CHAPTER 7

MAGNETOSTATIC FIELDS
The highest happiness on earth is in marriage. Every man who is happily married is a
successful man even if he has failed in everything else.
—WILLIAM L. PHELPS

7.1 INTRODUCTION

In Chapters 4 to 6, we limited our discussions to static electric fields characterized by E or

D. We now focus our attention on static magnetic fields, which are characterized by H or
B. There are similarities and dissimilarities between electric and magnetic fields. As E and
D are related according to D 5 eE for linear, isotropic material space, H and B are related
according to B 5 mH. Table 7.1 further shows the analogy between electric and magnetic
field quantities. Some of the magnetic field quantities will be introduced later in this
chapter, and others will be presented in the next. The analogy is presented here to show
that most of the equations we have derived for the electric fields may be readily used to
obtain corresponding equations for magnetic fields if the equivalent analogous quantities
are substituted. This way it does not appear as if we are learning new concepts.
A definite link between electric and magnetic fields was established by Oersted1 in
1820. As we have noticed, an electrostatic field is produced by static or stationary charges.
If the charges are moving with constant velocity, a static magnetic (or magnetostatic) field
is produced. A magnetostatic field is produced by a constant current flow (or direct cur-
rent). This current flow may be due to magnetization currents as in permanent magnets,
electron-beam currents as in vacuum tubes, or conduction currents as in current-carrying
wires. In this chapter, we consider magnetic fields in free space due to direct current.
Magnetostatic fields in material space are covered in Chapter 8.
Our study of magnetostatics is not a dispensable luxury but an indispensable necessity.
Motors, transformers, microphones, compasses, telephone bell ringers, television focusing
controls, advertising displays, magnetically levitated high-speed vehicles, memory stores,
magnetic separators, and so on, which play an important role in our everyday life,2 could
not have been developed without an understanding of magnetic phenomena.

1
Hans Christian Oersted (1777–1851), a Danish professor of physics, after 13 years of frustrating efforts discov-
ered that electricity could produce magnetism.
2
Various applications of magnetism can be found in J. K. Watson, Applications of Magnetism. New York: John
Wiley & Sons, 1980.

297

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 298 CHAPTER 7 MAGNETOSTATIC FIELDS

TABLE 7.1 Analogy between Electric and Magnetic Fields*

Term Electric Magnetic

Basic laws Q1Q2 moI dl 3 aR

F5 aR dB 5
4peR2 4pR2
# #
C D dS 5 Qenc C H d l 5 Ienc
Force law F 5 QE F 5 Qu 3 B
Source element dQ dQu 5 Id l
Field intensity V I
E5 1 V/m 2 H5 1 A/m 2
, ,
Flux density c c
D 5 1 C/m2 2 B 5 1 Wb/m2 2
S S
Relationship between fields D 5 eE B 5 mH
Potentials E 5 2=V H 5 2=Vm 1 J 5 0 2
rLdl m I d,
V53 A53
L 4peR L 4pR
Flux c5 e D # dS c5 e B # dS
S

c 5 Q 5 CV c 5 LI
dV dI
I5C V5L
dt dt
Energy density 1 # 1
wE 5 D E wm 5 B # H
2 2
Poisson’s equation 2
rv =2A 5 2mJ
=V52
e

*A similar analogy can be found in R. S. Elliot, “Electromagnetic theory: a simplified representation,”

IEEE Transactions on Education, vol. E-24, no. 4, Nov. 1981, pp. 294–296.

There are two major laws governing magnetostatic fields: (1) Biot–Savart’s law,3 and (2)
Ampère’s circuit law. Like Coulomb’s law, Biot–Savart’s law is the general law of magnetostatics.
Just as Gauss’s law is a special case of Coulomb’s law, Ampère’s law is a special case of Biot–Savart’s
law and is easily applied in problems involving symmetrical current distribution. The two laws of
magnetostatics are stated and applied first, with their derivations provided later in the chapter.

7.2 BIOT–SAVART’S LAW

Biot–Savart’s law states that the differential magnetic field intensity dH produced at a
point P, as shown in Figure 7.1, by the differential current element I dl is proportional
to the product I dl and the sine of the angle a between the element and the line joining
P to the element and is inversely proportional to the square of the distance R between
P and the element.

3
The experiments and analyses of the effect of a current element were carried out by Ampère and by
Jean-Baptiste Biot and Felix Savart around 1820.

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 7.2 Biot–Savart’s Law 299

FIGURE 7.1 Magnetic field dH at P due to

current element I d l.

That is,
I dl sin a
dH ~ (7.1)
R2
or
kI dl sin a
dH 5 (7.2)
R2
where k is the constant of proportionality. In SI units, k 5 1/4p, so eq. (7.2) becomes

I dl sin a
dH 5 (7.3)
4pR2
From the definition of cross product in eq. (1.21), it is easy to notice that eq. (7.3) is
better put in vector form as

I dl 3 aR I dl 3 R
dH 5 2 5 (7.4)
4pR 4pR3

where R 5 0 R 0 and aR 5 R/R; R and dl are illustrated in Figure 7.1. Thus the direction
of dH can be determined by the right-hand rule with the right-hand thumb pointing in
the direction of the current and the right-hand fingers encircling the wire in the direction
of dH as shown in Figure 7.2(a). Alternatively, we can use the right-handed-screw rule to
determine the direction of dH: with the screw placed along the wire and pointed in the
direction of current flow, the direction of rotation of the screw is the direction of dH as in
Figure 7.2(b).
It is customary to represent the direction of the magnetic field intensity H (or current I)
by a small circle with a dot or cross sign depending on whether H (or I) is out of the page,
or into it respectively, as illustrated in Figure 7.3.
Just as we can have different charge configurations (see Figure 4.5), we can have dif-
ferent current distributions: line current, surface current, and volume current as shown in
Figure 7.4. If we define K as the surface current density in amperes per meter and J as the
volume current density in amperes per meter squared, the source elements are related as

I dl ; K dS ; J dv (7.5)

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 300 CHAPTER 7 MAGNETOSTATIC FIELDS

FIGURE 7.2 Determining the direction of FIGURE 7.3 Conventional repre-

dH using (a) the right-hand rule or (b) the sentation of H (or I) (a) out of the
right-handed-screw rule. page and (b) into the page.

Thus in terms of the distributed current sources, the Biot–Savart’s law as in eq. (7.4) becomes
I dl 3 aR
H53 1 line current 2 (7.6)
L 4pR2
K dS 3 aR
H53 1 surface current 2 (7.7)
S 4pR2
J dv 3 aR
H53 1 volume current 2 (7.8)
v 4pR2

where aR is a unit vector pointing from the differential element of current to the point of
interest.
As an example, let us apply eq. (7.6) to determine the field due to a straight current-
carrying filamentary conductor of finite length AB as in Figure 7.5. We assume that the

FIGURE 7.4 Current distributions: (a) line current,

(b) surface current, (c) volume current.

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 7.2 Biot–Savart’s Law 301

FIGURE 7.5 Field at point P due to a straight fila-

mentary conductor.

conductor is along the z-axis with its upper and lower ends, respectively, subtending angles
a2 and a1 at P, the point at which H is to be determined. Particular note should be taken of
this assumption, as the formula to be derived will have to be applied accordingly. Note that
current flows from point A, where a 5 a1, to point B, where a 5 a2. If we consider the
contribution dH at P due to an element dl at 1 0, 0, z 2 ,

I dl 3 R
dH 5 (7.9)
4pR3
But dl 5 dz az and R 5 rar 2 zaz, so

dl 3 R 5 r dz af (7.10)

Hence,
Ir dz
H53 af (7.11)
4p 3 r2 1 z2 4 3/2

Letting z 5 r cot a, dz 5 2r csc2 a da, 3 r2 1 z2 4 3/2 5 r3 csc a3, and eq. (7.11) becomes
a2 2
1 r csc2 a da
H52 a
4p 3a1 r3 csc3 a f
a2
I
52 af 3 sin a da
4pr a1

or
I
H5 1 cos a2 2 cos a1 2 af (7.12)
4pr

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 302 CHAPTER 7 MAGNETOSTATIC FIELDS

This expression is generally applicable for any straight filamentary conductor. The
conductor need not lie on the z-axis, but it must be straight. Notice from eq. (7.12) that
H is always along the unit vector af (i.e., along concentric circular paths) irrespective of
the length of the wire or the point of interest P. As a special case, when the conductor is
semi-infinite (with respect to P) so that point A is now at O 1 0, 0, 0 2 while B is at 1 0, 0, ` 2 ,
a1 5 90°, a2 5 0°, and eq. (7.12) becomes

I
H5 a (7.13)
4pr f

Another special case is found when the conductor is infinite in length. For this case, point
A is at 1 0, 0, 2` 2 while B is at 1 0, 0, ` 2 ; a1 5 180°, a2 5 0°, and eq. (7.12) reduces to

I
H5 a (7.14)
2pr f

To find unit vector af in eqs. (7.12) to (7.14) is not always easy. A simple approach is to
determine af from

af 5 a, 3 ar (7.15)

where a! is a unit vector along the line current and ar is a unit vector along the perpendicu-
lar line from the line current to the field point.

The conducting triangular loop in Figure 7.6(a) carries a current of 10 A. Find H at

EXAMPLE 7.1 1 0, 0, 5 2 due to side 1 of the loop.

Solution:
This example illustrates how eq. (7.12) is applied to any straight, thin, current-carrying
conductor. The key point to keep in mind in applying eq. (7.12) is figuring out 1, a2, r, and
af. To find H at 1 0, 0, 5 2 due to side 1 of the loop in Figure 7.6(a), consider Figure 7.6(b),
where side 1 is treated as a straight conductor. Notice that we join the point of interest
1 0, 0, 5 2 to the beginning and end of the line current. Observe that a1, a2, and r are assigned
in the same manner as in Figure 7.5 on which eq. (7.12) is based:
2
cos a1 5 cos 90° 5 0, cos a2 5 , r55
"29
To determine af is often the hardest part of applying eq. (7.12). According to eq. (7.15),
a, 5 ax and ar 5 az, so

af 5 ax 3 az 5 2ay

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 7.2 Biot–Savart’s Law 303

ρ
y

aρ
1

3 2
a
10 A 1 α1 α2
x x
0 1 2 0 10 A 2

(a) (b)

FIGURE 7.6 For Example 7.1: (a) conducting triangular loop, (b) side 1 of the loop.

Hence,

I 10 2
H1 5 1 cos a2 2 cos a1 2 af 5 a 2 0b 1 2ay 2
4pr 4p 1 5 2 "29
5 259.1ay mA/m

PRACTICE EXERCISE 7.1

Find H at 1 0, 0, 5 2 due to side 3 of the triangular loop in Figure 7.6(a).

Answer: 230.63ax 1 30.63ay mA/m.

Find H at 1 23, 4, 0 2 due to the current filament shown in Figure 7.7(a).

EXAMPLE 7.2
Solution:
Let H 5 H1 1 H2, where H1 and H2 are the contributions to the magnetic field intensity at
P 1 23, 4, 0 2 due to the portions of the filament along x and z, respectively.

I
H2 5 1 cos a2 2 cos a1 2 af
4pr

At PA23, 4, 0B, r 5 A9 1 16B 1/2 5 5, a1 5 90°, a2 5 0°, and af is obtained as a unit vector
along the circular path through P on plane z 5 0 as in Figure 7.7(b). The direction of af

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 304 CHAPTER 7 MAGNETOSTATIC FIELDS

3A

3A

FIGURE 7.7 For Example 7.2: (a) current filament along semi-infinite
x- and z-axes, a! and a for H2 only; (b) determining ar for H2.

is determined using the right-handed-screw rule or the right-hand rule. From the geom-
etry in Figure 7.7(b),
4 3
af 5 sin u ax 1 cos u ay 5 ax 1 ay
5 5
Alternatively, we can determine af from eq. (7.15). At point P, a! and ar are as illustrated
in Figure 7.7(a) for H2. Hence,
3 4 4 3
af 5 2az 3 a2 ax 1 ay b 5 ax 1 ay
5 5 5 5
as obtained before. Thus

3 1 4ax 1 3ay 2
H2 5 11 2 02
4p 1 5 2 5
5 38.2ax 1 28.65ay mA/m

It should be noted that in this case af happens to be the negative of the regular af of cylin-
drical coordinates. H2 could have also been obtained in cylindrical coordinates as

3
H2 5 1 1 2 0 2 1 2af 2
4p 1 5 2
5 247.75af mA/m

Similarly, for H1 at P, r 5 4, a2 5 0°, cos a1 5 3/5, and af 5 az or af 5 a, 3

ar 5 ax 3 ay 5 az. Hence,

3 3
H1 5 a1 2 b az
4p 1 4 2 5
5 23.87az mA/m

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 7.2 Biot–Savart’s Law 305

Thus

H 5 H1 1 H2 5 38.2ax 1 28.65ay 1 23.87az mA/m

or

H 5 247.75af 1 23.87az mA/m

Notice that although the current filaments appear to be semi-infinite (they occupy
the positive z- and x-axes), it is only the filament along the z-axis that is semi-infinite with
respect to point P. Thus H2 could have been found by using eq. (7.13), but the equation
could not have been used to find H1 because the filament along the x-axis is not semi-
infinite with respect to P.

PRACTICE EXERCISE 7.2

The positive y-axis (semi-infinite line with respect to the origin) carries a filamentary
current of 2 A in the 2ay direction. Assume it is part of a large circuit. Find H at
(a) A 1 2, 3, 0 2
(b) B 1 3, 12, 24 2

Answer: (a) 145.8az mA/m, (b) 48.97ax 1 36.73az mA/m.

EXAMPLE 7.3 A circular loop located on x2 1 y2 5 9, z 5 0 carries a direct current of 10 A along af.
Determine H at 1 0, 0, 4 2 and 1 0, 0, 24 2 .

Solution:
Consider the circular loop shown in Figure 7.8(a). The magnetic field intensity dH at point
P 1 0, 0, h 2 contributed by current element I dl is given by Biot–Savart’s law:

I dl 3 R
dH 5
4pR3

where dl 5 r df af, R 5 1 0, 0, h 2 2 1 x, y, 0 2 5 2rar 1 haz, and

ar af az
dl 3 R 5 † 0 r df 0 † 5 rh df ar 1 r2 df az
2r 0 h

Hence,

I
dH 5 1 rh df ar 1 r2 df az 2 5 dHr ar 1 dHz az
4p 3 r2 1 h2 4 3/2

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 306 CHAPTER 7 MAGNETOSTATIC FIELDS

FIGURE 7.8 For Example 7.3: (a) circular current loop, (b) flux lines
due to the current loop.

By symmetry, the contributions along ar add up to zero because the radial components pro-
duced by current element pairs 180° apart cancel. This may also be shown mathematically
by writing ar in rectangular coordinate systems (i.e., ar 5 cos f ax 1 sin f ay). Integrating
cos f or sin f over 0 # f # 2p gives zero, thereby showing that Hr ! 0. Thus

2p
Ir2 df az Ir22paz
H 5 3 dHz az 5 3 5
0 4p 3 r2 1 h2 4 3/2 4p 3 r2 1 h2 4 3/2

or
Ir2az
H5
2 3 r2 1 h2 4 3/2

(a) Substituting I 5 10 A, r 5 3, h 5 4 gives

10 1 3 2 2az
H 1 0, 0, 4 2 5 5 0.36az A/m
2 3 9 1 16 4 3/2

(b) Notice from dl 3 R in the Biot–Savart law that if h is replaced by 2h, the z-component
of dH remains the same while the r-component still adds up to zero due to the axial sym-
metry of the loop. Hence

H 1 0, 0, 24 2 5 H 1 0, 0, 4 2 5 0.36az A/m

The flux lines due to the circular current loop are sketched in Figure 7.8(b).

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 7.2 Biot–Savart’s Law 307

PRACTICE EXERCISE 7.3

A thin ring of radius 5 cm is placed on plane z 5 1 cm so that its center is at 1 0, 0, 1 cm 2 .

If the ring carries 50 mA along af, find H at
(a) 1 0, 0, 21 cm 2
(b) 1 0, 0, 10 cm 2

Answer: (a) 400az mA/m, (b) 57.3az mA/m.

A solenoid of length ! and radius a consists of N turns of wire carrying current I. Show
EXAMPLE 7.4
that at point P along its axis,
nI
H5 1 cos u 2 2 cos u 1 2 az
2
where n 5 N/,, u1 and u2 are the angles subtended at P by the end turns as illustrated in
Figure 7.9. Also show that if , W a, at the center of the solenoid,

H 5 nIaz

Solution:
Consider the cross section of the solenoid as shown in Figure 7.9. Since the solenoid con-
sists of circular loops, we apply the result of Example 7.3. The contribution to the magnetic
field H at P by an element of the solenoid of length dz is

I dl a2 Ia2n dz
dHz 5 5
2 3 a2 1 z2 4 3/2 2 3 a2 1 z2 4 3/2

where dl 5 n dz 5 1 N/, 2 dz. From Figure 7.9, tan u 5 a/z; that is,

3 z2 1 a2 4 3/2
dz 5 2a csc2 u du 5 2 sin u du
a2

FIGURE 7.9 For Example 7.4; cross

section of a solenoid.

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 308 CHAPTER 7 MAGNETOSTATIC FIELDS

Hence,

nI
dHz 5 2 sin u du
2
or
u
nI 2
Hz 5 2 3 sin u du
2 u1

Thus

nI
H5 1 cos u 2 2 cos u 1 2 az
2

as required. Substituting n 5 N/, gives

NI
H5 1 cos u 2 2 cos u 1 2 az
2,

At the center of the solenoid,

,/2
cos u 2 5 5 2cos u 1
2
3 a 1 ,2 /4 4 1/2

and
In,
H5 az
2 3 a2 1 ,2 /4 4 1/2

If , W a or u 2 . 0°, u 1 . 180°,
NI
H 5 nI az 5 a
, z

PRACTICE EXERCISE 7.4

The solenoid of Figure 7.9 has 2000 turns, a length of 75 cm, and a radius of 5 cm. If it
carries a current of 50 mA along af, find H at
(a) 1 0, 0, 0 2
(b) 1 0, 0, 75 cm 2
(c) 1 0, 0, 50 cm 2

Answer: (a) 66.52az A/m, (b) 66.52az A/m, (c) 131.7az A/m.

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