reduction in farm supply in order to raise prices and
increase farmers’ income, (c) the Communication Act of 1934 was
created (47 U.S.C. §151), and (d) the Social Security Act of 1935
created a “safety net” for retired and unemployed people.6 By 1935
and 1936, government receipts increased from $2955 million in 1934
to $3923 million in 1936. Table 1.3 has information about total US
Government receipts. FDR was re-elected President in 1936.
While many of the New Deal “alphabet” agencies were successful,
the Depression again undermined parts of the New Deal and American
society in 1937–1938,7 triggering another round of declines in govern-
ment receipts (as indicated in Tables 1.2 and 1.3). However, a partial
recovery from the economic misery of the Great Depression only arrived
after 1940, when mobilization for World War II caused a huge increase
in US industrial production as well as an uptick in employment tallies.
 1 The US Confronts the Great Depression and World War II … 5

Table 1.3 US total receipts 1934–1941 (current US$ million)

Social
insurance
Individual Corporate and
income income retirement Excise
Year taxes taxes receipts taxes Other Total
1934 $420 $364 $30 $1354 $788 $2955
1935 $527 $529 $31 $1439 $1084 $3609
1936 $674 $719 $52 $1631 $847 $3923
1937 $1092 $1038 $580 $1876 $801 $5387
1938 $1286 $1287 $1541 $1863 $773 $6751
1939 $1029 $1127 $1593 $1871 $675 $6295
1940 $892 $1197 $1785 $1977 $698 $6548
1941 $1314 $2124 $1940 $2552 $781 $8712
Source https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/BUDGET-2019-TAB/pdf/BUDGET-
2019-TAB/pdf. All numbers rounded off and may not always equal 100%.
Complete data for 1929–1933 was not available

The US Government and American

Society: 1938–1941
While FDR and the nation were concerned about the devastating
Depression and domestic issues, Roosevelt and ultimately the American
people were compelled reluctantly to pay attention to foreign matters.
In March 1936, Hitler began remilitarizing; and, in 1938, Germany
absorbed Austria and portions of Czechoslovakia. Japan invaded China
in 1937.8
In the 1930s, isolationism and an antipathy toward war in Europe
and Asia were strong political forces in the United States because of the
impact of major losses during World War I; and the devastating impact
of the Great Depression created a strong anti-war current in the United
States. Consequently, because of the events in Europe and Asia, the US
Congress passed the Neutrality Act which prohibited travel by Americans
on belligerent ships, the arming of US merchant ships, or trading with
belligerents.9
However, FDR was a political pragmatist; he decided that it was
imperative for the United States to start to rebuild what was, at best, a
mediocre military infrastructure that had been neglected after World War
6 A. N. Greco

I and during the Great Depression. Funding was authorized for the WPA
to build “modern” US Army camps and airfields; but the Army (and its
Army Air Corps; the AAC; although the AAC was generally called the Air
Force by most Americans before and during the war) and the US Navy
were understaffed, underfunded, and under-armed (when compared to
the military forces of several European nations and Japan). In May 1939,
the US Senate blocked aid to England and France. On August 2, 1939,
Albert Einstein wrote to FDR alerting the President about the advanced
state of nuclear research in Germany. This letter triggered ultimately the
creation of the Manhattan Project.10
However, everything changed dramatically on September 1, 1939 with
Hitler’s invasion of Poland, and the ensuing declarations of war from
France and England.11 These events launched the Second World War.
As the war in Europe intensified, especially with significant losses by
England and France, these developments impacted ultimately the United
States. On November 3, 1939, Congress lifted the arms embargo. In
April 1940, Germany defeated France; and France surrendered in June
1940.
Clearly, FDR was concerned that, in 1939, that the “vast and power-
ful” British Navy, and its colonies, could fall under German control.
These events prodded FDR to increase military production, which
impacted: the GDP (which increased from $87.4 billion in 1938 to
$129.4 billion in 1941); the unemployment rate (19.0% in 1938 and
9.9% in 1941); and increases in government receipts ($6751 million in
1938 and $8712 million in 1941).12 See Tables 1.1, 1.2 and 1.3 for the
details.
By May 1940, American public opinion changed with “more favor-
able” support for England and France; although there were segments
of the US population that remained isolationist or supported Germany.
However, the Congress increased defense spending; and in, August 1940,
the US enacted a military draft. American men started to report to mili-
tary camps in October 1940; women were not subject to the draft. In
September 1940, Japan joined the Axis (of Germany and Italy). The draft
and increased industrial production of military products (guns, ships,
uniforms, etc.) meant that many jobless American workers were absorbed
into defense jobs and the US military.13
 1 The US Confronts the Great Depression and World War II … 7

In 1940, Roosevelt, defying a tradition dating back to George Wash-

ington that presidents “had a two-term limit,” ran for a historic third
term; and he was reelected. In December 1940, FDR in a radio fire-
side chat announced that the United States would be the “arsenal of
democracy.”14 In January 1941, the United States created the Lend-
Lease program to provide arms and ships to England in exchange for
US military bases in English controlled areas.
Military events in Europe remained of great concern to FDR, espe-
cially in June 1941 when Germany invaded Russia. In August 1941,
FDR and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill drafted the Atlantic
Charter.15

Pearl Harbor: December 7, 1941

However, all of FDR’s talks and plans changed dramatically on
December 7, 1941, at 7:55 a.m. (local time) when the Japanese attacked
American military facilities at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii. The devastation
was horrific: 2403 Americans were killed; and 1143 were wounded. Eigh-
teen ships were sunk or run aground, including five battleships (e.g., the
U.S.S. Arizona) that were moored on what was called “battleship row.”
Support ships near the battleships also sustained major damages.16
The U.S.S. Arizona was totally destroyed, and it became a symbol and
a rallying cry for millions of Americans who were urged to “remain calm
and get even.” What remains of this great ship is today a war memorial,
constructed in 1962 and accessible only by boat. The Arizona Memorial
attracts more than 2 million visitors annually.17
The United States was now in World War II (WW II), which triggered
a massive military build-up. America’s dormant factories were trans-
formed into full war production, absorbing all available workers. WWII
ended the Great Depression. On December 8, 1941, FDR asked the
Congress to declare war against Japan. In his speech, FDR made the
following remarks.

Yesterday, December 7, 1941 – a date which will live in infamy – the

United States of America was suddenly and deliberately attacked by naval
8 A. N. Greco

and air forces of the Empire of Japan. The United States was at peace with
that Nation and, at the solicitation of Japan, was still in conversation
with its Government and its Emperor looking toward the maintenance
of peace in the Pacific. Indeed, one hour after Japanese air squadrons
had commenced bombing in the American Island of Oahu, the Japanese
Ambassador to the United States and his colleague delivered to our Secre-
tary of State a formal reply to a recent American message. And while
this reply stated that it seemed useless to continue the existing diplo-
matic negotiations, it contained no threat or hint of war or of armed
attack… Japan has, therefore, undertaken a surprise offensive extending
throughout the Pacific area. The facts of yesterday and today speak for
themselves. The people of the United States have already formed their
opinions and well understand the implications to the very life and safety
of our Nation. As Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy I have
directed that all measures be taken for our defense… I ask that the
Congress declare that since the unprovoked and dastardly attack by Japan
on Sunday, December 7, 1941, a state of war has existed between the
United States and the Japanese Empire.18

The Congress voted to declare war against Japan with an 88-0 vote
in the US Senate; and a 388-1 vote in the US House of Representatives
(Representative Jeannette Rankin from Montana voted against the House
resolution; she did not run for reelection in 1942).19 On December
11, 1941, Germany and Italy declared war against the United States.20
Now the United States faced enemies in both the European Theater of
Operations (ETO) and the Pacific Theaters of Operations (PTO).

War on the Battlefield and the Homefront

FDR, General George C. Marshall (Chief-of-Staff of the US Army), and
Admiral Ernest J. King (Commander-in Chief of the US Navy and Chief
of Naval Operations) realized quickly that the strategy to gain victory on
the battlefield also required a multi-pronged structure to achieve victory
on the home front.
General Marshall and Admiral King worked tirelessly with military
commanders and the eclectic governmental agencies created to generate
 1 The US Confronts the Great Depression and World War II … 9

domestic support for the war, to monitor and manage rationing, to

create effective war bond drives, scrap drives, etc. For example, Marshall
and the Army crafted a close working relationship with various compo-
nents of the media and entertainment industries, especially Hollywood’s
production of documentaries and war themed films.21

Issues of Concern in December 1941 and 1942

Americans were incredulous and horrified about the attack at Pearl
Harbor and the recent military disasters. However, after December 7,
1941, generating total support for the war placed a heavy burden on
every existing US Government departments and agencies as well as the
torrent of new commissions and agencies created during the war. The
Government had to convince every American, and the US population in
1940 was 133,402,471, to support the war effort and to understand and
accept:

1. the complete mobilization of the US economy;

2. severe wartime rationing of food, clothing, and shoes; wage and price
controls (to curtail the ravenous impact of inflation); and the need
to conduct large-scale scrap drives of rubber, paper, tin cans, and
scrap metal for the war effort; this was a massive recycling endeavor
supported by Americans of all ages; the War Production Board (WPB)
allocated scarce resources of aluminum and rubber;
3. the impact and dislocation on families and communities with +16.5
million men and women drafted in or enlisted in the military forces
of the nation; and severe labor shortages because of the number of
Americans in the US armed forces;
4. the impact of massive, horrendous US military casualties: the US
sustained 407,316 military deaths; and 617,278 members of the
military were wounded;
5. the staggering cost to wage war in Europe and the Pacific: the war cost
the US Government $296 billion in 1945 dollars; and +$4.219 tril-
lion in inflation adjusted 2019 dollars; and an extensive and intense
marketing campaign to encourage Americans to buy US war bonds;
10 A. N. Greco

convincing Americans to pay US income taxes (e.g., Internal Revenue

Service tax law revisions increased the numbers of those paying some
income taxes from 7% of the US population in 1940 to 64% by
1944); and justifying the need to have significantly higher I.R.S. tax
rates (reaching up to 94% for income over $200,000 in 1944 or
$2.915 million in 2019 dollars);
6. stringent US Government censorship policies;
7. major concerns about sabotage on the docks and in war plants and
anti-war propaganda;
8. the internment of Japanese-American citizens; and
9. segregation in the US military and in American communities.

The US Government did not have a blueprint, an existing template,

that could be utilized to achieve their goals. In a sense, they were making
it up as they went along, creating what was the largest, most successful
marketing campaign in the history of the United States. And these efforts
were, at best, a very difficult undertaking.

Notes
1. Galbraith, John Kenneth. 2009. The Great Crash 1929, 111. Boston:
Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. However, the National Bureau of Economic
Research (NBER), and to a degree Galbraith, maintained that the Depres-
sion started in August 1929; see https://www.nber.org/cycles/recessions.
html.
2. Bureau of Economic Analysis. National Income and Product Accounts
Tables. https://www.bea.gov/sch/pdt/2012/08%20August/0812%20gdp-
other%20nipa_series.pdf.
3. U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. Historical National
Population Estimates: July 1, 1900 to July 1, 1999; Population Estimates
Program, Population Division, U.S. Census Bureau. https://www.census.
gov/population/estimates/nation/popclockest.txt.
4. Herbert Hoover. Herbert Hoover Presidential Library and Museum.
https://hoover.archives.gov; https://hoover.archives.gov/research/collec
tions/hooverpapers/descriphooverpapers.
 1 The US Confronts the Great Depression and World War II … 11

5. Dallek, Robert. 2017. Franklin D. Roosevelt: A Political Life, 133–166.

New York: Viking. Also see Schlesinger, Arthur S. 2003. The Crisis of
the Old Order: 1919 –1933, The Age of Roosevelt, Volume I , 401–463,
479–550. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt; Leuchtenberg, William E.
2009. FDR and the New Deal: 1932–1940, 15–45, 87–131. New York:
HarperCollins.
6. Schlesinger. 2003. The Coming of the New Deal: 1933–1935, 109–177,
299–356. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. Also see Schlesinger.
2003. The Politics of Upheaval: 1935 –1936 , 83–116, 161–253. Boston:
Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
7. National Bureau of Economic Research. https://www.nber.org/cycles/rec
essions.html.
8. Keegan, John. 1989. The Second World War, 10–53.e. New York: Penguin
Books. Also see Taylor, A. J. P. 1996. The Origins of the Second World
War, 102–186. New York: Simon & Schuster; Taylor. 2001. English History
1914 –1945, 389–454. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
9. Dallek. Franklin D. Roosevelt: A Political Life, 26, 39–43.
10. Greco, Albert N. 2019. The Growth of the Scholarly Publishing Industry
in the U.S.: A Business History of a Changing Marketplace, 1939 –1945,
22–23. Cham, Switzerland.
11. Keegan. The Second World War, 54–126.
12. Kaiser, David. 2014. No End Save Victory: How FDR Led the Nation Into
War, 19–334. New York: Basic Books.
13. Dallek. Franklin D. Roosevelt: A Political Life, 119–120.
14. Wortman, Marc. 2016. 1941: Fighting the Shadow War, 158. New York:
Grove Press.
15. Dallek. Franklin D. Roosevelt: A Political Life, 256.
16. Hamilton, Nigel. 2014. The Mantle of Command: FDR at War: 1941–
1942, 43–75. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. For information about the USS
Arizona, see Borneman, Walter R. 2019. Brothers Down: Pearl Harbor and
the Fate of the Many Brothers Abroad the USS Arizona, 131–208. New York:
Little, Brown.
17. Pearl Harbor National Memorial (U.S. National Park Service). https://
www.nps.gov/valr/index.htm.
18. Roosevelt, Franklin D. Library of Congress. “Speech by Franklin D.
Roosevelt, New York.” https://www.loc.gov/resource/afc1986022.afc198
6022_ms2201/?st=text.
19. U.S. Senate. Declaration of War Against Japan WW II; S.J. Res
116. https://www.loc.gov/resource/afc1986022.afc1986022_ms2201/?st=
12 A. N. Greco

text; U.S. House of Representatives. Talley Sheet for Declaration of War

Against Japan. https://history.house.gov/Records-and-Research/Featured-
Content/Tally-Sheet.
20. Piehler, G. Kurt, and Sidney Pash, eds. 2010. The United States and the
Second World War, 1–9. New York: Fordham University Press. Also see
O’Neill, William L. 1992. A Democracy at War: America’s Fight Abroad in
World War II , 33–74, 105–153. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
21. Debi and Irwin Unger with Hirshson, Stanley. 2014. George Marshall: A
Biography, 131–181. New York: HarperCollins.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 Fig. 5. Types of spears.

Others devote much attention to the shaping of the spear by

scraping and rasping its surface. Exceptionally straight and
smoothed mulga spears were made by the Barcoo natives of the
Durham Downs district and by the Dieri (b), whilst on the north coast,
the Crocker Islanders’ spears are deserving of the same comments;
the latter, in addition, are decorated by a few delicate engravings in
the form of circumferential rings and wavy longitudinal bands
composed of short parallel transverse lines. The Arunndta groove
the spears lengthwise with a stone adze.
An improvement on this type is rendered by the cutting of a
pointed blade at one end of the spear (c). Some of the best
specimens come from the eastern Arunndta in the Arltunga district.
The blade is symmetrically cut, sharply edged, and smooth; the
remaining portion of the spear is grooved longitudinally throughout
its length.
All the above-mentioned types of spear are thrown by hand.
A straight, single-piece, hard-wood spear is made more effective
by splicing a barb on to the point with kangaroo or emu sinew (d).
The barb being directed away from the point, the spear cannot be
withdrawn without forcibly tearing it through the flesh of the animal or
man it has entered. The natives living along the Great Australian
Bight, from Port Lincoln to King George Sound in Western Australia,
used to make this the principal weapon; the spear was up to twelve
feet in length, perfectly straight and smooth, and was thrown with a
spear-thrower.
A rare and perhaps unique variety was found at Todmorden on the
Alberga River in the possession of an Aluridja. It was a simple, one-
piece, bladed spear, like that described of the Arltunga natives, but it
had two wooden barbs tied against one and the same side of the
blade with kangaroo sinew, one above the other, at distances of
three and six inches, respectively, from the point.
The hard-wood spears may have the anterior end carved, on one
or two sides, into a number of barbs of different shape and size. The
simplest and most rudimentary forms were to be met with among the
weapons of the practically extinct tribes of the lower reaches of the
River Murray, including Lake Alexandria. The shaft was of mallee
and by no means always straight and smooth; its anterior end, for a
distance of from twelve to eighteen inches, had from five to six
medium-sized, thorn-like barbs or spikes, which were directed
backwards and cut out of the wood, on one or two sides. More rarely
one would find spears with a three-sided serrature, consisting of
something like two dozen small barbs, directed backwards,
extending in three longitudinal lines over a distance of about fifteen
inches; at the top the serrated lines merged into a single strong
point. Vide Fig. 5, e, f, and g.
 PLATE XXIV

A “boned” Man, Minning tribe.

“He stands aghast, with his eyes staring at the treacherous pointer, and
with his hands lifted as though to ward off the lethal medium....”

The most formidable weapons of this kind are those still in daily
use as hunting and fighting spears on Melville and Bathurst Islands
(h). The head of this type has many barbs carved on one side, and
occasionally on two diametrically opposite sides. There are from ten
to thirty barbs pointing backwards, behind which from four to eight
short serrations project straight outwards, whilst beyond them again
occasionally some six or more small barbs point forwards. The
spears have a long, sharp, bladed point. The barbs are
symmetrically carved, and each has sharp lateral edges which end in
a point. The size of the barbs varies in different specimens. Many of
the spears are longitudinally grooved or fluted, either for the whole
length or at the head end only. Usually these weapons are
becomingly decorated with ochre, and may have a collar of human
hair-string wound tightly round the shaft at the base of the head.
Some of the heaviest of these spears are up to sixteen feet long,
and would be more fitly described as lances.
The most elaborate, and at the same time most perfect,
specimens of the single-piece wooden spears of aboriginal
manufacture are the ceremonial pieces of the Melville Islanders.
These have a carved head measuring occasionally over four feet in
length and four inches in width, consisting of from twelve to twenty-
five paired, symmetrical, leaf-shaped or quadrilateral barbs, whose
sides display a remarkable parallelism. The barbs are surmounted
by a long tapering point emanating from the topmost pair; and very
frequently one finds an inverted pair of similar barbs beneath the
series just mentioned. Occasionally, too, the two pairs opposed to
each other at the bottom are fused into one, and a square hole is cut
into the bigger area of wood thus gained on either side of the shaft
(i).
 The structure may be further complicated by cutting away the point
at the top, and separating the paired series of barbs by a narrow
vertical cleft down the middle (j).
We shall now turn our attention to spears whose head and shaft
are composed of separate parts. In the construction of these, two
principal objects are aimed at by the aboriginal, the first being to
make the missile travel more accurately through space, and in
accordance with the aim, the second to make the point more cruel
and deadly. Whereas, with one exception, all the single-piece
spears, so far discussed, are projected or wielded with the hand
only, in every instance of the multi-pieced spears, a specially
designed spear-thrower is used for that purpose.
The native has learned by experience that weight in the forepart of
the spear will enable him to throw and aim with greater precision.
One has only to watch the children and youths during a sham-fight to
realize how well it is known that the heavier end of a toy spear must
be directed towards the target whilst the lighter end is held in the
hand. Green shoots of many tussocks, or their seed-stalks, and the
straight stems of reeds or bullrushes, are mostly used. They are cut
or pulled at the root in order that a good butt-end may be obtained,
and carefully stripped of leaves; the toy weapons are then ready for
throwing. One is taken at a time and its thin end held against the
inner side of the point of the right index finger; it is kept in that
position with the middle finger and thumb. Raising the spear in a
horizontal position, the native extends his arm backwards, and,
carefully selecting his mark, shies his weapon with full force at it.
The simplest type of a combination made to satisfy the conditions
of an artificially weighted spear is one in which the shaft consists of
light wood and the head of heavier wood (k). Roughly speaking, the
proportion of light to heavy wood is about half of one to half of the
other. The old Adelaide tribe used to select the combination of the
light pithy flower-stalk of the grass-tree with a straight pointed stick of
mallee. The western coastal tribes of the Northern Territory construct
small, and those of the Northern Kimberleys large spears composed
of a shaft of reed and a head of mangrove; the former being four or
at most five feet long, the latter from ten to twelve. The joint between
the two pieces is effected by inserting the heavier wood into the
lighter and sealing the union with triodia-grass resin or beeswax. The
Adelaide tribe used the gum of the grass-tree.
The River Murray tribes used to make the point of the mallee more
effective by attaching to it a blade-like mass of resin, into both edges
of which they stuck a longitudinal row of quartz flakes.
The Northern Kimberleys natives accomplish the same object by
fixing on to the top end of the mangrove stick a globular mass of
warm, soft resin, in which they embed a stone spear-head (l). In
certain parts of the Northern Territory one occasionally meets with a
similar type of spear, but such in all probability is imported from the
west.
The popular spear of central Australian tribes consists of a light
shaft fashioned out of a shoot of the wild tecoma bush (T. Australis),
which carries a long-bladed head of hard mulga wood. The junction
is made between the two pieces by cutting them both on a slope,
sticking these surfaces together with hot resin, and securely binding
them with kangaroo tendon. The bottom end is similarly bound and a
small hole made in its base to receive the point of the spear-thrower
(m).
As often as not the blade has a single barb of wood bound tightly
against it with tendon.
It is often difficult to find a single piece of tecoma long enough to
make a suitable shaft, in which case two pieces are taken and neatly
joined somewhere within the lower, and thinner, half with tendon.
The shoots, when cut, are always stripped of their bark and
straightened in the fire, the surfaces being subsequently trimmed by
scraping.
A very common type of spear, especially on the Daly River, and
practically all along the coast of the Northern Territory, is one with a
long reed-shaft, to which is attached, by means of a mass of wax or
gum, a stone-head, consisting of either quartzite or slate, or latterly
also of glass. The bottom end is strengthened, to receive the point of
the thrower, by winding around it some vegetable fibre (n).
 The natives of Arnhem Land now and then replace the stone by a
short piece of hard wood of lanceolate shape.
If now we consider the only remaining type—a light reed-shaft, to
which is affixed a long head of hard wood, with a number of barbs
cut on one or more edges—we find a great variety of designs. The
difference lies principally in the number and size of the barbs; in
most cases they point backwards, but it is by no means rare to find a
certain number of them pointing the opposite way or standing out at
right angles to the length of the head. These spears belong
principally to the northern tribes of the Northern Territory.
The commonest form is a spear having its head carved into a
number of barbs along one side only, and all pointing backwards (o).
The number ranges from three to over two dozen, the individual
barbs being either short and straight or long and curved, with the
exception of the lowest, which in many examples sticks out at right
angles just above the point of insertion. The point is always long and
tapering. These spears are common to the Larrekiya, Wogait, Wulna,
and all Daly River tribes.
 PLATE XXV

1. Dieri grave, Lake Eyre district.

2. Yantowannta grave, Innamincka district.

 The same pattern of barbs may be found carved symmetrically on
the side diametrically opposite, or, indeed, it may be cut in three
planes.
An elegant, but rare, type is found among the weapons of the
Ponga Ponga, Mulluk Mulluk, and Wogait tribes on the Daly River. Its
hard-wood head is long and uniformly tapering from its point of
insertion to its sharp tip. On one side there are very many small
barbs, diminishing in size from the shaft upwards; as many as one
hundred barbs have been counted; they point either slightly
backwards or at right angles to the length (p).
A spear in use on the Alligator River, and in the districts south and
west therefrom, has the barbs along the edge of the anterior moiety
directed backwards, whereas those of the posterior portion point
forwards. And occasionally one finds the barbs arranged
asymmetrically on two sides of the spear-head.
Finally, a rather remarkable type will be referred to, which belongs
to the Arnhem Land tribes, or rather to the country extending from
Port Essington to the Roper River, including Groote Island and
smaller groups lying off the coast. It is a neat and comparatively
small spear, about eight feet long on an average. The head, instead
of possessing a number of barbs, has a series of eye-shaped holes
cut along one of its sides, which give the impression of being so
many unfinished barbs, or so many barbs with their points joined
together (q). The major axes of the holes are parallel and directed
backwards; there may be up to thirty holes present. Occasionally
there are a few real barbs cut near the shaft end of the head; or a
number of incomplete barbs may there be cut with their axes turned
towards the front of the spear. The point is always sharp and stands
back somewhat from the level of the uncut barbs.
For special purposes, like fishing, two or three of the simple-
barbed prongs are frequently affixed to a reed shaft with beeswax or
resin, and vegetable fibre. This combination is met with all along the
coast of the Northern Territory. The natives know very well that the
chances of stabbing a fish with a trident of this description are much
greater than with a single prong. As a matter of fact, a barbed spear
with less than two prongs is not normally used for fishing purposes,
yet a plain, single-pronged spear is often utilized when there is none
of the other kind available.
The Australian aboriginals do not poison their spears in the
ordinary sense of the word, but the Ponga Ponga and Wogait tribes
residing on the Daly River employ the vertebræ of large fish, like the
barramundi, which have previously been inserted into decaying
flesh, usually the putrid carcase of a kangaroo, with the object of
making the weapon more deadly. The bones are tied to the head of a
fighting spear. This is not a general practice, however, and the spear
never leaves the hands of the owner. The natives maintain that by so
doing they can kill their enemy “quick fella.”
 CHAPTER XXII
SPEAR-THROWERS

Principle of construction—How held—Some of the common types described—

Other uses.

To assist in the projection of a spear, the aboriginal has invented a

simple apparatus, which is commonly referred to as a spear-thrower
or wommera. In principle it is just a straight piece of wood with a haft
at one end and a small hook at the other. In practice the hand seizes
the haft, the hook is inserted into the small pit at the bottom of the
spear, and the shaft is laid along the thrower and held there with two
of the fingers of the hand, which is clasping the haft. In this position,
the arm is placed well back, the point of the spear steadied or made
to vibrate, and, when the native has taken careful aim, the arm is
forcibly shot forwards. The missile flies through space, towards its
target, but the thrower is retained by the hand.
One of the simplest types was made by the tribes living along the
shores of the Great Australian Bight. It consists of a flat piece of
wood, about three feet long, roughly fluted lengthwise and slightly
sloped off at either extremity. At one end a mass of resin forms a
handle, in which, moreover, a quartzite or flint scraper is embedded.
At the other end a wooden peg is affixed with resin against the flat
surface of the stick. Both surfaces of the implement are flat or slightly
convex; at Esperance Bay they are rather nicely polished, the wood
selected being a dark-coloured acacia. Towards the east, however,
as for instance at Streaky Bay, the inner side, i.e. the one bearing
the hook or peg, becomes concave and the outer side convex. On
Eyre Peninsula, the old Parnkalla tribe made the spear-thrower
shorter but wider, and its section was distinctly concave.
Northwards, through the territories of the Kukata, Arrabonna,
Wongapitcha, Aluridja, Arunndta, and Cooper Creek tribes, the
shape becomes leaf-shaped and generally of concave section, with
a well-shaped haft and broad flint scraper; the peg is attached with
resin and sinew. Within this same area, another type is less
frequently met with, which is of similar shape, but flat; it is really used
more for show purposes, and for that reason is usually decorated
with engraved circles and lines, which during some of the
ceremonies are further embellished with ochre and coloured down.
The last-named is the prevalent type, which extends westwards as
an elongate form through the Murchison district right through to the
Warburton River, where it is again broader. In both the areas
mentioned, the inner surface of the spear-thrower is deeply incised
with series of parallel, angular bands made up of transverse notches.
In the south of Western Australia, the shape remains the same, but
the incised ornamentation disappears.
Yet another variety comes from the old Narrinyerri tribe and from
the lower reaches of the River Murray, where it was known as
“taralje.” It is a small, flat, spatulate form, elongated at both ends, the
lower (and longer) prolongation making the handle, the upper
carrying a point of bone or tooth deeply embedded in resin. The
inner side, against which the spear is laid, is flat, the outer surface
being convex. The handle is circular in section and is rounded off at
the bottom to a blunt point. The convex side is occasionally
decorated with a number of pinholes, arranged in a rudely
symmetrical pattern.
All through the northern districts of the Northern Territory and the
Northern Kimberleys, the principal type is a long light-wood blade,
tapering slightly from the handle end to the point and having
comparatively flat or slightly convex sides. A handle is shaped by
rounding off the ends and cutting away some of the wood
symmetrically on each side, a few inches down. A clumsy-looking
peg is attached to one of the flat surfaces at the opposite, narrower
end with beeswax. The peg is made big on account of the instrument
being exclusively used to propel the reed-spears, which are naturally
hollow, and consequently have a large opening or pit at the bottom
end. This type of thrower is nearly always decorated in an elaborate
way with ochre. When used, the thrower and spear are held by the
right hand in such a way that the shaft of the latter passes, and is
held, between the thumb and index finger, the remaining fingers
holding the handle of the thrower. Vide Plate XIV, 2.
A spear-thrower used exclusively for projecting the small variety of
reed-spear is known to the Larrekiya, Wogait, Wordaman, Berringin,
and a few other coastal tribes of the Northern Territory. It consists of
a rod of hard wood, four feet or so in length, tapering a little towards
either end. A lump of resin is attached to one end, and, whilst warm
and plastic, is moulded into a blunt point, which fits into the hole at
the bottom of the spear. At about five inches from the opposite end,
a rim of resin is fixed, and from it a layer, decreasing in thickness, is
plastered around the stick to near the extremity. When using this
thrower, the hand is placed above the resin-rim, and the shaft of the
spear is held by the thumb against the top of the middle finger,
without the aid of the index finger. In addition to this, its principal
function, the thrower is often used for making fire, the native twirling
its lower point against another piece of wood.
A variety of the above type is found in the Gulf of Carpentaria
country, on the MacArthur River, which has a tassel of human hair-
string tied with vegetable fibre immediately below the rim of resin
around the handle.
One of the most remarkable of all spear-throwers is made by the
Larrekiya, and other Northern Territory tribes, consisting of a long,
leaf-shaped, and very thin, flexible blade, flat on one side and slightly
convex on the other. The peg is pear-shaped, and is fixed with
vegetable string and beeswax. The handle is thick and cone-shaped,
and covered with a thin layer of resin or wax. It is ornamented with
rows of small pits, which are pricked into the mass while warm with
the point of a fish bone or sharpened stick. The instrument is so thin
and fragile that only experienced men dare handle it. At times the
blade is curved like a sabre.
In addition to serving as a projecting apparatus, most of the hard-
wood spear-throwers with sharp edges are used for producing fire by
the rubbing or sawing process; those of concave section also take
the place of a small cooleman, in which ochre, down, blood, and
other materials are stored during the “making up” period of a
ceremony.
Any of the flat types of spear-thrower may be used for making fire
by the “sawing process.” The edge of the implement is rubbed briskly
across a split piece of soft wood until the red-hot powder produced
by the friction kindles some dry grass which was previously packed
into the cleft. The spark is then fanned into a flame, as previously
referred to (page 111).
 CHAPTER XXIII
BURIAL AND MOURNING CUSTOMS

Customs depend upon a variety of circumstances—Child burial—Cremation

disavowed—Interment—Graves differently marked—Carved tomb-posts of
Melville Islanders—Sepulchral sign-posts of Larrekiya—Platform burial—
Mummification of corpse—Skeleton eventually buried—Identification of
supposed murderer—Pathetic scenes in camp—Self-inflicted mutilations—
Weird elegies—Name of deceased never mentioned—Hut of deceased
destroyed—Widowhood’s tribulation—Pipe-clay masks and skull-caps—
Mutilations—Second Husbands—Collecting and concealing the dead man’s
bones—Treatment of skull—Final mourning ceremony.

The burial and mourning ceremonies, if any, attendant upon the

death of a person, depend largely upon the tribe, the age, and the
social standing or status of the individual concerned. Old people who
have become “silly” (i.e. childish), and who in consequence do not
take an active part in any of the tribal functions or ceremonies, are
never honoured with a big funeral, but are quietly buried in the
ground. The reason for this is that the natives believe that the
greater share of any personal charms and talents possessed by the
senile frame have already migrated to the eternal home of the spirit.
As a matter of fact, the old person’s spirit has itself partly quitted the
body and whiles for the most time in the great beyond. For precisely
the same reason, it often happens that a tribe, when undergoing
hardship and privation brought about by drought, necessitating
perhaps long marches under the most trying conditions, knocks an
old and decrepit person on the head, just as an act of charity in order
to spare the lingering soul the tortures, which can be more readily
borne by the younger members. These ideas exist all over Australia.
When infants die, they are kept or carried around by the mothers,
individual or tribal, for a while in a food-carrier, and then buried
without any demonstration. The extinct Adelaide tribes required of
the women to carry their dead children about with them on their
backs until the bodies were shrivelled up and mummified. The
women alone attended to the burial of the child when eventually it
was assigned to a tree or the ground.
But at the demise of a person in the prime of his or her life, and of
one who has been a recognized power in life, the case is vastly
different. Both before and after the “burial” of the corpus, a lengthy
ceremony is performed, during which all sorts of painful mutilations
are inflicted amongst the bereaved relatives, amidst the
accompaniment of weird chants and horribly uncanny wails. Before
proceeding with the discussion of the attendant ceremonies,
however, we shall give an outline of the different methods adopted in
Australia for the disposal of the dead.
Cremation is nowhere practised for the simple reason that the
destruction of the bony skeleton would debar the spirit from re-
entering a terrestrial existence.
The spirit is regarded as the indestructible, or really immortal,
quantity of a man’s existence; and it is intimately associated with the
skeleton. The natives tender, as an analogy, the big larva of the
Cossus or “witchedy,” which lies buried in the bark of a gum tree. As
a result of its ordinary metamorphosis, the moth appears and flies
away, leaving the empty shell or, as the natives call it, the “skeleton”
of the “dead” grub behind. It is a common belief on the north coast
that the spirit of a dead person returns from the sky by means of a
shooting star, and when it reaches the earth, it immediately looks
around for its old skeleton. For this reason the relatives of a dead
man carefully preserve the skeletal remains, carry them around for a
while, and finally store them in a cave.
 PLATE XXVI

1. Aluridja widow.

2. Yantowannta widow.

Stillborn children are usually burnt in a blazing fire since they are
regarded as being possessed of the evil spirit, which was the cause
of the death.
The simplest method universally adopted, either alone or in
conjunction with other procedures, is interment.
Most of the central tribes, like the Dieri, Aluridja, Yantowannta,
Ngameni, Wongapitcha, Kukata, and others, bury their dead, whilst
the northern and southern tribes place the corpse upon a platform,
which they construct upon the boughs of a tree or upon a special set
of upright poles. The Ilyauarra formerly used to practise tree-burial,
but nowadays interment is generally in vogue.
 A large, oblong hole, from two to five feet deep, is dug in the
ground to receive the body, which has previously been wrapped in
sheets of bark, skins, or nowadays blankets. Two or three men jump
into the hole and take the corpse out of the hands of other men, who
are kneeling at the edge of the grave, and carefully lower it in a
horizontal position to the bottom of the excavation. The body is made
to lie upon the back, and the head is turned to face the camp last
occupied by the deceased, or in the direction of the supposed
invisible abode of the spirit, which occupied the mortal frame about
to be consigned to the earth. The Arunndta quite occasionally place
the body in a natural sitting position. The Larrekiya, when burying an
aged person, place the body in a recumbent position, usually lying
on its right side, with the legs tucked up against the trunk and the
head reposing upon the hands, the position reminding one of that of
a fœtus in utero.
The body is covered with layers of grass, small sticks, and sheets
of bark, when the earth is scraped back into the hole. But very often
a small passage is left open at the side of the grave, by means of
which the spirit may leave or return to the human shell (i.e. the
skeleton) whenever it wishes.
The place of sepulture is marked in a variety of ways. In many
cases only a low mound is erected over the spot, which in course of
time is washed away and finally leaves a shallow depression.
The early south-eastern (Victorian) and certain central tribes place
the personal belongings, such as spear and spear-thrower in the
case of a man, and yam-stick and cooleman in the case of a woman,
upon the mound, much after the fashion of a modern tombstone. The
now fast-vanishing people of the Flinders Ranges clear a space
around the mound, and construct a shelter of stones and brushwood
at the head end. They cover the corpse with a layer of foliage and
branches, over which they place a number of slabs of slate. Finally a
mound is erected over the site.
The Adelaide and Encounter Bay tribes built wurleys or brushwood
shelters over the mound to serve the spirit of the dead native as a
resting place.
 In the Mulluk Mulluk, when a man dies outside his own country, he
is buried immediately. A circular space of ground is cleared, in the
centre of which the grave is dug. After interment, the earth is thrown
back into the hole and a mound raised, which is covered with sheets
of paper-bark. The bark is kept in place by three or four flexible
wands, stuck into the ground at their ends, but closely against the
mound, transversely to its length. A number of flat stones are laid
along the border of the grave and one or two upon the mound.
In the Northern Kimberleys of Western Australia, when an
unauthorized trespasser is killed by the local tribes, the body is
placed into a cavity scooped out of an anthill, and covered up. In a
few hours, the termites rebuild the defective portion of the hill, and
the presence of a corpse is not suspected by an avenging party,
even though it be close on the heels of the murderers.
The Dieri, in the Lake Eyre district of central Australia, dispense
with the mound, but in its place they lay a number of heavy saplings
longitudinally across the grave. Their eastern neighbours, the
Yantowannta, expand this method by piling up an exceptionally large
mound, which they cover with a stout meshwork of stakes, branches,
and brushwood lying closely against the earth (Plate XXV, 1 and 2).
One of the most elaborate methods is that in vogue on Melville
and Bathurst Islands. The ground immediately encompassing the
grave is cleared, for a radius of half a chain or more, and quantities
of clean soil thrown upon it to elevate the space as a whole. The
surface is then sprinkled with ashes and shell debris. The mound
stands in the centre of this space, and is surrounded by a number of
artistically decorated posts of hard and heavy wood, or occasionally
of a lighter fibrous variety resembling that of a palm. Each of the
posts bears a distinctive design drawn in ochre upon it; several of
the series in addition have the top end carved into simple or
complicated knobs; occasionally a square hole is cut right through
the post, about a foot from the top, leaving only a small, vertical strip
of wood at each side to support the knob (Fig. 14). The designs are
drawn in red, yellow, white, and black, and represent human, animal,
emblematical, and nondescript forms.
 The Larrekiya erect a sort of sign-post, at some distance from the
grave, consisting of an upright pole, to the top of which a bundle of
grass is fixed. A cross-piece is tied beneath the grass, which projects
unequally at the sides and carries an additional bundle at each
extremity. The structure resembles a scarecrow with outstretched
arms, the longer of which has a small rod inserted into the bundle of
grass to indicate the direction of the grave. Suspended from the
other arm, a few feathers or light pieces of bark are allowed to sway
in the wind and thus serve to attract the attention of any passers-by.
When the body is to be placed upon a platform, it is carried, at the
conclusion of the preliminary mourning ceremonies, shoulder high by
the bereaved relatives to the place previously prepared for the
reception of the corpse. A couple of the men climb upon the platform
and take charge of the body, which is handed to them by those
remaining below. They carefully place it in position, and lay a few
branches over it, after which they again descend to join the
mourners. The platform is constructed of boughs and bark, which are
spread between the forks of a tree or upon specially erected pillars
of wood.
The Adelaide tribe used to tie the bodies of the dead into a sitting
position, with the legs and arms drawn up closely against the chest,
and in that position kept them in the scorching sun until the tissues
were thoroughly dried around the skeleton; then the mummy was
placed in the branches of a tree, usually a casuarina or a ti-tree.
Along the reaches of the River Murray near its mouth, the
mummification of the corpse was accelerated by placing it upon a
platform and smoking it from a big fire, which was kept burning
underneath; all orifices in the body were previously closed up. When
the epidermis peeled off, the whole surface of the corpse was thickly
bedaubed with a mixture of red ochre and grease, which had the
consistency of an ordinary oil-paint. A similar mummification process
is adopted by certain of the coastal tribes of north-eastern
Queensland.
The Larrekiya, Wogait, and other northern tribes smear red ochre
all over the surface of the corpse, prior to placing it aloft, in much the
same manner as they do when going to battle. The mourners,