Ceramics International 43 (2017) 15122–15132

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Ceramics International
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ceramint

Dispersion of carbon fibers and conductivity of carbon fiber-reinforced MARK

cement-based composites
⁎
Wang Chuanga, , Jiao Geng-shengb, Li Bing-lianga, Peng Leia, Feng Yinga, Gao Nia, Li Ke-zhic
a
Shaanxi Province Engineering Laboratory of High Performance Concrete, Shaanxi Railway Institute, Weinan 714099, PR China
b
School of Materials Science and Chemical Engineering, Weinan Teachers’ University, 714000, PR China
c
School of Materials Science and Engineering, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi’an 710072, PR China

A R T I C L E I N F O A BS T RAC T

Keywords: Dispersion of carbon fibers in the cement matrix remains a hot topic in the preparation of carbon fiber-
Carbon fibers reinforced cement-based composites (CFRC) because it affects greatly both the mechanical and electrical
Cement properties of the composites. In this work, a new dispersant hydroxyethyl cellulose was used with the aids of
Dispersion pre-dispersion by ultrasonic wave to realize the uniform distribution of chopped carbon fibers in the cement
CFRC
matrix. The fracture surface of the prepared CFRC was observed by scanning electron microscopy, the elemental
Conductivity
distribution was investigated by energy dispersive spectroscopy, and the components was analyzed by X-ray
diffraction. Influences of carbon fiber lengths and contents, water/cement weight ratio, molding process, curing
time, and silica fume content over the conductivity of the CFRC composites were studied. The mechanism of
conductivity was discussed. Results shown that the electrical resistivity intended to decrease with the increasing
of carbon fiber contents. The mass fraction 0.6% of carbon fibers was a turning point. The concentration of
hydroxyethyl cellulose between 1.66% and 1.86% was mostly beneficial for the dispersion of carbon fibers. The
resistivity was increased first and decreased then with the increase of water/cement ratio. When the CFRC
sample was prepared by the vibrating pressing method, the resistivity of the sample was reduced far greatly than
that of the sample by the vibrating method. The incorporation of silica fume into the CFRC composites exerted
not only a good effect on the dispersion of carbon fibers, but also increased the density of the composites to
further influence the conductivity of the CFRC.

1. Introduction CFRC is of great technological interest owing to the combination of

Cement is a construction material commonly used in engineering
constructions due to its rich resources, good environmental adapt-
ability, low cost and high compressive strength [1–6]. It self is an
electrical insulating material. Carbon fibers exhibit a series of out-
standing properties of high strength, high modulus, high temperature
resistance, corrosion resistance, fatigue resistance, creep resistance,
light weight, and electric conduction [1,3,7–9]. It is convenient to
produce carbon fiber-reinforced cement-based composites (CFRC)
[6,10–12] by adding short carbon fibers into cement matrix. In the
CFRC composites, carbon fibers are advantageous in their superior
ability to increase the tensile strength of cement. They can improve
both mechanical and electrical behaviors of the material as well as the
electromechanical and electromagnetic behaviors [1,13–15]. They are
also advantageous in the relative chemical inertness. In relation to
most functional properties, carbon fibers are exceptional compared to
other fiber types [1,3].
good structural properties and exceptional electrical properties. It can
be used both as structural materials and as functional materials. The
electrical resistivity of CFRC has been widely studied because of its
utility as multifunctional materials [16,17]. Its applications, particu-
larly in military use, have attracted more and more researchers'
attention and become a hot topic for the cementitious materials
[1,6,9]. The incorporation of an appropriate amount of carbon fibers
into cement matrix can not only enhance the tensile ductility, flexural
strength, and toughness to reduce the dry shrinkage and to improve the
bond strength of CFRC, but can also adjust the electrical conductivity
in a large range [18,19]. Meanwhile, CFRC is more attractive for its
multifunctional behavior, which derives from its electrical property,
including strain sensing, temperature sensing, piezoresistivity effect,
thermoelectric effect, and joule heating [1,20–22]. It special features
involves pressure sensitivity, thermoelectric effect, Joule effect, low
drying shrinkage, high specific heat, low thermal conductivity, high
electrical conductivity, high corrosion resistance and weak thermo-

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: wangchuang1961@sina.com (W. Chuang).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ceramint.2017.08.041
Received 3 July 2017; Received in revised form 29 July 2017; Accepted 5 August 2017
Available online 06 August 2017
0272-8842/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd and Techna Group S.r.l. All rights reserved.
W. Chuang et al.
electric behavior, and temperature resistance effect [23,24]. Therefore,
it is a kind of promising materials in the engineering fields of civil
engineering, industrial anti-static, health monitoring, non-metal heat-
ing elements and buildings against electromagnetic wave shielding
[19,25,26].
The effect of carbon fiber addition on the properties of cement
increases with the fiber content, unless the content is so high that the
air void content becomes excessively high. The air void content
increases with the fiber content and the air voids tend to have a
negative effect on many properties, such as the compressive strength.
In addition, the workability of the mix decreases with the fiber content.
Effective use of carbon fibers in cement requires their homogeneous
dispersion in the cement matrix [6,27,28].
There are lots of factors affecting the properties of CFRC compo-
sites. Among them, the dispersion of carbon fibers in the cement matrix
directly affects the mechanical properties and electrical properties. In
order to make carbon fibers uniformly dispersed in the cement matrix,
an appropriate amount of suitable dispersants and additives [29,30]
should be added in the preparation of CFRC composites. The disper-
sion is also enhanced by using silica fume (a fine particulate) as an
admixture. A typical silica fume content is usually 15% by weight of
cement [31,32]. Silica fume is typically used along with a small amount
(0.4% by weight of cement) of methylcellulose for helping the disper-
sion of fibers and the workability of the mixture [33,34]. The improved
structural properties rendered by carbon fiber addition pertain to the
increased tensile and flexible strengths, the increased tensile ductility
and flexural toughness, the enhanced impact resistance, the reduced
drying shrinkage and the improved freeze-thaw durability [35,36].
The fiber dispersion greatly affects the air void content, which in
turn exerts influence on the mechanical and electrical performances of
the CFRC composites [34,37,38]. Many works have been done on the
electrical properties of CFRC as of today [1,16,39–41]. However, the
relationship between carbon fiber dispersion and conductivity of CFRC
has been little reported yet.
With this in mind, in the present work, carbon fibers were firstly
dispersed in the aqueous solution with the aids of a good dispersant
hydroxyethyl cellulose. The dispersed system was then incorporated
into the cement matrix under moderate stirring to ensure carbon fibers
were uniformly dispersed to have achieved homogeneous CFRC
samples. The flexural strength and the compressive strength of the
samples were tested. The fracture surface of the samples were observed
by scanning electron microscopy. The distribution of major elements in
the CFRC was analyzed by energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS). The
composition of CFRC was analyzed by X-ray diffraction (XRD) at
different amounts of carbon fibers. The resistance was measured to
further calculate the resistivity. Influences of carbon fiber contents and
lengths, water/cement ratio, curing age, molding process, and content
of silica fume on the conductive properties of CFRC composites were
investigated. The experimental results and theoretical analysis may
provide helpful references for CFRC used as functional materials both
for civilian and military purposes.
2. Raw materials and experimental methods
2.1. Major raw materials
Short carbon fibers used were polyacrylonitrile-based 5–7 mm in
length provided by Jiyan Carbon Co., Ltd. (Jilin, China). Their major
parameters are shown in Table 1. The matrix was 32.5R Portland
Table 1
Main parameters of short carbon fibers.
Diameter/μm Density/g/cm3 Tensile strength/MPa Shear strength/MPa
7 ± 0.2 1.76–1.78 2500–3000 80
15123
Ceramics International 43 (2017) 15122–15132
cement with the execution standard GB175-1999 from Qinling Cement
Plant, Shaanxi, China. The water/cement ratio was from 0.3 to 0.5. The
mass fractions of carbon fibers by weight of cement were 0.2%, 0.4%,
0.6%, 0.8%, and 1.0%, respectively. No aggregate (fine or coarse) was
used.
The dispersants used were hydroxyethyl cellulose made in
Shandong Yiteng Chemical Co., Ltd with the viscosity of 30000 Pa.S.
The mass fraction of hydroxyethyl cellulose was in the amount of 0.6%
by mass of cement. Silica fume (300 mesh, purity 99.7%, Kaihua
Yuantong Silicon Industrial Co., Ltd, Zhejiang) was used in the amount
of 5%, 10%, and 15% by mass of cement. The diameter of silica fume
particles ranges between 0.01 and 0.1 µm.
Naphthalenesulfonate formal condensate, a water-reducing agent,
purchased from Wuhan Iron and Steel Corporation Admixture Factory
was used in the amount of 0.8% by mass of cement. The defoamer was
liquid tributyl phosphate (Henghao Science and Technology Co., Ltd,
Tianjin, China), which was used in the amount of 0.02% by mass of
cement. A DDG-A high efficiency electric contact conductive paste was
made in Wuhan Changjiang Mechanical and Electrical Equipment
Industrial Co., Ltd.
2.2. Preparation of CFRC samples
To prepare homogenized CFRC samples, the dispersion of short
carbon fibers are divided into two steps. In the first step, they are
dispersed into the aqueous solution, and in the second step they are
distributed in the solid mixture.
Carbon fibers were first placed in a 500 mL glass beaker. About
three-fifth of the entire water to be used in the subsequent test was
added to make sure that carbon fibers were immersed fully into water.
The beaker was vibrated by ultrasonic wave for 10 min for pre-
dispersion. The temperature of the water was kept between 38 and
44 °C. The power of the ultrasonic wave was 250 W. Hydroxyethyl
cellulose, a dispersant, was dissolved in water and stirred by hand for
2 min. Two drops of tributyl phosphate were added to eliminate air
bubbles. The beaker was continuously vibrated by ultrasonic wave for
another 10 min. The dispersion process can be seen clearly through the
transparent glass beaker. In the first step, the mass fraction of
hydroxyethyl cellulose in the aqueous solution was controlled between
1.66% and 1.86%. A glass rod was used to stir carbon fibers
intermittently to ensure their uniform dispersion in the transparent,
sticky solution. No breakage of carbon fibers occurred during the
ultrasonic vibration. This is the first step for the dispersion of carbon
fibers.
Now comes to the second step. Silica fume, cement, standard sand,
naphthalenesulfonate formal condensate, and other additives were
mixed in a J-160A rotary mixer with a flat beater for 2 min. Then,
the prepared liquid dispersive system in the first step was poured into
the mixer. The left two-fifth of water was added and mixed for another
2 min. The mixture was stirred for 1 min quickly.
By these two steps, carbon fibers are well dispersed in the prepared
hardened CFRC samples, though the mixing and later molding opera-
tions might change the dispersion degree more or less.
After pouring the prepared mixture above into the rectangular oiled
moulds of 160 × 40 × 40 mm and the cube oiled moulds of 40 × 40 ×
40 mm, respectively, an external vibrator was used to facilitate
compaction and decrease the amount of air bubbles. For the rectan-
gular beam, three samples of each mix were prepared for flexural
strength and compressive strength test. For the cube block, thin sheets
Elastic modulus/GPa Elongation/ % Electrical resistivity/Ω·cm
200–220 1.25–1.5 3.1 × 10−3
W. Chuang et al.
Fig. 1. Mechanical properties of CFRC varies with carbon fiber contents (a) Relationship between the bending strength and the mass fractions of carbon fibers; (b) The compressive
strength varies with the mass fractions of carbon fibers.
of coppers (50 × 10 mm) were embedded in the opposite end of the
cube moulds, which are used as electrodes.
The samples were placed in a curing box inside which the
temperature was kept around 22 °C and the relative humidity was ≥
96%. They were demolded after 24 h and then allowed to cure in a
curing box for 28 days. Prior to test, the samples were placed in a
constant temperature drying box for 24 h.
2.3. Test of resistance of CFRC
Alternating current (AC) is often used in the measurement of
electrical conductivity to avoid the problem of polarization because of
charge carriers moving back and forth as the voltage polarity varies
under AC condition [40,42,43]. Comparatively, direct current (DC) is
simpler and less expensive than AC.
In this work, a two electrode method was adopted to measure the
resistance of CFRC samples. The copper electrodes in the CFRC
samples were sanded to be shone. The essence of this method is to
directly measure the resistance with an ohmmeter. A pair of electrodes
were shared for measuring the current and the voltage. Three samples
of each composition were tested.
A FLUCK89 precision digital resistance tester was directly con-
nected with the electrodes at either ends of the test piece, the resistance
being tested, and the resistivity was then calculated according to
formula (1) [39,44,45]:
ρ = RS / L
where ρ refers to the resistivity of the sample (Ω·cm), R stands for the
resistance (Ω), S signifies the cross-sectional area (cm2), and L is the
distance between the electrodes (cm).
2.4. SEM observation and XRD analysis
The morphology and microstructure of the fractures of CFRC
samples was observed and analyzed by JEOL JSM-6460 scanning
electron microscopy. Half of the broken specimen was used for the
compressive strength test. The composition of hardened CFRC was
analyzed by an X-ray diffractometer (XRD, D/max-2200PC, Rigaku,
Japan).
3. Mechanism of conductivity of CFRC
3.1. Uniform dispersion and mechanical properties of CFRC
In order to make carbon fibers show continuously good dispersion
in the cement matrix, ultra-fine particles of silica fume was added in
Ceramics International 43 (2017) 15122–15132
the second step. Because the fume particle size was less than that of
cement particles and the diameter of carbon fibers, it exerted a good
filling effect to eventually separate carbon fibers.
Only when carbon fibers are dispersed uniformly in the cement
matrix, can homogeneous CFRC composite samples be prepared. In
this case, it is meaningful, either mechanically or electrically, to further
investigate the properties of CFRC. Therefore, hydroxyethyl cellulose
was added into the aqueous solution in the first step of preparation, the
mass fraction of which was controlled between 1.66% and 1.86%. It
increased the density and viscosity of the liquid phase, which reduced
the tendency of bundling of carbon fibers. Meanwhile, it was attached
to the surface of carbon fibers, forming a layer of solvent water film,
which increased the wettability of carbon fibers and prevented them
from assembling and bundling. As a result, they tended to disperse in
monofilament.
At the same time, in the mixing process, a moderate stirring speed
should be selected to not damage carbon fibers but to disperse them
well. The operation speed should be fast and slow alternately. The
mechanical properties of the prepared CFRC samples were first
investigated. According to the Q/GB95-92 criterion, the samples were
used for the three-point bending test at the age of 28 days. The flexural
strength and compressive strength tests were conducted using an
Instron 1195-typed electronic universal testing machine (Instron
Company, US). The span was 100 mm and the load speed was
0.5 mm/min. Half of the sample after the flexural test was used to test
the compressive strength.
(1)
Fig. 1(a) shows the flexural strength as a function of fiber mass
fractions when carbon fibers are well dispersed in the cement matrix.
Obviously, the flexural strength increased linearly with the increasing
of mass fractions of carbon fibers. This is because carbon fibers have
the function of strengthening and toughening, namely, reinforcement,
which can prevent the formation and propagation of micro cracks in
the cement matrix. Fig. 2(b) demonstrates the compressive strength
varies with the mass fractions when carbon fibers are dispersed well in
the cement matrix. It increased slowly before the percentage of 0.6%
and increased by 20% at this percentage. However, the strength doesn’t
always keep increasing as the mass fraction rises. When carbon fibers
are used in an excessive amount, they are difficult to disperse evenly in
the cement matrix and are likely to fasciculate, leading to the reduction
of strength. Meanwhile, a large number of air bubbles would be
introduced owing to the mix several times, which might produce many
pores in the matrix. This will severely affects the compressive strength
[6,46,47]. Consequently, it decreased dramatically after 0.6% owing to
the holes and fascicule inside the composites.
The fracture surface of the CFRC samples after mechanical test was
observed under a scanning electron microscope (JSM-6460) as shown
15124
W. Chuang et al.
Fig. 2. Morphology of the fracture surface of the CFRC samples: (a) good dispersion of carbon fibers in the cement matrix; (b) poor dispersion of carbon fibers.
in Fig. 2. Clearly, carbon fibers were well distributed in the cement
matrix as seen in Fig. 2(a), while they were not well dispersed as seen in
Fig. 2(b). In the condition of poor dispersion in Fig. 2(b), carbon fibers
were separated by a thin layer of cement wall. In this case, it is very
difficult for them to contact each other to form a conductive network.
Meanwhile, electron transition were forbidden or in other words the
tunneling effect of electrons among carbon fibers were difficult to occur
[23,48].
Good dispersion of carbon fibers is not only beneficial to the
mechanical properties but also to the electrical performances owing
to the possible contact of carbon fibers one another, whereas the poor
dispersion may exert negative influences on the mechanical and
electrical properties of the composites [49,50].
It is known that the rupture of the composites is closely related with
the development of micro-cracks inside it [24,26]. Adding carbon fibers
into cement can stop the free expansion of cracks, which not only
enhances the compressive strength but also improve the toughness of
CFRC [8,16]. So, it is essential for uniform dispersion of carbon fibers
to achieve homogenized CFRC composites.
3.2. Analysis of the conduction mechanism of CFRC
As mentioned above, when carbon fibers are uniformly dispersed in
the cement matrix, they can contact or overlap each other to form a
conductive network. To show clear overlap of carbon fibers in the
cement matrix, two other SEM images of CFRC samples are provided in
Fig. 3. When carbon fibers in the cement matrix are in a bundle state as
shown in Fig. 2(b), they are separated by cement barriers and can’t
contact each other. In this case, it is difficult to form a conductive
network in the CFRC composites. When the distance between carbon
Fig. 3. Formation of a conductive network between mutual lap of carbon fibers (Mass fraction of carbon fibers 0.8%).
15125
Ceramics International 43 (2017) 15122–15132
fibers are far apart from each other, tunnel effect can’t take place, either
[16,18].
Generally, the electrical conduction in CFRC involves ions, elec-
trons and/or holes and comprises three types of conduction ways
[13,51].
In the case of ions, there is only one type of conduction, which is
associated with the motion of ions of Ca2+, Na+, K+, OH− and SO42− in
pore solution. Ionic conductivity changes in a particularly wide range
when cement contains a substantial amount of free water. Under dry
conditions, the cement matrix is almost an insulating material due to
the high resistivity (105–107 Ω·m), so the ionic conduction through
pore solution is negligible [1,49]. By analyzing the chemical composi-
tions, it is known that cement clinkers are C3S, C2S, C3A and C4AF.
After hydration reaction, hardened cement pastes are composed of
unhydrated clinker particles, hydration products and pore network
which is occupied by water and a small amount of air, forming a porous
solid-liquid-gas system. The hydration products include hydrated
calcium silicate gel of poor crystallization, calcium hydroxide, and
crystal bodies of hydrated calcium aluminate. Pores are composed of
gel holes (15–30A) inside the gel, capillary pores (2000A) filled with
water, and a small amount of water in the hole as well as aqueous
electrolyte ions such as Ca2+, Na +, K+, OH− and SO42−. They all give a
certain conductive ability to the hardened cement paste [7,52,53].
In the case of electrons and/or holes, there can be two types of
conduction: one is associated with the motion of free electrons and/or
holes through the conductive paths formed by a large amount of
contacting carbon fibers, and the other is associated with the transmis-
sion conduction of electrons between adjacent disconnected carbon
fibers. The transmission conduction is dominated by the tunneling
effect. These types of conduction modes coexist in CFRC, but they are
W. Chuang et al.
not independent. The conductivity of CFRC by electrons can also be
explained from the perspective of chemical structure. Chemically, there
are aromatic rings in carbon atoms. Delocalized π bonds can be formed
in the rings. They are actually a large conjugated system in which π
electrons move freely, which gives conductivity to the CFRC compo-
sites. This is the major reason why the composites are of conductivity.
Two theories are usually employed to interpret the conduction
mechanism of CFRC: one is percolation theory and the other is
tunneling effect theory. An idealized model of percolation is that
adjacent fibers physically contact and form a geometrically connected
phase when the fiber content is near or above the percolation
threshold. However, the tunneling effect also contributes to the
conduction for the case when two adjacent fibers are not physically
in contact, even when the fiber content is below the percolation
threshold. In general, a low content of fibers (usually near the
percolation threshold) is preferred in practice not only since lower
cost, good workability and higher compressive strength (low air void
content) can be obtained, but also a decrease of fiber addition close to
the percolation threshold will increase the sensitivity of CFRC as a
strain sensor [11,34].
According to the percolation theory，when the fiber content is
higher than the percolation threshold, the moving of electrons and/or
holes through continuous fibers, or designated as Ohmic contacting
conduction mode, dominates. In this case, the percolation networks are
formed by the short-cut randomly distributed carbon fibers, and the
conductivity for the composites is increased. In contrast, the electrons’
transmission plays an important role when the carbon fiber content is
below the percolation threshold or falls within the percolation transi-
tion zone [23,45].
From analysis above, it is known that, to form a conductive
network, the amount of carbon fibers must be appropriate. It can
neither be too much nor too little. Usually, the mass fractions of carbon
fibers lie in between 0.6% and 0.8% during which carbon fibers can
contact and overlap each other, forming a conductive network. When
the mass fraction is more than 1.0%, a phenomenon of fasciculus of
carbon fibers often takes place and it is very difficult for carbon fibers to
disperse [16,23,54].
3.3. Analysis by XRD and energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS)
3.3.1. XRD analysis
To find out the chemical compositions of the prepared CFRC
composites, X-ray diffraction patterns are carried out for different
mass fractions of carbon fibers of 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, and 0.8% as shown
in Fig. 4. The sharpest diffraction peak in Fig. 4 is marked by “a”,
standing for the compound SiO2 plus 3CaO·Al2O3·3CaSO4·32H2O
(Ettringite, or AFt) and the symbol “b” stands for the compound
Fig. 4. XRD patterns of CFRC with different mass fractions of carbon fibers (0.2%, 0.4%,
0.6%, 0.8%).
15126
Ceramics International 43 (2017) 15122–15132
CaCO3. Apparently, the two compounds are main compositions. The
diffraction peaks for different carbon fiber contents are much similar,
which indicates that the content of the two compounds keeps stable,
though different additives were added to adjust the workability in the
preparation stage of CFRC. The most dominant compound SiO2 is
attributed to the excess amount of silica fume during the preparation
process.
Ettringite (3CaO·Al2O3·3CaSO4·32H2O) is one of the most impor-
tant early hydration products of hardened cement paste, accounting for
about 7% of the Portland cement hydration product. It may reach 25%
in the expansive cement. It can improve the early strength of concrete
or cementitious materials, almost the main contributor to the early
hardening properties of cementitious materials.
Micro expansion will occur during the formation of ettringite phase.
This expansion can compensate the shrinkage of cement in the early
stage. However, if a large amount of ettringite is formed after hard-
ening, the volume expansion will cause the cracking in the cement
matrix, resulting in the loss of strength. It is conducive to inhibition of
later expansion induced by ettringite by reducing the water cement
ratio, adding fly ash and slag or other mineral admixtures.
Ettringite is a relatively unstable component. Its formation and
stability are not only related closely to alkalinity of the solution in the
cement pore and concentrations of Ca2+, SO42−, and AlO2− ions, but
also related to the alkali-silicic acid intergrowth, environmental
temperature and humidity.
XRD analysis showed that when carbon fiber contents varied, the
amount of additives, especially that of the dispersants, changed
accordingly. But the main chemical compositions of the mixture did
not change obviously. During the formation of ettringite, the sample
was already dried for a certain period of time. Under such circum-
stances, there were almost no free moving ions. In other words, there
was little impact on the conductive properties of CFRC.
3.3.2. EDS graphics of a standard cement mortar sample and CFRC
sample
As previously discussed, it is essential that carbon fibers be
homogenized in the cement matrix to ensure the prepared CFRC
samples possess good mechanical and electrical properties [28,30].
To compare the variations of major elements in the cement matrix,
EDS of a standard cement mortar sample and a CFRC sample are
shown in Figs. 5 and 6, respectively.
Fig. 5 shows the SEM image of the fracture surface of a standard
cement mortar sample without any carbon fibers and the correspond-
ing EDS graphics. The ratio of cement/sand/water is 1:3:0.5. It can be
seen from the SEM image that the structure of cement is relatively
compact. So, it can be inferred that the material may exhibit a good
compressive strength. From the corresponding EDS graphics in the
right side, it can be seen that major elements of O, Ca, Fe, C, and Si
exhibit relatively stronger peaks. Meanwhile, the spectrum also shows
the relative contents of elements of S, K, Al, and Sn.
To describe quantitatively the contents of different elements in the
cement mortar, the element analysis is given in Table 2. The weight
percentage of major elements such as O, Ca, C, and Si is 54.03%,
31.03%, 9.20%, and 2.42%, respectively. Of course, there are other
elements such as Al, S, K, Fe and Sn existing in little amount in the
cement matrix due to introduction of impurities in cement production.
Fig. 6 shows the SEM image of the fracture surface of a CFRC
sample with different additives and the corresponding EDS graphics at
mass fraction 0.8% of carbon fibers. When carbon fibers were
incorporated into the cement matrix to prepare CFRC samples,
different admixtures were added to ensure the good dispersion of
carbon fibers. Therefore, the distribution status of major elements O,
Ca, C, and Si varied.
As shown in the EDS graphics in Fig. 6, the spectrum dot was
chosen in the cement matrix not in some dot in carbon fibers. Clearly,
the peaks of Ca, O, C, Si, and Fe are relatively apparent.
W. Chuang et al. Ceramics International 43 (2017) 15122–15132

Fig. 5. SEM image and EDS graphics of a standard cement mortar sample.

Compared with the distribution of major elements in the standard

cement mortar sample, the weight percentages of major elements of O, Table 2
Ca, C, and Si in the CFRC composites are 52.49%, 23.84%, 9.79%, and Elemental analysis of a standard cement mortar sample (Cement: Sand:Water=1:3:0.5).

7.82%, respectively, as shown in Table 3. No. Element Weight % Atomic % Remarks

To clearly compare the variations of O, Ca, C, and Si before and
after additives were added, the percentage variations of weight and 1 OK 54.03 66.51
atomic were calculated as listed in Table 4. From Table 4, it can be seen 2 Ca K 31.03 15.25
3 CK 9.20 15.09
that elements of O, Ca, and C varied greatly (variation value over 90% is 4 Si K 2.42 1.69
referred), the weight percentages of which are 103%, 130%, and 94%. 5 Sn L 1.18 0.20
The corresponding atomic percentages were 104%, 132%, and 95%. It 6 SK 0.96 0.59
should be noted here that the element Sn varied remarkably, 142% in 7 Al K 0.51 0.37
8 KK 0.38 0.19
weight percentage and 143% in atomic percentage, which may be
9 Fe K 0.30 0.11
caused by the instrument itself in the measurement of EDS. Analyzing Totals 100.00
the distribution of major elements such as O, Ca, C, and Si is helpful for
selecting appropriate additives and moderate amount of dispersants.
Meanwhile, by referencing the variation of major elements, the water/
cement ratio can be altered by adjusting different additives during the
preparation of CFRC to keep the moderate workability and achieve the Table 3
most ideal dispersion of carbon fibers in the cement matrix. Elemental analysis of CFRC sample (mass fraction of carbon fibers 0.8%).

No. Element Weight % Atomic % Remarks

4. Results and discussion 1 OK 52.49 63.87

2 Ca K 23.84 11.58
3 CK 9.79 15.87
4.1. Influences of carbon fiber contents and lengths over the
4 Si K 7.82 5.42
conductivity of CFRC 5 Al K 2.16 1.56
6 KK 1.80 0.90
Fig. 7 shows the resistivity of CFRC specimens varied with the 7 Sn K 0.83 0.14
8 Fe K 0.81 0.28
amount and length of carbon fibers when the length was 4, 7 and
9 Na K 0.47 0.39
10 mm, respectively. Clearly, when the carbon fiber content lay in Totals 100.00
between 0 and 0.2%, the resistivity dropped sharply; when it fell in
between 0.2% and 0.3%, the resistivity decreased slowly, and in this

Fig. 6. SEM image and EDS graphics of a CFRC sample (Mass fraction of carbon fibers 0.8%).

15127
W. Chuang et al.
Table 4
Comparison of percentage of major elements in standard cement mortar and CFRC.
Element O Ca C Si
Weight% 54.03 /52.49 31.03/23.84 9.20 /9.79
Variation % 103 130 94
Atomic% 66.51/63.87 15.25 /11.58 15.09/15.87
Variation % 104 132 95
Fig. 7. The electrical resistivity of CFRC varies with carbon fiber length and content.
case the resistivity remained almost unchanged for the fiber length of
the sample of 7 mm. When the fiber content was 0.3–0.6%, the
resistivity increased sharply with the increase of the fiber content, in
other words, there existed a seepage phenomenon [22,35]. At this
moment, the fiber content corresponding to the inflection point was
approximately 0.4%. When the fiber content was more than 0.6%, the
resistivity changed gradually with the increase of carbon fiber content.
The electrical conductivity of CFRC materials depends mainly on
the tunnel effect which is both formed between overlapped carbon
fibers that are randomly dispersed in the cement matrix and between
adjacent carbon fibers that are separated by a very thin layer of cement
matrix. In CFRC composites, there are a large number of intercon-
nected capillary channels, inside which there is pore water existing.
When the carbon fiber content is low, the conductivity is mainly carried
out by two ways: hydrated ions moving freely in the internal pore water
in the cement matrix and current carriers moving in the conductive
carbon fibers through the tunnel effect. Hydrated ions like OH−, K+, Na
+
and Ca2+ migrate towards the interface between the channel and the
cement matrix, eventually forming a continuous conductive water film
inside the channel. It takes some time for the completion of this
process, so the stage appears in which the resistivity declined slowly.
With the increase of the carbon fiber content, the conductions by
electrons, by current carriers through the tunnel effect, and by over-
lapping of carbon fibers become the main conducting mode. At the
same time, the continuous conductive water film has been formed,
lowering the barrier between carbon fibers to increase the tunneling
probability of π electrons. As a result, it is easier for electrons to
transfer freely between carbon fibers, so the resistivity decreases
greatly. However, with the increasing of the carbon fiber content, more
carbon fibers are overlapped in the cement matrix, on which the
conductivity of the system depends mainly. When the carbon fiber
content exceeds the percolation threshold [27,39], in other words, a
conductive network is fully formed inside the material, the resistivity
varies hardly with the increasing of carbon fiber contents. There is only
a slight variation. The resistivity tends to be a certain limit.
It is also found that the resistivity of the length 10 mm is smaller
than that of the length 4 mm and 7 mm when carbon fiber contents are
Ceramics International 43 (2017) 15122–15132
Al K Fe Na Sn
2.42/7.82 0.51/2.16 0.38/1.80 0.30/0.81 0/0.47 1.18/0.83
31 24 21 37 – 142
1.69/5.42 0.37/1.56 0.19/0.90 0.11/0.28 0/0.39 0.20/0.14
31 24 21 39 – 143
Fig. 8. Variation of the electrical resistivity of CFRC with the water/cement ratio.
the same. Moreover, the carbon fiber length exerts greater influences
over the resistivity when the amount of carbon fiber content is smaller.
When the amount of fiber content is over 0.6%, the influence of fiber
length on the resistivity decreases gradually.
The effect of carbon fiber length on the conductivity of CFRC
depends mainly on the overlap degree of carbon fibers in the
composite. When the carbon fiber is longer, it is easier to form the
conductive network by overlapping. The conductivity along the net-
work is stronger. Therefore, the resistivity is smaller.
4.2. Influences of water/cement ratio on the conductivity of CFRC
The water/cement ratio exerts influences over the conductivity of
CFRC. Fig. 8 shows the resistivity varies with the water/cement ratio
changing from 0.23 to 0.6 with fiber length of 7 mm and mass fraction
of 0.6%. The sample was prepared by the vibration method and cured
for 28 days. Under certain conditions, the increase of the water/cement
ratio can improve the workability of the mixture, enhance the disper-
sion of cement particles and carbon fibers, and improve the uniformity
of the composite system.
When the water/cement ratio changed from 0.23 to 0.30, the
resistivity decreased suddenly. This is because that this period lay in
the initial stage of hydration, during which the number of free ions in
the liquid phase of hardened cement paste is relatively large, so the
conductivity was stronger. When the water/cement ratio rose up from
0.30 to 0.5, the resistivity increased gradually. The reason is that the
hydration reaction increased gradually and the number of free ions
decreased continuously. When the water/cement ratio exceeded 0.5,
the hydration reaction was basically completed. In this case, the
number of free ions remained almost constant, so, the resistivity kept
basically unchanged.
Obviously, the water/cement ratio 0.30 is a turning point in the
curve. In addition, the change of the water/cement ratio will lead to the
variation of the porosity in the hardened samples, and further the size
of the porosity exerts a direct impact on the test result of the resistivity
[17,29,34].
15128
W. Chuang et al.
Fig. 9. Influence of different molding methods on the electrical resistivity of CFRC (a): Carbon fiber content 0.2 wt%; (b): Carbon fiber content 0.4 wt%.
4.3. Influences of molding technology on the resistivity
The densification process also has an effect on the resistivity of the
CFRC sample. When a certain amount of carbon fibers were added, the
resistivity of the samples which are prepared by the vibrating pressing
method was much smaller than that of the samples prepared by the
vibrating method as shown in Fig. 9(a) and (b). Fig. 9(a) shows the
resistivity curve with different molding methods when the carbon fiber
content was 0.2%, whereas Fig. 9(b) shows the resistivity curve when
the carbon fiber content was 0.4%.
The curves above in Fig. 9(a) and (b) are the resistivity variation
obtained by the vibration molding method, and those below are the
resistivity variation achieved by the vibration compaction method. In the
vibration compaction process, the water in the mixture was squeezed
under pressure and the formed hardened cement paste was much
denser. The distance between carbon fibers became smaller, the over-
lapping degree increased, and the porosity decreased, so, the electrical
conductivity was good and the resistivity was lower [26,28,32].
At the same time, the contact resistance between carbon fibers and
cement paste was reduced under pressure. In addition, the distance
between carbon fibers was shortened, leading to the change of
conducting modes from the free ions in the cement paste to the
electrons in carbon fibers. As a result, the conductivity of CFRC was
greatly enhanced.
4.4. Influences of curing age on the conductivity of CFRC
The hydration of cement is a long process. With the increase of the
curing period, the resistivity of the material is bound to change. To
Fig. 10. Variation of the resistivity of CFRC samples with the curing days.
15129
Ceramics International 43 (2017) 15122–15132
demonstrate the resistivity of the CFRC composites varies with the
increase of the curing period, 6 sets of samples were prepared to test
the resistivity at different curing periods. The results are shown in
Fig. 10.
It can be seen from Fig. 10 that when the carbon fiber content lay in
between 0% and 0.6%, the resistivity before 28 days increased sharply.
After 28 days, the resistivity still grew, but the growth rate was slow.
After 84 days, the resistivity as a whole was relatively stable.
When the carbon fiber content ranged from 0.8% to 1%, the
resistivity before 7 days increased rapidly, after which it still grew,
but the growth rate was slow. After 84 days, the resistivity was
generally relatively stable.
It is analyzed that, when the carbon fiber content was between 0%
and 0.6%, the water in the free state in CFRC was gradually reduced
with the continuous hydration of cement clinker. The free water was
converted into adsorption water or gel water of larger dielectric
constant. The interface between cement and fiber transformed gradu-
ally into solid-solid contact. The interface layer on the fiber surface
became thicker. The conductive pathway in the composites was
blocked. The conductivity by way of ions was weaker. The absolute
barrier between fibers became larger. Under such a circumstance, it
was difficult or even impossible for the electrons to jump by tunneling
[36,55].
When the hydration reaction was fully accomplished (after 28
days), the condensation body structure in the internal of the compo-
sites was basically formed and the concentration of the free ions was
relatively stable. In this case, the conductivity of the composites was
stable, in other words, the resistivity changed little along with the
prolonging of the curing age. At higher percentage of carbon fibers
(over 0.6%), the conductivity of CFRC was slightly affected by the
curing age. This is because when the carbon fiber content reached a
certain value the distance between fibers was narrowed. So, it is easier
for the electrons to jump through tunneling. Meanwhile, some fibers
were closely overlapped together through which electrons transferred
by carbon fibers to carry out conductivity. Thus, the conductivity of
CFRC was hardly influenced by the curing age. Therefore, the resistivity
varied slightly.
4.5. Influences of silica fume content on the resistivity of CFRC
samples
The addition of silica fume in the CFRC composites exerts not only
a good effect on the dispersion of carbon fibers in the cement matrix,
but can also increase the density of cement-based materials, which
further influence the conductivity of the CFRC. Table 5 shows the
samples with different amount of silica fume. The samples are
numbered with A1, A2, A3, A4, B1, B2, B3, B4, C1, C2, C3 and C4.
W. Chuang et al. Ceramics International 43 (2017) 15122–15132

Table 5
Mix ratio of CFRC samples with different amount of silica fume.

Test no. Cement/g Carbonfiber/% Water/g Standardsand/g Hydroxyethyl cellulose /% (Aqueous Silica fume Water-reducing agent/ Defoaming agent /%
solution) /% %

A1 450 0 225 1350 0 0 0.8 0

A2 450 0 225 1350 0 5 0.8 0
A3 450 0 225 1350 0 10 0.8 0
A4 450 0 225 1350 0 15 0.8 0
B1 450 0.2 225 1350 0.4 0 0.8 0.01
B2 450 0.2 225 1350 0.4 5 0.8 0.01
B3 450 0.2 225 1350 0.4 10 0.8 0.01
B4 450 0.2 225 1350 0.4 15 0.8 0.01
C1 450 0.6 225 1350 0.4 0 0.8 0.01
C2 450 0.6 225 1350 0.4 5 0.8 0.01
C3 450 0.6 225 1350 0.4 10 0.8 0.01
C4 450 0.6 225 1350 0.4 15 0.8 0.01

seen here that the resistivity was decreased with the increase of the
Table 6 content of silica fume, but reduced very slightly. The reason may be
Variation of resistivity of CFRC samples with the silica fume content. ascribed to the conductive ways. When there were none of carbon fibers
Test no. Carbon fiber/ Silica fume Resistivity /Ω·m Variation range
in the cement mortar, the conductivity was carried out through ions
% /% /% migration by pores in the gel matrix. When silica fume was incorpo-
rated into the cement mortar, the number of pores was reduced and the
A1 0 0 265 density of the composite was increased. As a result, it is more difficult
A2 0 5 273 3.0
A3 0 10 296 11.7
for ions to migrate, leading to the increase of the resistance of the
A4 0 15 326 23.0 composite, so, the resistivity was increased as well.
B1 0.2 0 195 When the carbon fiber content was 0.2%, the incorporation of silica
B2 0.2 5 201 3.1 fume into cement mortar improved the dispersion of carbon fibers,
B3 0.2 10 178 −8.7
which make the resistivity of the CFRC composites decreased.
B4 0.2 15 168 −13.8
C1 0.6 0 22 However, when the carbon fiber content rose up to 0.6%, the resistivity
C2 0.6 5 26 18.2 changed hardly with the content of silica fume. This is because a dense
C3 0.6 10 21 −4.5 overlapped conductive network of carbon fibers had been already
C4 0.6 15 20 −9.1 formed in the CFRC composites, the resistivity tended to be a stable
value. Under such a circumstance, the incorporation of silica fume can
improve the dispersion of carbon fibers, but exerts little effect on the
Cement, water, standard sand, and water-reducing agent used in all
resistivity [43,47].
samples were fixed and they were 450 g, 225 g, 1350 g, and 0.8%,
respectively. The content of carbon fibers in A1…A4 was 0%, in B1…B4
5. Conclusions
was 0.2%, and in C1…C4 was 0.6%. Hydroxyethyl cellulose in A1…A4
was 0%, in B1…B4 and C1…C4 was 0.4%. Silica fume in A1…A4, B1…
The dispersion of carbon fibers in the cement matrix greatly
B4, and C1…C4 was successively 0%, 5%, 10%, and 15%, respectively.
influenced the conductivity of CFRC composites. Only when carbon
None of the defoaming agent was added in A1…A4, but was used in
fibers were well dispersed, it was meaningful to investigate the
0.01% in B1…B4 and C1…C4.
conductivity. Major conclusions were drawn as follows:
After the CFRC samples were prepared, they were placed in water
for curing until the 28th day. The resistance was measured, according
(1) The dispersion of carbon fibers in achieving homogenized CFRC
to which the resistivity was calculated. The results are shown in
composites fell into two steps: the first step is that they were
Table 6.
dispersed evenly in the aqueous solution; the second step is that
It can be seen from Table 6 that the resistivity of the standard
the achieved disperse system was uniformly distributed in the
cement mortar sample without any carbon fibers increased gradually
cement matrix. In the first stage, the mass fraction of hydroxyethyl
with the increase of the content of silica fume, namely, 265, 273, 296,
cellulose lay in between 1.66% and 1.86%.
and 326 Ω.m. When the content of silica fume was 15%, the resistivity
(2) The mechanical performances of CFRC increased with the increas-
increased by 23%.
ing of carbon fiber contents before the percentage 0.6%. The
When the carbon fiber content was 0.2%, the resistivity of the CFRC
compressive strength increased by 20% at 0.6%, the modulus
composites was increased firstly and then decreased. When the content
increased by 1.29%, whereas the flexural stress decreased by
of silica fume was 5%, the resistivity reached the maximum value
0.89%.
201 Ω.m or it was increased by 3.1%. It is interesting that, when the
(3) Carbon fibers were randomly distributed in the cement matrix in a
content of silica fume was over 5%, the resistivity was decreased with
three-dimensional ways. They contacted and overlapped each
the increase of the content of silica fume. When the content of silica
other to form a conductive network, giving CFRC composites good
fume rose up to 15%, the resistivity was decreased by 13.8%, compared
conductivity. When the water/cement ratio, carbon fiber content
to the resistivity without any silica fume.
and molding process were fixed, the conductivity of CFRC in-
When the carbon fiber content was 0.6%, the resistivity of CFRC
creased with the increase of carbon fiber length. Generally, the
composites was increased first and then decreased. When the content
length is 4–8 mm, better not exceeding 10 mm.
of silica fume was still 5%, the resistivity reached the maximum value
(4) The resistivity of CFRC composites decreased with the increase of
26 Ω.m, which was increased by 18.2% compared to that without any
carbon fiber content. It tended to be constant when the carbon
silica fume. When the content of silica fume was more than 5%, the
fiber content was more than 0.6%, which is the optimum value.
resistivity started to decrease: at the content of silica fume 10%, the
Selecting an appropriate water/cement ratio and pressing forming
resistivity was 21 Ω•m; at the content of 15%, it was 20 Ω•m. It can be

15130
W. Chuang et al.
process can reduce the resistivity of CFRC. When the carbon fiber
content was 0.6% and the water/cement ratio was 0.3, the
minimum resistivity 3.6 kΩ.cm occurred. When the carbon fiber
content was 0.2% and 0.4% and the pressing forming process was
adopted, the resistivity was reduced by 50% and 90%, respectively.
(5) By comparing the percentages of major elements O, Ca, and C in
the standard cement mortar with those in CFRC, it was found that
they varied greatly, the variation values being all over 90%. The
percentages of weight variation were 103%, 130%, and 94%, and
the corresponding atomic percentages were 104%, 132%, and 95%.
Acknowledgments
This work was financially supported by Shaanxi Province
Engineering Laboratory of High Performance Concrete with the grant
No. G2015-03 and No. G2015-05 as well as by Weinan Basic Research
Innovation Talent Project with the grant No. 2015KYJ-3-3. It was also
partially supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of
China under Grant No. 51472202 and 51521061. The authors would
also like to thank Prof. Li Kezhi of Northwestern Polytechnical
University for his experimental support.
References
[1] D.D.L. Chung, Cement reinforced with short carbon fibers: a multifunctional
material, Composites: B 31 (6–7) (2000) 511–526.
[2] P. Garcés, J. Fraile, E. Vilaplana-Ortego, D. Cazorla-Amorós, E.G. Alcocel,
L.G. Andión, Effect of carbon fibres on the mechanical properties and corrosion
levels of reinforced portland cement mortars, Cem. Concr. Res. 35 (2) (2005)
324–331.
[3] Farhad Reza, Jerry A. Yamamuro, Gordon B. Batson, Electrical resistance change in
compact tension specimens of carbon fiber cement composites, Cem. Concr.
Compos. 26 (7) (2004) 873–881.
[4] Victor C. Li, Karthikeyan Hobla, Effect of fiber length variation on tensile properties
of carbon fiber cement composite, Compos. Eng. 4 (9) (1994) 947–964.
[5] Dragos-Marian Bontea, D.D.L. Chung, G.C. Lee, Damage in carbon fiber-reinforced
concrete, monitored by electrical resistance measurement, Cem. Concr. Res. 30 (4)
(2000) 651–659.
[6] C. Wang, K.-Z. Li, H.-J. Li, G.-S. Jiao, J. Lu, D.-S. Hou, Effect of carbon fiber
dispersion on the mechanical properties of carbon fiber-reinforced cement-based
composites, Mater. Sci. Eng: A 487 (1–2) (2008) 52–57.
[7] Binmeng Chen, Bo Li, Yan Gao, Tung-Chai Ling, Zeyu Lu, Zongjin Li, Investigation
on electrically conductive aggregates produced by incorporating carbon fiber and
carbon black, Constr. Build. Mater. 144 (7) (2017) 106–114.
[8] Jian Wei, Qian Zhang, Lili Zhao, Lei Hao, Chunli Yang, Enhanced thermoelectric
properties of carbon fiber reinforced cement composites[J], Ceram. Int. 42 (10)
(2016) 11568–11573.
[9] Bing Chen, Keru Wu, Wu Yao, Conductivity of carbon fiber reinforced cement-
based composites, Cem. Concr. Compos. 26 (4) (2004) 291–297.
[10] Ming-qing Sun, Jun Li, Ying-jun Wang, Xiao-yu Zhang, Preparation of carbon fiber
reinforced cement-based composites using self-made carbon fiber mat, Constr.
Build. Mater. 79 (3) (2015) 283–289.
[11] Min Chen, Peiwei Gao, Fei Geng, Lifang Zhang, Hongwei Liu, Mechanical and
smart properties of carbon fiber and graphite conductive concrete for internal
damage monitoring of structure, Constr. Build. Mater. 142 (7) (2017) 320–327.
[12] R.K. Graham, B. Huang, X. Shu, E.G. Burdette, Laboratory evaluation of tensile
strength and energy absorbing properties of cement mortar reinforced with micro-
and meso-sized carbon fibers, Constr. Build. Mater. 44 (2013) 751–756.
[13] F. Azhari, N. Banthia, Cement-based sensors with carbon fibers and carbon
nanotubes for piezoresistive sensing, Cem. Concr. Compos. 34 (7) (2012) 866–873.
[14] O. Galao, F.J. Baeza, E. Zornoza, P. Garcés, Strain and damage sensing properties
on multifunctional cement composites with CNF admixture, Cem. Concr. Compos.
46 (2) (2014) 90–98.
[15] Enrique García-Macías, Antonella D'Alessandro, Rafael Castro-Triguero,
Domingo Pérez-Mira, Filippo Ubertini, Micromechanics modeling of the electrical
conductivity of carbon nanotube cement-matrix composites, Compos. B: Eng. 108
(1) (2017) 451–469.
[16] Manuela Chiarello, Raffaele Zinno, Electrical conductivity of self-monitoring CFRC,
Cem. Concr. Compos. 27 (4) (2005) 463–469.
[17] J. Xu, W.H. Zhong, W. Yao, Modeling of conductivity in carbon fiber-reinforced
cement-based composite, J. Mater. Sci. 45 (13) (2010) 3538–3546.
[18] Sung-Hwan Jang, Daniel Peter Hochstein, Shiho Kawashima, Huiming Yin,
Experiments and micromechanical modeling of electrical conductivity of carbon
nanotube/cement composites with moisture, Cem. Concr. Compos. 77 (3) (2017)
49–59.
[19] Ming Jin, Linhua Jiang, Mengting Lu, Shuya Bai, Monitoring chloride ion
penetration in concrete structure based on the conductivity of graphene/cement
15131
Ceramics International 43 (2017) 15122–15132
composite, Constr. Build. Mater. 136 (4) (2017) 394–404.
[20] D.D.L. Chung Sihai Wen, Self-sensing of flexural damage and strain in carbon fiber
reinforced cement and effect of embedded steel reinforcing bars, Carbon 44 (8)
(2006) 1496–1502.
[21] F.J. Baeza, O. Galao, E. Zornoza, P. Garcés, Effect of aspect ratio on strain sensing
capacity of carbon fiber reinforced cement composites, Mater. Des. 51 (10) (2013)
1085–1094.
[22] Panjasil Payakaniti, Supree Pinitsoontorn, Prasit Thongbai,
Vittaya Amornkitbamrung, Prinya Chindaprasirt, Electrical conductivity and
compressive strength of carbon fiber reinforced fly ash geopolymeric composites,
Constr. Build. Mater. 135 (3) (2017) 164–176.
[23] Baoguo Han, Liqing Zhang, Chenyu Zhang, Yunyang Wang, Xun Yu, Jinping Ou,
Reinforcement effect and mechanism of carbon fibers to mechanical and electrically
conductive properties of cement-based materials, Constr. Build. Mater. 125 (10)
(2016) 479–489.
[24] Egemen Teomete, Measurement of crack length sensitivity and strain gage factor of
carbon fiber reinforced cement matrix composites, Measurement 74 (10) (2015)
21–30.
[25] Faezeh Azhari, Nemkumar Banthia, Cement-based sensors with carbon fibers and
carbon nanotubes for piezoresistive sensing, Cem. Concr. Compos. 34 (7) (2012)
866–873.
[26] Panagiota T. Dalla, Konstantinos G. Dassios, Ilias K. Tragazikis, Dimitrios
A. Exarchos, Theodore, E. Matikas, Carbon nanotubes and nanofibers as strain and
damage sensors for smart cement, Mater. Today Commun. 8 (9) (2016) 196–204.
[27] Jie Gao, Zhenjun Wang, Ting Zhang, Liang Zhou, Dispersion of carbon fibers in
cement-based composites with different mixing methods, Constr. Build. Mater. 134
(3) (2017) 220–227.
[28] Jiang Cuixiang, Zhong Dongwang, hen Hao, Interface resistance between carbon
fiber and cement, Procedia Eng. 15 (2011) 5333–5337.
[29] Zhenjun Wang, Jie Gao, Tao Ai, Wei Jiang, Peng Zhao, Quantitative evaluation of
carbon fiber dispersion in cement based composites, Constr. Build. Mater. 68 (10)
(2014) 26–30.
[30] Ke-zhi Li, Chuang Wang, He-jun Li, Xin-tao Li, Hai-bo Ouyang, Jian Wei, Effect of
chemical vapor deposition treatment of carbon fibers on the reflectivity of carbon
fiber-reinforced cement-based composites, Compos. Sci. Technol. 68 (5) (2008)
1105–1114.
[31] V. Afroughsabet Mahmoud Nili, Combined effect of silica fume and steel fibers on
the impact resistance and mechanical properties of concrete, Int. J. Impact Eng. 37
(8) (2010) 879–886.
[32] V.T. Giner, F.J. Baeza, S. Ivorra, E. Zornoza, O. Galao, Effect of steel and carbon
fiber additions on the dynamic properties of concrete containing silica fume, Mater.
Des. 34 (2) (2012) 332–339.
[33] F. Koksal, F. Altun, I. Yigit, Y. Sahin, Combined effect of silica fume and steel fiber
on the mechanical properties of high strength concretes, Constr. Build. Mater. 22
(2008) 1874–1880.
[34] Hongyu Shao, Binmeng Chen, Bo Li, Shengwen Tang, Zongjin Li, Influence of
dispersants on the properties of CNTs reinforced cement-based materials, Constr.
Build. Mater. 131 (1) (2017) 186–194.
[35] Jian Wei, Qian Zhang, Lili Zhao, Lei Hao, Chunli Yang, Enhanced thermoelectric
properties of carbon fiber reinforced cement composites [J], Ceram. Int. 42 (1)
(2016) 11568–11573.
[36] Wei-wen Li, Wei-ming Ji, Guo-hao Fang, Yu-qing Liu, Feng Xing, Yu-kai Liu, Bi-
qin Dong, Electrochemical impedance interpretation for the fracture toughness of
carbon nanotube/cement composites, Constr. Build. Mater. 114 (7) (2016)
499–505.
[37] P.F.G. Banfill, G. Starrs, G. Derruau, W.J. McCarter, T.M. Chrisp, Rheology of low
carbon fibre content reinforced cement mortar, Cem. Concr. Compos. 28 (9) (2006)
773–780.
[38] Inkyu Rhee, Jun Seok Lee, Yoong Ahm Kim, Jin Hee Kim, Ji. Hoon Kim,
Electrically conductive cement mortar: incorporating rice husk-derived high-sur-
face-area graphene, Constr. Build. Mater. 125 (10) (2016) 632–642.
[39] Farhad Reza, Jerry A. Yamamuro, Gordon B. Batson, Electrical resistance change in
compact tension specimens of carbon fiber cement composites, Cem. Concr.
Compos. 26 (7) (2004) 873–881.
[40] D.D.L. Chung Jingyao Cao, Electric polarization and depolarization in cement-
based materials, studied by apparent electrical resistance measurement, Cem.
Concr. Res. 34 (3) (2004) 481–485.
[41] Luo Lailong, Tunnel current in carbon fiber reinforced concrete (in Chinese), Acta
Phys. Sin. 54 (6) (2005) 2540–2544.
[42] Sihai Wen, D.D.L. Chung, Double percolation in the electrical conduction in carbon
fiber reinforced cement-based materials, Carbon 45 (3) (2007) 263–267.
[43] A.O. Monteiro, P.B. Cachim, P.M.F.J. Costa, Electrical properties of cement-based
composites containing carbon black particles, Mater. Today: Proc. 2 (1) (2015)
193–199.
[44] H.K. Kim, I.W. Nam, H.K. Lee, Enhanced effect of carbon nanotube on mechanical
and electrical properties of cement composites by incorporation of silica fume,
Compos. Struct. 107 (1) (2014) 60–69.
[45] Nataliya Kalashnyk, Eric Faulques, Jan Schjødt-Thomsen, Lars R. Jensen, Jens Chr
M. Rauhe, Ryszard Pyrz, Monitoring self-sensing damage of multiple carbon fiber
composites using piezoresistivity, Synth. Met. 224 (2) (2017) 56–62.
[46] Jing Xu, Wu Yao, Ruiqing Wang, Nonlinear conduction in carbon fiber reinforced
cement mortar, Cem. Concr. Compos. 33 (3) (2011) 444–448.
[47] M.ònica Ardanuy, Josep Claramunt, Romildo Dias Toledo Filho, Cellulosic fiber
reinforced cement-based composites: a review of recent research, Constr. Build.
Mater. 79 (3) (2015) 115–128.
W. Chuang et al.
[48] Baomin Wang, Zhiqiang Guo, Yu Han, Tingting Zhang, Electromagnetic wave
absorbing properties of multi-walled carbon nanotube/cement composites, Constr.
Build. Mater. 46 (2013) 98–103.
[49] D.D.L. Chung Sihai Wen, The role of electronic and ionic conduction in the
electrical conductivity of carbon fiber reinforced cement, Carbon 44 (11) (2006)
2130–2138.
[50] Josef Foldyna, Vladimír Foldyna, Michal Zeleňák, Dispersion of carbon nanotubes
for application in cement composites, Procedia Eng. 149 (2016) 94–99.
[51] Manuel Hambach, Hendrik Möller, Thomas Neumann, Dirk Volkmer, Carbon fibre
reinforced cement-based composites as smart floor heating materials, Compos. B:
Eng. 90 (4) (2016) 465–470.
[52] R.D. Verástegui-Flores, G. Di Emidio, Impact of sulfate attack on mechanical
15132
Ceramics International 43 (2017) 15122–15132
properties and hydraulic conductivity of a cement-admixed clay, Appl. Clay Sci. 101
(9) (2014) 490–496.
[53] M. Pokharel, M. Fall, Combined influence of sulphate and temperature on the
saturated hydraulic conductivity of hardened cemented paste backfill, Cem. Concr.
Compos. 38 (4) (2013) 21–28.
[54] Dawid Janas, Stefanie K. Kreft, Krzysztof K.K. Koziol, Printing of highly conductive
carbon nanotubes fibres from aqueous dispersion, Mater. Des. 116 (2) (2017)
16–20.
[55] S. Nasri, M. Megdiche, M. Gargouri, DC conductivity and study of AC electrical
conduction mechanisms by non-overlapping small polaron tunneling model in
LiFeP2O7 ceramic, Ceram. Int. A 42 (1) (2016) 943–951.