TOPIC 1:

1. Basic Research: Basic research, also known as pure or fundamental research, is driven by
curiosity and aims to expand our understanding of fundamental principles and concepts. It
focuses on the acquisition of new knowledge, theories, and models, without any immediate
practical application in mind. Basic research is often conducted in academic or scientific
institutions and contributes to the development of scientific disciplines. It forms the foundation
for further research and applied advancements. Examples of basic research include studies
exploring the properties of subatomic particles, investigating the behavior of certain animal
species, or examining the structure of DNA.
2. Applied Research: Applied research, on the other hand, is directed towards solving
specific practical problems or addressing practical issues in various fields. It involves the
application of existing knowledge and theories to develop solutions, products, or technologies
that have real-world applications. Applied research often takes place in industry, government
agencies, or research institutions with a focus on developing new technologies, improving
processes, or finding solutions to specific challenges. Examples of applied research include
developing new medical treatments, optimizing manufacturing processes, or designing efficient
renewable energy systems.
3. Exploratory Research: Exploratory research aims to explore a relatively unknown or
poorly understood subject, phenomenon, or problem. It is conducted when there is limited
existing knowledge or theory on the topic. The primary goal of exploratory research is to gain
insights, generate hypotheses, or identify potential research questions. It involves investigating a
topic in an open-ended and flexible manner, often using qualitative methods such as interviews,
focus groups, observations, or case studies. Exploratory research helps researchers develop a
deeper understanding of a subject, uncover trends or patterns, and identify variables or factors
that may influence a phenomenon. The findings from exploratory research can guide the
development of more focused studies in the future.
4. Explanatory Research: Explanatory research seeks to explain the relationships between
variables or phenomena and understand the causal mechanisms underlying them. It aims to
provide explanations, clarify cause-and-effect relationships, or test existing theories. Explanatory
research typically employs quantitative methods such as surveys, experiments, or statistical
analysis of existing data. Researchers collect data from a representative sample and analyze it to
identify relationships, correlations, or associations between variables. The findings from
explanatory research contribute to the development or refinement of existing theories and
provide a more comprehensive understanding of the topic under investigation.
Correlation refers to a statistical relationship or association between two or more
variables. The types of correlations include:
1. Positive Correlation: In a positive correlation, the variables move in the same direction.
This means that as one variable increases, the other variable also increases, and as one variable
decreases, the other variable also decreases. For example, there may be a positive correlation
between studying hours and exam scores, where students who study more tend to achieve higher
scores.
2. Negative Correlation: In a negative correlation, the variables move in opposite directions.
This means that as one variable increases, the other variable decreases, and vice versa. For
instance, there might be a negative correlation between temperature and winter clothing sales, as
higher temperatures are associated with lower sales of winter clothing.
3. No Correlation: A no correlation, or zero correlation, indicates that there is no linear
relationship between the variables. This means that changes in one variable are not associated
with consistent changes in the other variable. In other words, the variables are independent of
each other. For example, there might be no correlation between shoe size and intelligence, as
these variables are unrelated.

TOPIC 2:
Measurement scales, also known as levels of measurement or data types, refer to the different
ways in which variables can be measured or classified. There are four commonly recognized
types of measurement scales:
Nominal Scale: The nominal scale is the simplest form of measurement. It involves categorizing
or classifying variables into distinct categories or groups without any inherent order or numerical
value. Examples of variables measured on a nominal scale include gender (male/female), marital
status (single/married/divorced), or eye color (blue/brown/green). In the nominal scale, variables
can only be differentiated or compared based on their category membership.
Ordinal Scale: The ordinal scale introduces an order or ranking among the categories or groups
of a variable. It allows for the comparison of variables based on relative positions or levels, but
the intervals between categories are not necessarily equal. Examples of variables measured on an
ordinal scale include educational attainment (high school diploma/bachelor's degree/master's
degree/Ph.D.), Likert scales (e.g., strongly disagree, disagree, neutral, agree, strongly agree), or
rankings (first place, second place, third place). The ordinal scale preserves the ranking but does
not provide information about the magnitude of differences between categories.
Interval Scale: The interval scale has the properties of the ordinal scale but also includes equal
intervals between the categories. It allows for the comparison of variables based on the
magnitude of differences between values, but it does not have a meaningful zero point. Examples
of variables measured on an interval scale include temperature measured in Celsius or
Fahrenheit, years on the calendar, or IQ scores. On the interval scale, addition and subtraction
operations can be performed, but multiplication or division operations are not meaningful.
Ratio Scale: The ratio scale is the most comprehensive measurement scale. It possesses all the
properties of the nominal, ordinal, and interval scales, and it includes a meaningful zero point,
allowing for the interpretation of ratios and absolute differences between values. Examples of
variables measured on a ratio scale include height, weight, time, or income. On the ratio scale, all
arithmetic operations (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division) are meaningful and provide
accurate results.

TOPIC 3:
What is Hypothesis?
What are the characteristics of the hypothesis?
What is the importance of the hypothesis in the research?
Explain the Directional and Non Directional Hypotheses with examples.

ANSWERS:
A hypothesis is a proposed explanation or prediction for a phenomenon or a set of observations.
It is an assumption or a tentative answer to a research question that can be tested through
empirical research.
b. The characteristics of a hypothesis include:
Testability: A hypothesis should be formulated in a way that it can be empirically tested or
investigated through data collection and analysis.
Falsifiability: A good hypothesis should be capable of being proven false or rejected if it is not
supported by the evidence. It should be possible to design experiments or gather data that can
potentially disprove the hypothesis.
Clarity: A hypothesis should be clear and specific, stating the relationship or difference between
variables or phenomena that is being investigated.
Logical consistency: A hypothesis should be logical and coherent, based on existing knowledge
and theory. It should make sense within the context of the research problem.
c. The hypothesis plays a crucial role in research for the following reasons:
Guiding research: A hypothesis provides a clear direction and focus for the research study. It
helps researchers formulate research questions and design appropriate methods to gather relevant
data.
Testability: Hypotheses can be tested through empirical research methods, allowing researchers
to examine the validity of their proposed explanations or predictions.
Foundation for analysis: Hypotheses serve as a basis for data analysis. They provide a
framework for interpreting research findings and drawing conclusions based on the evidence
collected.
Contribution to knowledge: By formulating and testing hypotheses, researchers contribute to the
development and advancement of knowledge in their respective fields. Hypotheses help expand
understanding and generate new insights.
d. Directional hypothesis (also known as one-tailed hypothesis) and non-directional hypothesis
(also known as two-tailed hypothesis) refer to the way in which the relationship or difference
between variables is predicted in a hypothesis.
Directional hypothesis: A directional hypothesis predicts the direction of the relationship or
difference between variables. It specifies whether the relationship will be positive or negative, or
whether the difference will be higher or lower. For example:
"Increased exercise will lead to a decrease in body weight."
"Higher levels of education will result in increased income."
In both examples, the hypotheses predict a specific direction of the relationship or difference
between variables.
Non-directional hypothesis: A non-directional hypothesis does not predict a specific direction of
the relationship or difference between variables. It only suggests that there is a relationship or
difference without specifying the direction. For example:
"There is a relationship between caffeine consumption and sleep quality."
"There is a difference in test scores between students who use flashcards and students who do
not."
These hypotheses state the existence of a relationship or difference without making predictions
about the specific direction of the effect.

TOPIC 4:
There are several types of research designs, each with its own purpose and characteristics. Here
are some commonly used research designs:
Experimental Design: In this design, researchers manipulate variables and control conditions to
establish cause-and-effect relationships. Participants are randomly assigned to different groups,
such as experimental and control groups, and the effects of the manipulated variables are
observed.
Quasi-Experimental Design: Similar to experimental design, this design involves manipulation
of variables, but lacks random assignment to groups. Instead, pre-existing groups or naturally
occurring variations are used. This design is often used when random assignment is not feasible
or ethical.
Correlational Design: In this design, researchers examine the relationship between variables
without manipulating them. Correlational studies assess the strength and direction of associations
between variables, but do not establish causality.
Descriptive Design: This design focuses on describing and documenting specific phenomena or
characteristics. It involves observing and documenting behavior or conditions as they naturally
occur, without manipulation or control of variables.
Case Study Design: Case studies involve in-depth analysis of a single individual, group, or event.
Researchers collect detailed information through various methods such as interviews,
observations, and reviewing documents. Case studies are useful for exploring rare or unique
phenomena in real-life contexts.
Longitudinal Design: This design involves collecting data from the same participants over an
extended period. Researchers can examine changes and patterns over time, assess developmental
trajectories, and identify causal relationships.
Cross-sectional Design: In this design, researchers collect data from different individuals or
groups at a single point in time. It provides a snapshot of a population or phenomenon at a
specific moment, allowing for comparisons across different groups.
Mixed Methods Design: This design combines qualitative and quantitative research methods to
gain a comprehensive understanding of a research question. Researchers collect and analyze both
qualitative data (e.g., interviews, observations) and quantitative data (e.g., surveys, experiments).
Action Research: This design involves collaboration between researchers and practitioners to
solve practical problems in real-world settings. It emphasizes active participation, reflection, and
iterative cycles of problem-solving and knowledge generation.

TOPIC 5:
In research, sampling refers to the process of selecting a subset of individuals or units from a
larger population to study. There are several types of sampling methods commonly used in
research. Here are some of the main ones:
Random Sampling: In this method, each member of the population has an equal chance of being
selected for the study. This helps to ensure that the sample is representative of the population as a
whole.
Stratified Sampling: This technique involves dividing the population into subgroups or strata
based on certain characteristics (e.g., age, gender, education level) and then randomly selecting
samples from each stratum in proportion to their representation in the population. Stratified
sampling ensures that the sample includes individuals from different subgroups, allowing for
more accurate analysis of each subgroup's characteristics.
Cluster Sampling: Cluster sampling involves dividing the population into clusters or groups (e.g.,
geographical areas, schools) and randomly selecting a few clusters. Researchers then collect data
from all individuals within the selected clusters. Cluster sampling is often more practical and
cost-effective when studying large populations that are geographically dispersed.
Systematic Sampling: In systematic sampling, the researcher selects individuals from the
population at regular intervals, using a predetermined starting point. For example, if the
population size is N and the desired sample size is n, every N/nth individual is selected. This
method can be efficient and convenient when the population is organized in some systematic
order.
Convenience Sampling: Convenience sampling involves selecting individuals who are readily
available or easily accessible to the researcher. This method is often used when time and
resources are limited, but it may introduce bias since the sample may not be representative of the
population.
Purposive Sampling: Also known as judgmental or selective sampling, purposive sampling
involves handpicking individuals who meet specific criteria or possess certain characteristics
relevant to the research objectives. This sampling method is commonly used in qualitative
research or when studying unique or hard-to-reach populations.
Snowball Sampling: Snowball sampling relies on referrals from initial participants to recruit
additional participants. The researcher starts with a few individuals who meet the study criteria
and asks them to identify others who may also be eligible. This method is useful when studying
populations that are difficult to identify or access.

TOPIC 6:
Differentiate the following terms:
1. Positivism and Ontology.
2. Correlation and Regression.
3. Null Hypothesis and Alternative Hypothesis.
4. Validity and Reliability.
5. Stratified Sampling and Systematic Sampling.
Positivism and Ontology:
Positivism is a philosophical perspective that emphasizes the use of scientific methods and
empirical evidence to study and understand the world. It assumes that knowledge can be
acquired through objective observation and measurement. Positivism focuses on facts,
observable phenomena, and cause-and-effect relationships.
Ontology, on the other hand, is a branch of philosophy that deals with the nature of being and
existence. It examines questions about the fundamental categories of reality and the nature of
existence itself. Ontology explores concepts such as the nature of reality, the existence of
entities, and the relationships between them. It is concerned with understanding the nature of
things, including abstract concepts and their relationships.
Correlation and Regression:
Correlation refers to a statistical measure that quantifies the degree of association between two
variables. It assesses the relationship between variables in terms of direction (positive or
negative) and strength (how closely the variables are related). Correlation does not imply
causation; it simply indicates how variables tend to vary together.
Regression, on the other hand, is a statistical technique used to model the relationship between a
dependent variable and one or more independent variables. It aims to predict or explain the value
of the dependent variable based on the values of the independent variables. Regression analysis
provides insights into the nature and strength of the relationship between variables, allowing for
prediction or explanation of future outcomes.
Null Hypothesis and Alternative Hypothesis:
In hypothesis testing, the null hypothesis (H0) is a statement that assumes there is no significant
difference or relationship between variables. It represents the status quo or the absence of an
effect. Researchers aim to either reject or fail to reject the null hypothesis based on statistical
evidence.
The alternative hypothesis (H1 or Ha) is a statement that contradicts or opposes the null
hypothesis. It suggests that there is a significant difference or relationship between variables.
Researchers typically formulate the alternative hypothesis based on their research question or the
hypothesis they aim to support.
Validity and Reliability:
Validity refers to the degree to which a measure or a test accurately measures what it intends to
measure. It assesses the extent to which an instrument or procedure measures the construct or
concept it claims to measure. Validity can be established through various methods such as
content validity, criterion validity, and construct validity.
Reliability, on the other hand, refers to the consistency and stability of a measure or test over
time and across different conditions. It assesses the degree to which a measure yields consistent
and reproducible results. Reliability can be evaluated through methods such as test-retest
reliability, inter-rater reliability, and internal consistency.
Stratified Sampling and Systematic Sampling:
Stratified sampling is a sampling technique in which the population is divided into subgroups or
strata based on specific characteristics. The subgroups are then sampled independently, and
individuals within each subgroup are randomly selected. This method ensures that each stratum
is represented in the sample proportionally to its size or importance in the population. Stratified
sampling is useful when the population has inherent diversity or when researchers want to ensure
representation from different subgroups.
Systematic sampling, on the other hand, involves selecting every nth element from a population
after randomly selecting a starting point. For example, if the population size is N and the desired
sample size is n, every N/nth element would be included in the sample. Systematic sampling can
be a convenient and efficient sampling method when there is a large population and a defined
sampling frame. However, it may introduce bias if there is any pattern or periodicity in the
population order.