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Wireless Networks
Zhou Su · Yilong Hui · Tom H. Luan

Qiaorong Liu · Rui Xing
The Next Generation

Vehicular Networks,
Modeling,
Algorithm, and
Applications
Wireless Networks
Series Editor
Xuemin Sherman Shen
University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada
The purpose of Springer’s Wireless Networks book series is to establish the state
of the art and set the course for future research and development in wireless
communication networks. The scope of this series includes not only all aspects
of wireless networks (including cellular networks, WiFi, sensor networks, and
vehicular networks), but related areas such as cloud computing and big data.
The series serves as a central source of references for wireless networks research
and development. It aims to publish thorough and cohesive overviews on specific
topics in wireless networks, as well as works that are larger in scope than survey
articles and that contain more detailed background information. The series also
provides coverage of advanced and timely topics worthy of monographs, contributed
volumes, textbooks and handbooks.
** Indexing: Wireless Networks is indexed in EBSCO databases and DPLB **
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/14180

Zhou Su • Yilong Hui • Tom H. Luan • Qiaorong Liu
Rui Xing
The Next Generation

Vehicular Networks,
Modeling, Algorithm, and
Applications
Zhou Su Yilong Hui
Shanghai University Xidian University
Shanghai, China Xi’an, Shaanxi, China
Tom H. Luan Qiaorong Liu

Xidian University Shanghai University
Xi’an, Shaanxi, China Shanghai, China
Rui Xing
Shanghai University
Shanghai, China
ISSN 2366-1186 ISSN 2366-1445 (electronic)

Wireless Networks
ISBN 978-3-030-56826-9 ISBN 978-3-030-56827-6 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-56827-6
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information
storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or
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This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Preface
The next generation vehicular networks are expected to provide services with highly
improved network performance in terms of low cost and latency as well as high
network efficiency and quality of experience (QoE) to vehicles. Towards better
network maintainability and sustainability, this book proposes the novel network
envisions and framework design principles to realize the goals of the next generation
vehicular networks. As it is widely recognized, enabling technologies such as
information centric networks (ICN), edge caching, computation offloading, artificial
intelligence (AI), and autonomous driving play important roles in the wireless
technology developments along with the research on intelligent transportation
systems (ITS) and smart cities. The investigation and development on the integration
of vehicular networks and the new enabling technologies thus provide important
references for designing and developing the next generation vehicular networks.
However, with the advance of vehicular applications and the diverse service
requirements of vehicles, to develop the next generation vehicular networks by
investigating the integration of vehicular networks and the enabling technologies
becomes a new challenge. The reasons that contribute to this are detailed as follows:
(1) There is a huge amount of content to be delivered and vehicle users typically
have different behaviors in the vehicular networks. With the integration of ICN
and vehicular networks, an analytical scheme to facilitate the content delivery in
information centric vehicular networks is thus needed, where the behaviors of
vehicle users in the content delivery process should be taken into account. (2)
With the massive demands of various kinds of content services and different social
relationships among vehicles, the edge caching in vehicular networks faces the
challenges to decrease the latency, increase the efficiency of the networks, and
improve the QoE of vehicles. To this end, a novel edge caching framework by
considering the service requirements and the social ties of vehicles is necessary
to be developed. (3) In the vehicular networks, vehicles typically need to execute
various computing tasks during driving, such as video processing, online social
network services, and virtual reality. Caused by the limited computation power,
vehicles need to offload a part of their tasks to edge devices. Since the emerging
network applications may have different requirements of computing resources, the
v
vi Preface
model of optimal computation resource allocation becomes a challenge to provide

vehicles with satisfactory computing services. (4) In the vehicular networks, a
vehicle which intends to offload its computing task may connect to more than
one edge servers, where some edge servers may declare unreasonable prices to
execute the computing task. In addition, the edge servers may maliciously declare
a low price to complete the task with low quality. Therefore, a secure computation
offloading scheme needs to be designed to constrain the bids of edge servers and
guarantee the computing service with high quality. (5) With the popularization of
the vehicular networks, malicious nodes may attack the vehicles and RSUs in the
content delivery process. Therefore, secure content delivery to protect the vehicles
against threats (i.e., outside attacks and inside attacks) and provide a secure content
delivery environment becomes a challenge. (6) Due to the huge data perceived from
complicated traffic environment and the limited computing power of vehicles, it is
quite challenging to achieve vehicular networks enabled autonomous driving, which
is one of the most attractive applications in the next generation vehicular networks.
To this end, an autonomous driving scheme in which AVs can learn and drive with
groups needs to be designed.
As an effort to address these issues, this book focuses on the key enabling
technologies to design the framework for the next generation vehicular networks to
satisfy various vehicular services requested by vehicles. The network architectures
and the framework design principles are discussed in depth including the analysis of
reputation based content delivery in information centric vehicular networks, contract
based edge caching in vehicular networks, Stackelberg game based computation
offloading in vehicular networks, auction game based secure computation offloading
in vehicular networks, bargain game based secure content delivery in vehicular
networks, and deep learning based autonomous driving in vehicular networks.
Specifically, in this book, we focus on the modeling, algorithms, and applications
in the next generation vehicular networks, in order to improve the performance
of vehicular services and facilitate the future smart city transportation system.
In Chap. 1, we introduce the overview of vehicular networks and the enabling
technologies that can be integrated with vehicular networks to pave the way for the
integration of the vehicular networks and different technologies. In Chap. 2, with the
analysis of the various behaviors of vehicles, we discuss the reputation based content
delivery in information centric vehicular networks. In Chap. 3, by considering the
social relationships among vehicles, we develop a contract based edge caching
scheme in vehicular networks to enhance the content delivery performance. In
Chap. 4, we study an incentive mechanism by designing the Stackelberg game
model to analyze the computation offloading problem in vehicular networks. With
this mechanism, both the vehicle and mobile edge computing (MEC) server are
motivated to obtain the optimal game strategy. In Chap. 5, by integrating edge
computing and cloud computing, we propose a secure computation offloading
scheme to help the vehicle select the optimal edge server to offload its task. By
using the proposed scheme, the bid prices of edge servers can be constrained and
the service quality of the computing task can be guaranteed. In Chap. 6, we propose
a security aware content delivery scheme in vehicular networks. Specifically, we first
Preface vii
establish a trust evaluation scheme by introducing authority units (AUs) to monitor

the actions of both vehicles and RSUs during the process of content delivery. Then,
a price competitive scheme between vehicles and RSU is proposed by using the
bargain game to encourage them to improve their trust values and utilities. In
Chap. 7, we talk about the vehicular networks enabled autonomous driving and
investigate the framework of deep learning for collaborative autonomous driving.
Finally, in Chap. 8, we conclude this book and summarize some future research
directions in the next generation vehicular networks.
This book validates the network architectures and the framework design princi-
ples for reputation based content delivery in information centric vehicular networks,
contract based edge caching in vehicular networks, Stackelberg game based com-
putation offloading in vehicular networks, auction game based secure computation
offloading in vehicular networks, bargain game based secure content delivery in
vehicular networks, and deep learning based collaborative autonomous driving in
vehicular networks, where the performances of the above studies are evaluated by
simulations. Therefore, this book can provide valuable insights on the integration of
conventional vehicular networks and the enabling technologies in depth to satisfy
the goals of the next generation vehicular networks.
We would like to thank Prof. Dongfeng Fang at the Department of Computer
Science and Software Engineering, Cal Poly, San Luis Obispo, USA, for her
valuable discussions and insightful comments. We would like to thank Dr. Yuntao
Wang at the School of Cyber Science and Engineering of Xi’an Jiaotong University,
Xi’an, China, for his constructive comments and helpful discussions. We would like
to thank Prof. Qichao Xu, Dr. Minghui Dai, Dr. Weiwei Li, and Dr. Hui Zeng at
the School of Mechatronic Engineering and Automation of Shanghai University,
Shanghai, China, for their valuable discussions and helpful comments. We would
also like to show our special thanks to the staff at Springer Science+Business Media:
Ms. Susan Lagerstrom-Fife and Ms. Jennifer Malat, for their kind help throughout
the publication and preparation processes.
Shanghai, China Zhou Su
Xi’an, China Yilong Hui
Xi’an, China Tom H. Luan
Shanghai, China Qiaorong Liu
Shanghai, China Rui Xing

Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Overview of Vehicular Networks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Architecture of Vehicular Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Applications in Vehicular Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Overview of Enabling Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.1 Advanced Communication-5G . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.2 Mobile Edge Computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.3 Network Function Virtualization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.4 Software Defined Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.5 Computation Offloading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2.6 Blockchain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2.7 Information Centric Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.2.8 Edge Caching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.2.9 Autonomous Driving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.2.10 Artificial Intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.3 Aim of the Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2 Reputation Based Content Delivery in Information Centric
Vehicular Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.2 Overview of Information Centric Vehicular Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.2.1 Content Delivery in Vehicular Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.2.2 ICN Based Content Delivery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.2.3 Challenges of Content Delivery in Information
Centric Vehicular Networks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.3 Reputation Based Vehicular Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.4 Framework of Reputation Based Content Delivery
in Information Centric Vehicular Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.4.1 Network Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
ix
x Contents
2.4.2 Framework of Reputation Based Content Delivery

in Information Centric Vehicular Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.5 Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.5.1 Setting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.5.2 Results Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3 Contract Based Edge Caching in Vehicular Networks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.2 Edge Caching in Vehicular Social Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.2.1 Vehicular Social Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.2.2 Edge Caching in Vehicular Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.2.3 Challenges of Edge Caching in Vehicular Networks . . . . . . . . 53
3.3 Contract Based Edge Caching in Vehicular Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.4 Framework of Contract Based Edge Caching in Vehicular
Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.4.2 Framework of Contract Based Edge Caching
in Vehicular Networks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.5 Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.5.1 Setting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4 Stackelberg Game Based Computation Offloading in Vehicular
Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.2 System Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.2.1 Network Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.2.2 Communication Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.2.3 Task Execution Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.3 Stackelberg Game Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.3.1 Benefits of Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.3.2 Benefits of MEC Server . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.3.3 Stackelberg Game . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.4 The Equilibrium Solution of Stackelberg Game . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.4.1 Stage 2: Offloading Strategy of Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.4.2 Stage 1: Pricing Strategy of MEC Servers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.4.3 Stackelberg Game Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.5 Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.5.1 Setting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Contents xi
5 Auction Based Secure Computation Offloading in Vehicular

Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
5.2 System Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
5.2.1 Network Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
5.2.2 Task Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
5.3 Analysis of Secure Offloading Strategy in Edge-Cloud Networks . . . 95
5.3.1 Task Offloading Scheme Based on First Price Sealed
Auction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
5.3.2 TSVM-Based Detection Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5.4 Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5.4.1 Setting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
6 Bargain Game Based Secure Content Delivery in Vehicular
Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
6.2 Problem Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
6.2.1 Deployment of RSUs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
6.2.2 Attack and Defence in Vehicular Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
6.2.3 Trust Evaluation of Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
6.2.4 Trust Value of RSUs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
6.2.5 Deployment of AU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
6.2.6 Bargain Game Between RSUs and Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
6.3 Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
6.3.1 Setting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
6.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
7 Deep Learning Based Autonomous Driving in Vehicular Networks . . . 131
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
7.2 Overview of Deep Learning Based Autonomous Driving
in Vehicular Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
7.2.1 Autonomous Driving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
7.2.2 Autonomous Driving with Vehicular Networks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
7.2.3 Deep Learning Based Autonomous Driving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
7.3 Architecture of Deep Learning Based Autonomous Driving
in Vehicular Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
7.3.2 Composition of Learning Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
xii Contents
7.4 Learning with Groups: Deep Learning Based Autonomous

Driving in Vehicular Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
7.4.1 Topology of Learning Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
7.4.2 Cooperative Learning Within a Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
7.4.3 Allocation of Profits/Costs Within a Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
7.5 Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
7.5.1 Setting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
7.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
8 Conclusions and Future Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
8.1 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
8.2 Future Research Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
8.2.1 Trading Mechanism in Vehicular Networks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
8.2.2 Security and Privacy in Vehicular Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
8.2.3 Big Data in Vehicular Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
8.2.4 QoE Aware Services in Vehicular Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
8.2.5 Smart Transportation Systems with Vehicular Networks . . . . 155
8.2.6 Resource Integration and Allocation in Vehicular
Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Acronyms
5G 5th generation mobile networks

AI Artificial intelligence
AUs Authority units
AVs Autonomous vehicles
BS Base station
CCNs Content centric networks
CPS Cyber physical system
CPU Central processor unit
CS Content store
DPoS Delegated proof of stake
DSRC Dedicated short range communication
EMS Element management system
ETSI European Telecommunications Standards Institute
FBSs Femto base stations
FIB Forwarding information base
GPS Global positioning system
ICNs Information centric networks
IoTs Internet of Things
ITS Intelligent transportation system
LCU Logic control unit
LTE Long term evolution
MBSs Micro base stations
MCC Mobile cloud computing
MEC Mobile edge computing
NBI Northbound interface
NFV MANO NFV management and orchestrator
NFV Network function virtualization
NFVI NFV infrastructure
NHTSA National Highway Traffic Safety Administration
OBU On board unit
PBFT Practical Byzantine fault tolerance
xiii
xiv Acronyms
PIT Pending interest table

PoS Proof of stake
PoW Proof of work
QoE Quality of experience
RSU Roadside unit
SBI Southbound interface
SDN Software defined network
V2I Vehicle to infrastructure
V2V Vehicle to vehicle
VMs Virtual machines
VNFs Virtual network functions
VSNs Vehicular social networks
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Overview of Vehicular Networks
1.1.1 Architecture of Vehicular Networks
As one of the most important enabling technologies to realize the next generation
intelligent transportation system (ITS), vehicular networks are considered as a set
of vehicles embedded with on-board units (OBUs) and road infrastructures (i.e.,
roadside units (RSUs) and base stations (BSs)) [1–5]. With a radio interface, each
OBU can make the connection with other OBUs, RSUs, BSs and other smart
devices, by which they can communicate with each other to share useful information
with the goal of facilitating the driving and transportation system. Generally, as
the typical scenario which is shown in Fig. 1.1, vehicular networks mainly consist
of two types: (1) vehicle to vehicle communications, i.e., V2V, and (2) vehicle to
roadside infrastructure communications, i.e., V2I [6–10].
For V2V communications, a vehicle can communicate with the vehicles within
its communication coverage directly via a single hop connection [11–15]. In addi-
tion, a group can be formed by vehicles to achieve the long distance communication
via opportunistic routing through a multiple hop connection. In this way, a vehicle
can connect with other vehicles which are outside of its communication coverage.
For V2I communications, both the RSUs and BSs have the communication coverage
so that they can communicate with the vehicles when the vehicles drive in the
coverage [16–20]. Vehicular networks integrate the V2V and V2I by which the
information can be smoothly shared in the networks. For example, if a vehicle
is suffering a traffic accident, with the help of V2V communications, all vehicles
connected with it can obtain this accident information. In addition, the accident
information can be further relayed to other vehicles and RSUs or BSs to re-plan the
driving routes. With the real time information sharing, the traffic accidents can be
reduced and the traffic efficiency can be improved.
© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 1

Z. Su et al., The Next Generation Vehicular Networks, Modeling, Algorithm, and
Applications, Wireless Networks, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-56827-6_1
2 1 Introduction
RSU BS V2V V2I
Vehicular Service Coverage of RSU
Fig. 1.1 An illustration of vehicular networks
Next, we introduce the two typical kinds of communication modes in vehicular

networks in detail.
• V2V communications: This communication paradigm enables vehicles to con-
nect and exchange information with each other directly without sending data to
RSUs, BSs or the core networks [21–25]. Due to the opportunistic links among
vehicles, V2V communications are considered as an important technology espe-
cially when the RSUs or BSs are not available. Besides, V2V communications
are more economical than V2I communications in terms of the construction cost.
With V2V, vehicles can not only share information with small data size such
as accident warnings and lane change warnings, but also can share content with
large data size such as popular movie trailer and video stream with the adoption
of carry-and-forward strategy [26–28]. Specifically, when a vehicle moves to the
1.1 Overview of Vehicular Networks 3
communication coverage areas of other vehicles, the information and contents

can be exchanged. Otherwise, the vehicle carries the information and waits for
the next connection [29].
• V2I communications: This type of communication mainly provides a connec-
tion between OBUs placed at vehicles and infrastructures located along the roads.
The infrastructures typically refer to the cellular networks (4G/5G and long
term evolution (LTE)) e.g., BSs, and WiFi-like access units e.g., RSUs [30–
33]. Both the RSUs and BSs are connected to the remote server using wired
links. Compared with the RSUs, the BSs have larger communication coverage.
In addition, the BSs can provide vehicles with a stable download rate while the
RSUs only provide occasional connections due to the chaos contentions among
vehicles. Through the V2I connection, vehicles are allowed to request various
vehicular services by connecting to the RSUs or BSs.
With the integration of V2V and V2I, on one hand, notifications such as traffic
and weather conditions or some specific road messages (e.g., maximum speed
limit and overtaking warning) can be broadcasted to inform the nearby vehicles
in vehicular networks to facilitate the transportation system. On the other hand,
vehicular networks have the ability to provide entertainment services containing
huge data for vehicle users to enhance their quality of experience (QoE) [34–
38]. In what follows, we will detail the applications that can be provided with the
deployment of vehicular networks.
1.1.2 Applications in Vehicular Networks
The applications supported in vehicular networks mainly include vehicle safety

applications (e.g., automatic collision warning, remote vehicle diagnostics, emer-
gency treatment and assistance for safety driving), vehicle traffic applications
(e.g., event notification, traffic scheduling and path planning), and infotainment
applications (e.g., high-speed Internet access and multimedia content sharing)
[39].
• Safety applications: Safety applications are supported by the vehicular networks
to reduce the risk of road accidents and the number of the people injured
and killed on the roads [40]. According to the statistic information, there are
approximately 2.5 million accidents every year and the second largest category
of accidents is caused by rear end collisions [41]. By providing related road and
vehicle information and assistance to drivers, road safety applications can help
vehicles avoid accidents and collisions. Safety applications contain many aspects
such as intersection collision warning, head on collision warning and rear end
collision warning. All of these warnings can be detected by vehicles or infras-
tructures and the information can be further shared in the networks. In addition
to collision warnings, safety applications can also support other warnings and
assistances, such as overtaking warning, emergency vehicle warning, pre-crash
4 1 Introduction
sensing, wrong way driving warning, signal violating warning and lane change
assistance [42]. For example, a vehicle can integrate the information from other
vehicles in the same lane to avoid collisions. If the vehicle intends to change its
driving lane, by using the messages from the adjacent vehicles in the neighboring
lane, it can complete the lane change in safety.
• Traffic applications: This type of application aims at improving the driving
experience by optimizing the traffic flow and providing vehicle position infor-
mation and maps [43]. Compared with safety applications, traffic applications
have no strict latency and reliability requirements. These applications may need
to be supported by a large number of alert messages. For instance, most of the
accidents are caused by the over speed of vehicles. Therefore, the vehicle speed
management becomes particularly important. In this case, the alert messages
(e.g., the regular speed limit notification) can help vehicle drivers pay attention to
their driving speeds. In addition, this type of application can greatly enhance the
traffic efficiency. One of the cases is that the cooperation detection and navigation
of vehicles and roadside infrastructures can help a driver obtain the optimal path
to the destination by collecting the traffic information in the vehicular networks.
In addition, by regulating and scheduling traffic flow, the traffic efficiency can be
significantly improved.
• Infotainment applications: The applications belong to this category is to pro-
vide on-demand entertainment services to the driving vehicles, which includes
custom information services, Internet access, multimedia content sharing, video
streaming, and so on. In recent years, video contents and video applications have
become the increasing infotainment services, such as remote video conferences,
live news and films. In fact, with the deployment of vehicular networks, vehicles
are no longer a simple means of transportation for people, but a private place to
support entertainment services. In this way, the time of attendance can be fully
used to improve the driving experience.
1.2 Overview of Enabling Technologies
1.2.1 Advanced Communication-5G
The fifth generation (5G) mobile communication technology is the latest generation
of cellular mobile communication technology. As the next telecommunication
standard, the 5G wireless system has attracted more and more attention from
academia, industry and government [44–47]. The development of 5G comes from
the growing demand for mobile data. Specifically, with the development of mobile
Internet, the networks exhibit two notable features. One feature is the growing
number of connected devices. Another feature is the emergence of new services
and applications requested by the connected devices. Meanwhile, the skyrocketing
mobile data traffic poses serious challenges to the network:
1.2 Overview of Enabling Technologies 5
• According to the current development of mobile communication networks, on

one hand, it is difficult to support the growth of data traffic. On the other hand,
the network energy consumption is unable to efficiently support the new services
and applications.
• The traffic growth will inevitably lead to further demand for the spectrum.
However, the available mobile communication spectrum is scarce. In addition,
the fragmented distribution makes it difficult to achieve efficient use of the
spectrum.
• The future network is a heterogeneous mobile network. To improve network
capacity, it is necessary to solve the problem of integrating heterogeneous
networks, simplifying interoperability and enhancing user experience.
The 5G mobile communication networks, which are composed of several
heterogeneous base stations, such as micro base stations (MBSs) and femto base
stations (FBSs), are expected to solve the above challenges and meet the growing
demand for mobile traffic. Compared with 4G mobile communication technology,
5G has the following new features:
• The peak data transmission rate reaches Gbit/s which is faster than the current
wired Internet and 100 times faster than the previous 4G cellular network.
• By taking various Internet of things (IoTs) devices into account, 5G has a large
network capacity, which can provide the connection capacity of 100 billion
devices to support IoT communication.
• With the heterogeneous base stations, 5G can provide a wide-area communica-
tion coverage, where the user experience rate in 5G is expected to reach 100
Mbit/s.
Based on the features of 5G, we can know that the 5G networks can solve
the above challenges efficiently. In addition, with a wide coverage of networks,
the information sharing between vehicles and infrastructures becomes easier and
faster. Consequently, the efficiency of data transmission in the vehicular networks
can be significantly improved. Furthermore, with the support of high-speed data
transmission, some new applications in the vehicular networks can be realized and
deployed, such as on-line gaming, virtual reality and autonomous driving.
1.2.2 Mobile Edge Computing
Currently, mobile edge computing (MEC) technology is emerged as a new paradigm

to overcome the challenges brought by conventional mobile cloud computing
(MCC) technology [48–52]. The concept of MEC was firstly proposed by the
European Telecommunications Standard Institute (ETSI) in 2014 and it can be
deployed at RSUs and BSs to provide computing services in close proximity to
mobile subscribers. Due to the physical proximity, a large number of vehicles can
offload their computation tasks to the MEC servers instead of accessing the remote
6 1 Introduction
Table 1.1 Comparison of Characteristics MCC MEC

MCC and MEC
Deployment Network core Network edge
Computing Remote Local
Service support Virtualization Virtualization
Architecture Centralized Distributed
Mobility No/Medium Yes
Location awareness No/Medium Yes
Scalability Medium High
Availability High High
Construction cost High Low
Cloud layer Cloud
MEC layer
User layer
Smartphones Desktops Tablets Laptops Watches Vehicles
Fig. 1.2 Typical three-layer service model of MEC
cloud. In this way, the traffic congestion on the backbone networks thus can be
alleviated [53–55]. Furthermore, the latency of the computation tasks can be greatly
reduced compared with that executed by the remote cloud servers so that the QoE
of the vehicles can be guaranteed. Besides, with the distributed deployment of the
MEC servers, a large number of computation demands generated by vehicles can
be responded simultaneously [56], where the efficiency of the networks can be
improved. The detailed comparison of MCC and MEC is shown in Table 1.1.
A three-layer service model of MEC is depicted in Fig. 1.2. From this figure, we
can see that the framework consists of three layers, which are user layer, i.e., various
types of mobile devices (e.g., smart phones, desktops, laptops, tablets, watches
and vehicles), MEC layer and cloud layer. In vehicular networks, vehicle users
typically have different task computing demands. Due to the physical proximity
between MEC servers and vehicles, each task computing service can be responded
and supported by MEC server immediately. After the execution of the task has been
accomplished, the MEC server then returns the result to the vehicle. In this way,
the energy consumption related to radio access and dissemination latency can be
greatly decreased compared with relying on the cloud server. However, with the low
computing and executing power of MEC servers, they can not always meet all of the
service demands generated from vehicles. In this case, the MEC servers can relay
these computing demands to the cloud server. After the task is completed, the cloud
server delivers the result of the computing task to the MEC server which will further
deliver the result to the vehicle. In this way, for the urgent computing tasks, they can
be executed by the MEC servers to reduce the latency time. For the tasks without
the strict delay requirements, they can be completed by the cloud server to improve
the resource utilization and task completion efficiency.
1.2.3 Network Function Virtualization
The network services are generally running on proprietary and dedicated hardware.
Network function virtualization (NFV) [57–61] is a network architecture that
aims to virtualize various types of network services. By consolidating different
network equipment on standard high-volume servers and leveraging virtualization
technologies, NFV has emerged as an initiative to transform the way of network
functions in software [62]. In particular, it can easily be migrated from one network
equipment to another without the need of having custom hardware appliances for
each network function. In this way, the flexibility of network service deployment can
be improved. In addition, compared with hardware installing, the investment cost of
the network provider can be reduced [63]. For example, a virtual session boundary
controller can be deployed to protect the networks without the construction cost and
complexity for installing a physical network protection unit.
The NFV architectural framework [64], as shown in Fig. 1.3, generally consists of
three parts which are virtual network functions (VNFs), NFV infrastructure (NFVI)
and NFV management and orchestrator (NFV MANO), respectively.
• VNFs are software implementation versions of network function components
running on multiple virtual machines (VMs). Each VNF is controlled by an
element management system (EMS).
• NFVI provides the network environment, where VNFs are deployed and exe-
cuted [65]. The virtual resources on NFVI are abstracted and logically partitioned
from the underlying hardware resources through a virtualization layer, where the
hardware resources can be computing, storage and network resources.
• NFV MANO provides organization and management of VNFs, which is con-
trolled by a set of VNF managers. The physical and virtual resources of NFVI
are also controlled through a virtualized infrastructure manager. In addition, NFV
orchestrator is in charge of VNF and other network services so that they can
achieve reasonable orchestration.
8 1 Introduction
NFV MANO VNF
VNF Virtual Network Control

Element
Manager Functions Management Systems
NFV
Orchestrator
NFVI
Virtualized
Hardware Virtualization Virtual Software
Infrastructure
Resource Resource
Manager
Fig. 1.3 NFV architectural framework
According to the analysis of the features of NFV, we then summarize the

advantages of NFV-based vehicular networks as follows [66].
• With the adoption of NFV, the services in vehicular networks are virtualized as
software and separated from hardware. As a result, the function update can be
completed by only updating the software so that the updating process becomes
easy and efficient.
• VNFs can be deployed dynamically and can support different networking types
to provide services based on different network situations, which leads to a flexible
deployment of network servers.
• With the NFV-based vehicular networks, the third parties also can join in the
networks to develop and design new services, where the innovation of the service
system will be accelerated. Furthermore, the reuse of virtualized functions in
the system can reduce the time and investment of developing new services and
applications.
1.2.4 Software Defined Network
Traditional networks are based on hardware and possess distributed or decentralized

architecture [67–69], where the forwarding devices in the networks, e.g., routers,
switches, etc., are used to forward the data or packets from the source to the
destination. Software defined network (SDN) [70–74] is an emerging technology to
provide high flexibility and scalability of networks, where the network is recognized
as an operating system and the resources are managed by the SDN controller. On
one hand, due to the separation of control plane and data plane, SDN can greatly
improve the efficiency of vehicular networks and easily obtain logical centralization
Efficiency Security infotainment

Application Application Application
Northbound Northbound
Interface (NBI) Interface (NBI)
SDN Controller
Southbound OpenFlow
Interface (SBI)
RSUs Vehicles BSs
Fig. 1.4 Architecture of SDN-based vehicular networks
of network control [75]. In the SDN based vehicular networks, the RSUs and BSs are
only in charge of providing services for vehicles. The control decisions are made by
the SDN controller which has the global view of the networks. On the other hand,
the programmability of the control makes it easier to create new abstractions in
vehicular networks, simplify network management and promote network evolution
[76–79]. Particularly, in the case of the SDN-based vehicular networks, the vehicles
and the road infrastructures in the data plane are served as the forwarding devices
[69].
As shown in Fig. 1.4, the network space can be decoupled into three planes,
which are the data plane, control plane and application plane, respectively
[80–83].
• Data plane: The data plane abstracts the underlying resources (e.g., vehicles)
as SDN switches. These switches conform to the unified scheduling, follow
the OpenFlow protocol and route traffic along the path towards the selected
destination network [80]. In other words, the data plane does not concern about
the control policy. It only needs to address the incoming and outgoing data
packets according to the control instruction published by the control plane.
• Control plane: The control instruction is forwarded from each switch to the
centralized controller, i.e., SDN controller. It executes direct control for the data
plane elements through the well-defined southbound interface (SBI) [83]. The
separation of the data plane and the control plane also benefits from the well-
10 1 Introduction
defined programming interface between the switches and the SDN controller
[71]. In the development of SBI technology, OpenFlow is the most notable
example [84]. Its goal is to provide a platform that enables researchers to
run experiments in networks [82]. Through OpenFlow, it is possible to control
multiple switches by a single controller.
• Application plane: The application plane consists of many types of applications,
such as efficiency applications, security applications and infotainment appli-
cations in vehicular networks [85]. Each application represents a client entity
and may request services from the SDN controller, where the communication
between the clients and the SDN controller is routed by the northbound interface
(NBI).
1.2.5 Computation Offloading
With the help of MEC technology, the computation resources can be brought to the
edge of the networks. In MEC, computation offloading is considered as one type
of consumer-oriented service. This is because the vehicle users can benefit from
MEC by computation offloading [86–89], e.g., speed up the process of computation,
save computation resources, alleviate energy consumption and prolong battery life.
For the integrated networks, the computation offloading aims to migrate some
computation tasks or functions from vehicles to MEC servers. The computation
offloading process contains three parts, which are offloading decision, offloading
execution and results return, respectively.
In the vehicular networks, each vehicle typically has computing resources to
execute its task by itself. In fact, vehicles on the road can form a group, which is
called as vehicular cloud, to share their computing resources [90–93]. The resources
owned by vehicles are however less than those of MEC server. For a vehicle which
intends to compute its task, the first step is to make the task offloading decision. The
decision indicates that the vehicle decides whether to offload its computing task
to one of the MEC servers in the networks or not. Then, if the vehicle decides to
offload its task, the task will be executed by its connected MEC server. After the
task execution has been accomplished, the task result will be returned to the vehicle
using the V2I communications.
Apart from the computation offloading decision, the vehicle also needs to
determine the number of computation tasks that can be offloaded to its connected
MEC server. Basically, a decision on computation offloading can result in two cases.
One case is binary offloading, where the vehicle will offload all computation tasks
or offload nothing. Another decision is to select a part of the computation tasks to
offload, while the rest is processed by the vehicle itself. In addition, a task can be
divided into several mutually independent subtasks or submodules, by which a part
of the subtasks can be offloaded to the MEC server to speed up the task computing
process. On the other hand, some subtasks can not be executed in a parallel way. For
MEC server
Base
Station
Binary
offloading
Local
computing
Partial
offloading
Computation tasks
to be executed
Fig. 1.5 Different computation offloading decisions
example, the input of task B may be based on the output of task A. If a user intends
to execute task B, it should obtain the result of task A at first.
To summarize, the offloading decisions can be divided into three categories
which are local computing, binary offloading and partial offloading, respectively.
The details of different computation offloading decisions are shown in Fig. 1.5.
• Local computing: In the integrated networks, both end-user devices (e.g., smart
phones, laptops and tablets) and IoT devices (e.g., vehicles equipped with OBUs)
have computation capacities. Thus, the computation tasks of vehicles can be
executed locally based on their own computation resources when the MEC
servers are not available or the vehicles have enough time and computation
resources to execute the computation tasks. Furthermore, if a vehicle does not
want to give payment for executing offloading services, it can select local
computing to execute the task.
• Binary offloading: The binary offloading means that all computation tasks
cannot be partitioned and are offloaded and executed as a whole at the MEC
server, where each computation task is required to be executed within the
deadline. If the computation resources of the MEC server are not available, it
can deliver the computation tasks to the cloud server for computing. After the
offloaded tasks are completed, the results will be returned to the corresponding
vehicles. The flow-process diagram of computation offloading is depicted in
Fig. 1.6.
12 1 Introduction
Start
A vehicular user evaluates

its computation tasks
No Whether to offloading the

tasks to MEC servers
Yes
Whether the computation No Submit the tasks to

resources are available? the cloud servers
Yes
MEC server
Local computing Cloud computing
computing
Return the computation

results to the vehicular user
End
Fig. 1.6 The procedure of computation offloading
• Partial offloading: The computation tasks are executed by the vehicle and the
MEC server together. In other words, the vehicle can execute a part of the tasks
locally based on its own computation resources. The rest will be offloaded to one
or more MEC servers for executing, as shown in Fig. 1.5. In practice, with the
limited computation capacities, partial computation offloading is more flexible
than the others so that many computation applications can be implemented with
the adoption of partial computation offloading in vehicular networks.
1.2.6 Blockchain
Blockchain refers to a chain of blocks, which is essentially a decentralized database

[94–98]. Specifically, as the underlying technology of Bitcoin, it is a series of
data blocks generated by cryptography. The information of the sub-bitcoin network
transaction is used to verify the validity of its information (anti-counterfeiting) and
generate the next block.
Blockchain primarily addresses the trust and security of transactions, which

proposes four technological innovations for this problem:
(1) Distributed ledger
In distributed ledgers, transaction accounting is done by multiple nodes
distributed in different places, and each node records the complete accounts
[99–101]. In this way, they can participate in supervising the legality of
transactions, and can also jointly testify to the ledgers. Compared with the
traditional distributed storage, the uniqueness of the distributed storage of the
blockchain is mainly reflected in two aspects:
• Different from the traditional distributed storage, which always divides
the data into multiple copies according to certain rules, each node of the
blockchain stores the complete data according to the blockchain structure.
• The storage of each node in the blockchain is independent and equal in status.
It relies on the consensus mechanism to ensure the consistency of storage.
In the networks, any node can not record the ledger data separately, which
avoids the possibility that a single node who keeps the ledger will be controlled
or be bribed to record a false ledger. In addition, the ledger is kept by all the
nodes in the networks, thus ensuring the security of the ledger data.
(2) Asymmetric encryption and authorization technology
The transaction information stored in the blockchain is public, but the
account identity information is highly encrypted and can only be accessed
if authorized by the data owner, thereby ensuring data security and personal
privacy. The process of asymmetric encryption is shown in Fig. 1.7. With the
adoption of asymmetric encryption, information can be shared securely in the
networks while protecting the privacy of vehicle users.
Public key of
User B
Plaintext
Plaintext Ciphertext
Private key
of User B
Vehicle A Encryption process Decryption process Vehicle B
Fig. 1.7 The process of asymmetric encryption

14 1 Introduction
(3) Consensus process

The consensus process is to reach a consensus among all the nodes who keep
the ledger to determine the validity of a new record. This is both a means of
identification and a means of tamper-proofing. There mainly exist four different
consensus algorithms in blockchain that are applied to different application
scenarios and strike a balance between efficiency and security:
• Proof of work (PoW): PoW requires the workstation to perform some time-
consuming and complex calculations, and the answer can be quickly checked
by the service provider. By using the time, equipment and energy as the
guarantee cost, it can be ensured that the service and resources are used by
real needs.
• Proof of stake (PoS): PoS is also known as equity proof. Similar to the
property stored in bank, this model will assign a user the corresponding
interest based on the amount and time of the digital currency the user owned.
• Delegated proof of stake (DPoS): The DPoS algorithm will elect several
nodes from thousands of PoS nodes through a specific mechanism (such
as the number of tokens they hold). Then, vote among them to elect the
consensus nodes without choosing all nodes in the network to participate
in the consensus process. This algorithm guarantees the efficiency of the
consensus process while the time and energy consumption can be reduced.
• Practical byzantine fault tolerance (PBFT): PBFT is a state machine replica
replication algorithm, in which the service is modeled as a state machine,
and the state machine performs replica replication at different nodes of the
distributed system. It is designed to allow the honest nodes in the system
to cover the behavior of malicious nodes or invalid nodes. The number of
nodes in the PBFT algorithm is fixed, one node represents one vote, and the
Byzantine fault-tolerant calculation is implemented in a minority-substantial
manner. The maximum fault tolerance is no more than 1/3 of the total number
of nodes, which means that if there are more than 2/3 normal nodes, the whole
system then can operate normally.
(4) Smart contract
The smart contract is a computer protocol designed to disseminate, verify
and execute a contract in an informational manner [102–104]. It allows for
trusted transactions without third parties, which are traceable and irreversible.
Based on the non-tamperable data, smart contracts can execute some prede-
fined rules and terms automatically. In the case of insurance, if everyone’s
information (including medical information and risk-generating information) is
authentic, it is easy to operate automated claims in some standardized insurance
products.
Recently, the use of blockchain technology in different scenarios in the
vehicular networks has received extensive attention [105–110]. The reasons that
contribute to this are as follows.
• Unlike the conventional mobile networks, vehicles in the vehicular networks

have a high mobility, where vehicles often use opportunistic connections
for networking. Consequently, vehicles in the vehicular networks are usually
strange to each other.
• Since the resources (e.g., caching and computing) in the vehicular networks
are not free so that many services are completed in the form of transactions.
With the rapid development of the vehicular networks, the transactions are
becoming more frequent than before.
• Vehicle users in the vehicular networks typically have various types. Being
faced with different situations, they may have different behaviors which
have a serious effect on the performance of vehicular services. For example,
the aggressive vehicle users may broadcast the false information and the
malicious vehicle users may steal the information from other vehicles.
Therefore, blockchain technology is needed for vehicular networks to ensure
the security of information sharing and transactions.
1.2.7 Information Centric Networks
The current Internet is a point-to-point connection architecture based on packet

switching between terminals. With the increasing demand for real-time video,
voice and other communication services, due to the inherent structure of the
TCP/IP system, the ability of the Internet to transmit and process this real-time
multimedia data is increasingly challenged, resulting in low network efficiency
and poor user experience. To address this issue, Information-centric Networking
(ICN) has emerged and is expected to change the current end-to-end communication
mechanism [111–115].
ICN breaks the host-centric connection mode of TCP/IP and becomes a mode
of information (or content) centric. With ICN, the data will be independent of the
physical location, and any node in the ICN network can be a content producer to
generate contents. The existing studies related to ICN have some common goals:
promote content distribution efficiency, improve network security, enhance large-
scale network scalability and simplify the creation of distributed applications.
Content centric networking (CCN) is a specific implementation which is most
studied in ICN. CCN is a receiver driven communication protocol that uses content
as the core [116–121]. There are two kinds of packets in CCN, i.e., the content
packet and the interest packet. The CCN node undertakes the storage, forwarding
and routing tasks of the packets. A typical CCN node mainly includes a content store
(CS), a pending interest table (PIT) and a forwarding information base (FIB).
• CS: The CS is similar to the IP router’s cache, but the cached content will not
be emptied after each communication. In this way, the content can be used for
the next communication. This is a critical concept of CCN, which can reduce the
content download time and improve the utilization of the network bandwidth.
Another random document with
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science, has not been able to distract me from it? Let not your
Excellency think it self-praise in me, if I am bold to present to you my
defence.
When I was studying in the School of the Redeemer, I was
surrounded on all sides with powerful obstacles that made against
science, and in those years the influence of these tendencies was
almost insurmountable. On the one hand, my father, who had never
had any other children but me, said that in leaving him I, being his
only son, had left all his possessions (such as they were in those
parts), which he had acquired for me in the sweat of his brow, and
which strangers would carry away after his death. On the other hand,
I was confronted with unspeakable poverty: as I received but three
kopeks a day, all I dared spend a day for food was half a kopek for
bread and half a kopek for kvas, while the rest went for paper, shoes
and other necessities. In this way I passed five years, and did not
abandon study. On the one hand, they wrote to me that, knowing the
well-being of my father, well-to-do people of my village would give
me their daughters in marriage, and in fact they proposed them to
me, when I was there; on the other hand, the small schoolboys
pointed their fingers at me, and cried: “Look at the clodhopper who
has come to study Latin at the age of twenty!” Soon after that I was
taken to St. Petersburg, and was sent abroad, receiving an
allowance forty times as large as before. But that did not divert my
attention from study, but proportionately increased my eagerness,
though there is a limit to my strength. I most humbly beg your
Excellency to feel sure that I will do all in my power to cause all
those who ask me to be wary in my zeal to have no anxiety about
me, and that those who judge me with malicious envy should be put
to shame in their unjust opinion, and should learn that they must not
measure others with their yardstick, and should also remember that
the Muses love whom they list.
If there is anyone who persists in the opinion that a learned man
must be poor, I shall quote on his side Diogenes, who lived in a
barrel with dogs, and left his countrymen a few witticisms for the
increase of their pride; on the other side I shall mention Newton, the
rich Lord Boyle, who had acquired all his glory in the sciences
through the use of a large sum of money; Wolff, who with his lectures
and presents had accumulated more than five hundred thousand,
and had earned, besides, a baronetcy; Sloane, in England, who had
left such a library that no private individual was able to purchase it,
and for which Parliament gave twenty thousand pounds. I shall not
fail to carry out your commands, and remain with deep respect your
Excellency’s most humble servant, Mikháylo Lomonósov. St.
Petersburg, May 10, 1753.
II
Dear Sir, Iván Ivánovich:—I received yesterday your Excellency’s

letter of May 24th, in which I see an unchangeable token of your
distinguished favour to me, and which has greatly pleased me,
especially because you have deigned to express your assurance
that I would never abandon the sciences. I do not at all wonder at the
judgment of the others, for they really have had the example in
certain people who, having barely opened for themselves the road to
fortune, have at once set out on other paths and have sought out
other means for their farther advancement than the sciences, which
they have entirely abandoned; their patrons ask little or nothing of
them, and are satisfied with their mere names, not like your
Excellency who ask for my works in order to judge me. In these
above-mentioned men, who in their fortune have abandoned
science, all can easily perceive that all they know is what they have
acquired in their infancy under the rod, and that they have added no
new knowledge since they have had control of themselves. But it has
been quite different with me (permit me, dear sir, to proclaim the
truth not for the sake of vainglory, but in order to justify myself): my
father was a good-hearted man, but he was brought up in extreme
ignorance; my step-mother was an evil and envious woman, and she
tried with all her might and main to rouse my father’s anger by
representing to him that I eternally wasted my time with books; so I
was frequently compelled to read and study anything that fell into my
hands, in lonely and deserted places, and to suffer cold and hunger,
until I went to the School of the Redeemer.
Now that I have, through your fatherly intercession, a complete
sufficiency from her august Imperial Highness, and your approbation
of my labours, and that of other experts and lovers of the sciences,
and almost their universal delight in them, and finally no longer a
childish reasoning of an imperfect age,—how could I in my manhood
disgrace my early life? But I shall stop troubling your patience with
these considerations, knowing your just opinion of me. So I shall
report to your Excellency that which your praiseworthy zeal wishes to
know of the sciences.
First, as to electricity: There have lately been made here two
important experiments, one by Mr. Richmann by means of the
apparatus, the other by me in the clouds. By the first it was proved
that Musschenbroek’s experiment with a strong discharge can be
transferred from place to place, separating it from the apparatus for a
considerable distance, even as much as half a mile. The second
experiment was made on my lightning apparatus, when, without any
perceptible thunder or lightning, on the 25th of April, the thread was
repelled from the iron rod and followed my hand; and on the 28th of
the same month, during the passage of a rain-cloud without any
perceptible thunder or lightning, there were loud discharges from the
lightning apparatus, with bright sparks and a crackling that could be
heard from a great distance. This has never been noticed before,
and it agrees completely with my former theory of heat and my
present one of the electric power, and this will serve me well at the
next public lecture. This lecture I shall deliver in conjunction with
Professor Richmann: he will present his experiments, and I shall
illustrate the theory and usefulness arising from them; I am now
preparing for this lecture.
As to the second part of the text-book on eloquence, it is well on
its way, and I hope to have it printed by the end of October. I shall
use all my endeavour to have it out soon; I do not send your
Excellency any manuscript of it, as you have asked for printed
sheets. As I have promised, I am also using all my endeavour in
regard to the first volume of the Russian History, so as to have it
ready in manuscript by the new year. From him who delivers lectures
in his subject, who makes new experiments, delivers public lectures
and dissertations, and besides composes all kinds of verses and
projects for solemn expressions of joy; who writes out the rules of
eloquence for his native language and a history of his country, which,
at that, he has to furnish for a certain date,—I cannot demand
anything more, and I am ready to be patient with him, provided
something sensible will result in the end.
Having again and again convinced myself that your Excellency
likes to converse about science, I eagerly await a pleasant meeting
with you, in order to satisfy you with my latest endeavours, for it is
not possible to communicate them all to you at a distance. I cannot
see when I shall be able to arrange, as I had promised, the optical
apparatus in your Excellency’s house, for there are no floors, nor
ceilings, nor staircases in it yet, and I lately walked around in it with
no small degree of danger to myself. The electric balls I shall send
you, as you wish, without delay, as soon as possible. I must inform
your Excellency that there is here a great scarcity in mechanics, so
that I have not been able to get anywhere, not even at your estate, a
joiner for any money, to build me an electric apparatus, so that up to
the present I have been making use, instead of a terrestrial machine,
of the clouds, to which I have had a pole erected from the roof.
Whatever instruments your Excellency may need, I beg you to permit
me to report in the office of the Academy in your name that the
orders for them should be given to the mechanics, or else the
business will be endlessly prolonged. In fine, I remain, with the
expression of deep respect, your most humble and faithful servant,
Mikháylo Lomonósov. St. Petersburg, May 31, 1753.
ODE IN HONOUR OF THE EMPRESS ANNA, ON THE
OCCASION OF THE CAPTURE OF KHOTÍN FROM THE
TURKS, BY THE RUSSIAN ARMIES, IN 1739
A sudden ecstasy has seized my soul; it transports me to the
summit of a lofty mountain, where the wind has ceased to howl, and
all is hushed in the deep valleys below. Silent are the listening
streams, to which it is natural to murmur, or with loud rush to roll
down the mountains; crowns of laurel are weaving; thither rumour is
seen to hasten; afar off the blue smoke rises in the fields.
Is not Pindus beneath my feet? I hear the sweet music of the pure
sisters. Parnassian fire burns within me. I hasten to the sacred band.
They offer me to taste of the healing stream. “Drink, and forget thy
troubles; bathe thine eyes in Castilian dew; stretch them forth over
the deserts and hills, and fix them on the spot where the bright light
of day is seen rising out of the dark shadows of night.”
As a ship, amidst the angry waves which seek to overwhelm her,
sails on triumphantly, and appears to threaten should they dare to
impede her course; grey froth foams around her, her track is
imprinted in the deep; thus crowds of Tartars rush towards and
surround the Russian forces, but in vain; powerless and breathless
they fall.
The love of their country nerves the souls and arms of Russia’s
sons; eager are all to shed their blood; the raging tumult but inspires
them with fresh courage; as the lion, by the fearful glare of his eyes,
drives before him whole herds of wolves, their sharp teeth vainly
showing; the woods and shores tremble at his roar; with his tail he
lashes the sand and dust; with his strength he beats down every
opposing force.
Hear I not the deafening din of Ætna’s forges? Roars not the brass
within, bubbling with boiling sulphur? Is not Hell striving to burst its
chains, and ope its jaws? The posterity of the rejected deity have
filled the mountain track with fire, and hurl down flame and liquid
metal; but neither foe nor nature can withstand the burning ardour of
our people.
Send away thy hordes, Stamboul, beyond these mountains, where
the fiery elements vomit forth smoke, ashes, flame and death;
beyond the Tigris, whose strong waves drag after them the huge
stones from the shores, but the world holds no impediment to arrest
the eagle in his flight. To him the waters, the woods, the mountains,
the precipices and the silent deserts are but as level paths; wherever
the wind can blow, thither he can wing his way.
Let the earth be all motion like the sea; let myriads oppose; let
thickest smoke darken the universe; let the Moldavian mountains
swim in blood; such cannot harm you, O Russians! whose safety
Fate itself has decreed for the sake of the blessed Anna. Already in
her course your zeal has led you in triumph against the Tartars, and
wide is the prospect before you.
The parting ray of daylight falls gently into the waters, and leaves
the fight to the night fires; Murza has fallen on his long shadow; in
him the light and soul of the infidels pass from them. A wolf issues
from the thick forest and rushes on the pale carcass, even in the
Turkish camp. A dying Tartar, raising his eyes towards the evening
star for the last time, “Hide,” he feebly cries, “thy purple light, and
with it the shame of Mahomet; descend quickly with the sun into the
sea.”
Why is my soul thus oppressed with terror? My veins grow stiff, my
heart aches. Strange tones meet mine ear; a howling noise seems
passing through the desert, the woods and the air. The wild beast
has taken refuge in its cavern; the gates of heaven are opened; a
cloud has spread itself over the army; suddenly a countenance of fire
shines forth: a hero appears chasing his enemies before him, his
sword all red with blood.
Is it not he who, near the rapid waters of the Don, destroyed the
walls raised to check the Russians’ progress? And the Persians in
their arid deserts, was it not by his arms they fell? Thus looked he on
his foes when he approached the Gothic shores; thus lifted he his
powerful arm; thus swiftly his proud horse galloped over those fields
where we see the morning star arise.
Loud thunder rattles around him; the plains and the forests tremble
at the approach of Peter, who by his side so sternly looks towards
the south, girt round with dreadful thunder! Is it not the conqueror of
Kazán? It is he, ye Caspian waters, who humbled the proud Selim,
and strewed the desert with the dead bodies of his enemies.
Thus the heroes addressed each other: “Not in vain we toiled; not
fruitless our united efforts, that the whole world should stand in awe
of Russia. By the aid of our arms, our boundaries have been
widened on the north, on the west, and on the east. Anna now
triumphs in the south; she has crowned her troops with victory.” The
cloud has passed, and the heroes within it: the eye no longer sees,
the ear no longer hears them.
The blood of the Tartar has purpled the river; he dares not again
venture to the fight; he seeks refuge in the desert; and, forgetful alike
of the sword, the camp, his own shame, he pictures to himself his
friends weltering in their blood; the waving of the light leaf startles
him like whizzing balls as they fly through the air.
The shouts of the victors echo through the woods and valleys; but
the wretch who abandons the fight dreads his own shadow. The
moon, a witness to her children’s flight, shares in their shame, and,
deeply reddening, hides her face in darkness. Fame flies through the
gloom of the night; her trumpet proclaims to the universe the terrible
might of Russia.
The Danube rushes into the sea, and, roaring in echo to the
acclamations of the conquerors, dashes its furious waves against the
Turk, who seeks to hide his shame behind its waters. To and fro he
runs like a wild beast wounded, and, despairing, he thinks that for
the last time he moves his steps; the earth disdains to support the
wretch who could not guard her; darkness and fear confuse his path.
Where is now the boasting Stamboul?—thy courage, thy obstinacy
in the fight, thy malice against the nations of the North, thy contempt
of our strength? No sooner hadst thou commanded thy hordes to
advance than thou thoughtest to conquer; cruelly thy janissary
vented his rage; like a tiger he rushed upon the Muscovite troop.
Soon the boaster fell; he weltered in his own blood.
Water with your tears, children of Hagar, the foot which has
trampled you down! Kiss ye that hand whose bloody sword brought
fear before your eyes. Anna’s stern glance is quick to grant relief to
those who seek it; it shines forth, for the storm has passed away.
She sees you prostrate before her; fervent in affection towards her
own subjects, to her enemies she proffers punishment or pardon.
Already has the golden finger of the morning star withdrawn the
starry curtain of night; a horse fleet as the wind, his rider Phœbus in
the full blaze of his glory, issues from the east, his nostrils breathing
sparks of radiant light. Phœbus shakes his fiery head, dwells in
wonder on the glorious work and exclaims: “Few such victories have
I witnessed, long as I have continued to give light to the world, long
as the circle of ages has revolved.”
Like as the serpent rolls itself up, hissing and hiding its sting under
a rock, when the eagle, soaring into those regions where the winds
blow not, above lightnings, snow and tempests, looks down upon the
beasts, the fishes and the reptiles beneath him, thus Khotín trembles
before the eagle of Russia; thus its inhabitants crouch within its
walls.
What led your Tartar race, Kalchák,[135] to bend so promptly
beneath the Russian power? to deliver up the keys of your town in
token of submission, evading thus disgrace more deep? The
clemency of Anna, of her who is ever ready to raise the suppliant.
Where flows the Vistula, and where the glorious Rhine, even there
her olive-trees have flourished; there have the proud hearts of her
defeated foes yielded up their lives.
Joyful are the lands which have thrown off the cruel yoke; the
burden the Turks had laid on them is thrown back upon themselves!
The barbarian hands which held them in restraint now wear their
chains in captivity; and the feet are shackled which trampled down
the field of the stranger, and drove away his flocks.
Not thus alone must thou be humbled; not all thy punishment this,
O Turkey! A far greater hast thou merited, for thou didst refuse to let
us live in peace. Still does the rage of your haughty souls forbid you
to bend before Anna? Where would ye hide yourselves from her?
Damascus, Cairo, Aleppo, shall flame! Crete shall be surrounded
with her fleets; Euphrates shall be dyed with your blood.
A sudden and universal change! A dazzling vision passes before
my eyes, and with heaven’s purest beams outshines the brightness
of the day! The voices of heroes strike upon my ear. Anna’s joyous
band, in glory clad, bear up eternity beyond the starry orbs, and
Truth with her golden pen traces her glorious deeds in that book
which is not reached by corruption.
Russia thrives like a young lily under Anna’s care; within China’s
distant walls she is honoured, and every corner of the earth is filled
with her subjects’ glory. Happy art thou, O my country, under the rule
of thy Empress! Bright the laurels thou hast gained by this triumph.
Fear not the ills of war; they fly from the land where Anna is glorified
by her people. Malicious envy may pour forth her poison, she may
gnaw her tongue in rage. Our joy heeds it not.
The robbers who, from beyond the Dniester, came to plunder the
fields of the Cossacks, are driven back, scattered like dust; no longer
dare they venture on that soil where the fruits of the earth and the
blessings of peace together flourish. In safety the merchant pursues
his traffic, and the mariner sees a boundary to the waves; no
obstacles impede his course. The old and the young are happy; he
who wished for the hour of death now prays for lengthened life; his
heart is gladdened by his country’s triumphs.
The shepherd drives his flocks into the meadow, and enters the
forest without fear; there, with his friend who tends his sheep, he
sings the song of joy, his theme the bravery of the soldier; he
blesses the passing moments of his life, and implores endless peace
on the spot where he sleeps in quiet. Thus, in the simple sincerity of
his heart, he glorifies her who shields him from his enemies.
O thou great Empress! The love of Russia, the dread of thy foes,
the heroine of the northern world, the hope, the joy, the goddess of
the shores of seven wide seas, thou shinest in the cloudless lights of
goodness and beneficence. Forgive thy slave that he has chosen thy
glory for his lay, and that his rugged verse, in token of submission to
thy rule, has thus dared to attempt to magnify thy power.—Given in
F. R. Grahame’s The Progress of Science, Art and Literature in
Russia.
MORNING MEDITATIONS
O’er the wide earth yon torch of heavenly light

Its splendour spreads and God’s proud works unveils;
My soul, enraptured at the marvellous sight,
Unwonted peace, and joy, and wonder feels,
And with uplifted thoughts of ecstasy
Exclaims, “How great must their Creator be!”
Or, if a mortal’s power could stretch so high—

If mortal sight could reach that glorious sun,
And look undazzled at its majesty,
’T would seem a fiery ocean burning on
From time’s first birth, whose ever-flaming ray
Could ne’er extinguished be by time’s decay.
There waves of fire ’gainst waves of fire are dashing,

And know no bounds; there hurricanes of flame,
As if in everlasting combat flashing,
Roar with a fury which no time can tame:
There molten mountains boil like ocean-waves,
And rain in burning streams the welkin laves.
But in Thy presence all is but a spark,

A little spark: that wondrous orb was lighted
By Thy own hand, the dreary and the dark
Pathway of man to cheer—of man benighted;
To guide the march of seasons in their way,
And place us in a paradise of day.
Dull Night her sceptre sways o’er plains and hills,

O’er the dark forest and the foaming sea;
Thy wondrous energy all nature fills,
And leads our thoughts, and leads our hopes to Thee.
“How great is God!” a million tongues repeat,
And million tongues re-echo, “God, how great!”
But now again the day star bursts the gloom,
Scattering its sunshine o’er the opening sky;
Thy eye, that pierces even through the tomb,
Has chased the clouds, has bid the vapours fly;
And smiles of light, descending from above,
Bathe all the universe with joy and love.
From Sir John Bowring’s Specimens of the Russian Poets.
EVENING MEDITATIONS
ON SEEING THE AURORA BOREALIS
The day retires, the mists of night are spread

Slowly o’er nature, darkening as they rise;
The gloomy clouds are gathering round our heads,
And twilight’s latest glimmering gently dies:
The stars awake in heaven’s abyss of blue;
Say, who can count them?—Who can sound it?—Who?
Even as a sand in the majestic sea,

A diamond-atom on a hill of snow,
A spark amidst a Hecla’s majesty,
An unseen mote where maddened whirlwinds blow,
And I midst scenes like these—the mighty thought
O’erwhelms me—I am nought, or less than nought.
And science tells me that each twinkling star

That smiles above us is a peopled sphere,
Or central sun, diffusing light afar;
A link of nature’s chain:—and there, even there,
The Godhead shines displayed—in love and light,
Creating wisdom—all-directing might.
Where are thy secret laws, O Nature, where?
In wintry realms thy dazzling torches blaze,
And from thy icebergs streams of glory there
Are poured, while other suns their splendent race
In glory run: from frozen seas what ray
Of brightness?—From yon realms of night what day?
Philosopher, whose penetrating eye

Reads nature’s deepest secrets, open now
This all-inexplicable mystery:
Why do earth’s darkest, coldest regions glow
With lights like these?—Oh, tell us, knowing one,
For thou dost count the stars, and weigh the sun!
Whence are these varied lamps all lighted round?—

Whence all the horizon’s glowing fire?—The heaven
Is splendent as with lightning—but no sound
Of thunder—all as calm as gentlest even;
And winter’s midnight is as bright, as gay,
As the fair noontide of a summer’s day.
What stores of fire are these, what magazine,

Whence God from grossest darkness light supplies?
What wondrous fabric which the mountains screen,
Whose bursting flames above those mountains rise;
Where rattling winds disturb the mighty ocean,
And the proud waves roll with eternal motion?
Vain is the inquiry—all is darkness, doubt:

This earth is one vast mystery to man.
First find the secrets of this planet out,
Then other planets, other systems scan!
Nature is veiled from thee, presuming clod!
And what canst thou conceive of Nature’s God?
—From Sir John Bowring’s Specimens of the Russian Poets.

FOOTNOTES:
[134] To his patron, upon his having expressed his fear that
Lomonósov would lose his zeal for the sciences when he
received the gift of an estate from the Empress.
[135] Kalchák-pasha was the commander of Khotín.
Alexander Petróvich Sumarókov. (1718-1777.)
Sumarókov is the first litterateur of Russia, that is, the first
man to regard literature as a profession, independently of an
official position. After graduating from the military school, in
1740, he served for a while under some military commanders,
but devoted all his leisure time to writing poetry according to
the rules laid down by Tredyakóvski. There was no species of
poetical literature in which he did not try himself and did not
produce prolifically. He has left odes, eulogies, fables, satires
and dramas. In many of these he broke virgin soil in Russia,
and in his unexampled conceit he was not slow to proclaim
his highest deserts: “What Athens has seen and Paris now
sees, after a long period of transition, that you, O Russia,
have perceived at once by my efforts.” In spite of his
mediocrity and acquaintance with only the pseudo-classic
French style (for he disdained all serious study of antiquity),
Sumarókov was highly valued in his day, and his example has
done much to advance Russian literature. In 1756 the
Russian Theatre was created by a decree of the Senate, and
Sumarókov was chosen as its first director. To fill his
repertoire, he was compelled to write plays himself, and he
produced them with astounding facility. His best drama is
probably The False Demetrius, though there is little historical
truth in it. In 1761 he issued the first independent journal, The
Industrious Bee, which, however, was filled mainly with his
own writings. Sumarókov’s influence on Russian letters lasted
up to the time of Púshkin, though Karamzín was the first to
doubt his greatness.
Sumarókov’s The False Demetrius has been translated into
English: Demetrius the Impostor; a tragedy [in five acts and in
prose], translated from the Russian, London, 1806.
Act II., Scene 7, is also given in C. E. Turner’s Studies in
Russian Literature, and, the same, in Fraser’s Magazine,
1877.
THE FALSE DEMETRIUS
ACT II., SCENE 1. GEORGE AND XENIA
Xenia. Blessed in the world is that purple-bearing man who does

not suppress the freedom of our souls, who elevates himself for
society’s good, and with leniency adorns his royal dignity, who gives
his subjects auspicious days, and whom evildoers alone have cause
to fear.
George. O thou sad Kremlin! Thou art this day a witness how that
virtue was cast down from the throne. Languishing Moscow trembles
in despair; happiness flees its walls in sorrow; the bright days seem
darker than dense night; the fair groves about Moscow are clad in
sombreness. When the solemn bell rings in the city, it seems to us
that it repeats the city’s general groan and that it proclaims our
Church’s fall through the machinations of the pope. O Lord, remove
that terror from the Russians! Already the report flies through the
square that Clement has promised reward in heaven to the rebels,
the foes of our country’s city, and that he in advance forgives them
all their sins. Moscow will suffer as suffers the New World! There the
papists have stained with blood the earth, have slaughtered its
inhabitants, have plundered the surviving, have burnt the innocent in
their own land, holding the cross in one hand, in the other—the
bloody sword. What has happened to them in their dire fate will now,
O Russia, be done to you!
Xenia. All powers of evil,—Demetrius, Clement, Hell,—will not
efface you from my heart! O Heaven, remove the fury of the papal
power, and with it Xenia’s unbearable distress, that Russia might
raise its head, and I might be my sweetheart’s wife! Grant us to see
the monarch on the throne, subject to truth, not arbitrary will! All truth
has withered; the tyrant’s law is only what he wants; but on the
happiness of their subjects are based the laws of righteous kings, for
their immortal glory. God’s vicar is to be the Tsar. Strike me, destroy
me, merciless Tsar! Megæra has swept you from Tartarus, the
Caucasus has borne you, Hyrcania has nurtured you. The heretic,
with his crowd of slaves, will, cursing, oust the bodies of saintly men
from their graves. Their names will in Russia for ever perish, and the
houses of God will in Moscow be deserted. Nation, tear the crown
from the creator of dire torments; hasten, wrest the sceptre from the
barbarian’s hands!
SCENE 7
Demetrius (alone). My crown lies not firmly upon my head, and the
end of my greatness is at hand. Each moment I expect a sudden
change. O Kremlin’s walls that frighten me! Meseems each hour you
announce to me: “Villain, you are a foe, a foe to us and the whole
land!” The citizens proclaim: “You have ruined us!” And the temples
weep: “We are stained with blood!” The fair places about Moscow
are deserted, and Hell from its abyss has oped its jaws at me; I see
the sombre steps that lead to the infernal regions, and the tormented
shades of Tartarus: I am already in Gehenna, and burn in the flame; I
cast my glance to heaven, and see the celestial regions: there are
good kings in all the beauty of their natures, and angels besprinkle
them with dew of paradise; but what hope have I to-day in my
despair? I shall be tormented in eternity even as I suffer now. I am
not a crowned potentate in a magnificent city, but an evil malefactor,
in hell tormented. I perish, dragging a multitude of the people to
destruction. Flee, tyrant, flee! From whom?—From myself, for I see
no one else before me. Run! But whither? Your hell is ever with you!
The assassin is here, run! But I am that assassin! I tremble before
myself, and before my shade. I shall avenge myself! On whom?
Myself. Do I hate myself? I love myself! For what? I see it not. All cry
against me: rapine, unfair justice, all terrible things,—they cry
together against me. I live to the misfortune, shall die to the fortune
of my nearest. The fate of men, the lowliest, I envy: even the
mendicant is sometimes happy in his poverty. But I rule here,—and
am always tormented. Endure and perish, having ascended the
throne by deceit! Drive, and be driven! Live and die a tyrant!
INSTRUCTION TO A SON
Perceiving his tearful end near at hand, a father thus instructed his
beloved, only begotten son:
“My son, beloved son! I am old to-day; my mind grows dull, my
fervour is all gone; I am preparing to go before the Judge, and shall
soon pass to eternity, the immeasurable abode of mortals. So I wish
to tell you how you may live, and to show you the road to happiness.
You will travel over a slippery path: though all in the world is vanity,
yet why should one disdain happiness in life? Our whole mind ought
to be bent upon obtaining it, and our endeavour should be to get all
we need.
“Give up that chimera which men call honour; of what good is it
when you have nothing to eat? It is impossible to get along in
commerce without cheating, and in poverty without dishonesty and
theft. By hook and by crook I have scraped together a fortune for
you; now, if you should squander it all, I shall have sold my soul in
vain. Whenever I think of that, my rest is gone.
“Increase your income, keep indolence from your heart, and keep
your money against an evil day. Steal, if you can steal, but do it
secretly,—by all means increase your income every year! The eye is
not satisfied with mere looking on. If you can cheat, cheat artfully, for
’tis a shame to be caught in the act, and it often leads to the gallows.
Make no acquaintances for the mere sake of knowing them, but put
your spoon there where the jam is thickest! Revere the rich, to get
your tribute from them. Never tire praising them with condescension;
but if they be distinguished people, subdue them by creeping!
“Be humble with all men, and simulate! If a mighty person chides
anyone, together with the mighty chide him! Praise those whom the
powerful praise, and belittle those they belittle! Keep your eyes wide
open and watch whom great boyárs are angry with.
“If you walk upon the straight road, you will find no fortune. Swim
there where favourable winds carry you! Against men whom the
people honour speak not a word; and let your soul be ever ready to
thank them, though you receive nothing from them! Endeavour to
speak like them. Whatever the puissant man says are sacred words;
never contradict him, for you are a small man! If he say red of that
which is black, say too: ‘’Tis rather red!’ Before low-born men rave
like a devil; for if you do not, they will forget who you are, and will not
respect you: the common people honour those who are haughty. But
before the high-born leap like a frog, and remember that a farthing is
as nothing in comparison with a rouble. Big souls have they, but we,
my beloved son, have only little souls! Be profuse in thanks, if you
expect some favour from your benefactor; spare your thanks where
you have nothing to gain, for your grateful spirit will be lost.
“Do yourself no injury, and remain honest to yourself, loving
yourself most sincerely! Do no injury to yourself, but for others have
only appearances, and remember how little wisdom there is in the
world, and how many fools. Satisfy them with empty words: honour
yourself with your heart, but others with your lips, for you will have to
pay no toll for fondling them. Let others think that you place yourself
much lower than them, and that you have little regard for yourself;
but do not forget that your shirt is nearer to your body than your
caftan!
“I will allow you to play cards, provided you know how to handle
them. A game without cunning has no interest, and playing you must
not sacrifice yourself to others. Whatever game you play, my son,
remember not to be always honest!—Have contempt for peasants,
seeing them below your feet, but let your lips proclaim the puissant
as gods, and speak no surly word to them. But love none of them, no
matter what their worth, though their deeds be trumpeted through the
subsolar world! Give bribes, and yourself accept them! When there
are no witnesses, steal and cheat as much as you please, but be
wary with your misdoings in presence of witnesses! Change the
good that there is in people into evil, and never say a good word of
another! For what are you to gain from praising them? Indeed, their
virtues put you only in a bad light. Go not out of the way to serve
another, where there is no gain for you.
“Hate the learned, and despise the ignorant, and ever keep your
thoughts fresh for your own advantage! Above all, beware of getting
into the satire of impudent scribblers! Disturb and break the ties of
families, friendship and marriage, for ’tis more convenient to fish in
muddy waters. Know no love, family nor friends, for ever holding
yourself alone in mind! Deceive your friends, and let them suffer
through you sorrow and misfortune, if you are the winner thereby!
Garner your fruits wherever you can! There are some who foolishly
call it dishonest to bring woes to your friends, but they do not see
that duty teaches me only to love myself, and that it is not at all
dishonourable when necessity demands that others perish: it is
contrary to nature not to love yourself best. Let misfortune befall my
country, let it go to the nethermost regions; let everything that is not
mine be ruined,—provided I have peace.
“Forget not my rules! I have left you my fortune and my wisdom.
Live, my son, live as your father has lived!”
He had barely uttered these words, when he was struck by
lightning, and he departed from his child and home; and the soul that
had for so long been disseminating poison flew out of the body and
took its flight to hell.
TO THE CORRUPTERS OF LANGUAGE
In a strange land there lived a dog in a thick forest. He deemed his

citizens to be uncultured, so passed his days in the country of the
wolves and bears. The dog no longer barked, but growled like a
bear, and sang the songs of wolves. When he returned to the dogs,
he out of reason adorned his native tongue. He mixed the growl of
bears and howl of wolves into his bark, and began to speak
unintelligibly to dogs. The dogs said: “We need not your new-fangled
music—you only spoil our language with it”; and they began to bite
him, until they killed him.
I have read the tombstone of that dog: “Never disdain your native
speech, and introduce into it nothing foreign, but adorn yourself with
your own beauty.”
THE HELPFUL GNAT
Six fine horses were pulling an immense carriage. The carriage

would have been a heavy one without any people in it; but this
enormous carriage was filled with people, and was in size a
haystack. It slowly moved along, travelling not over boards, but
carrying the master and his wife through heavy sand, in which it
finally stuck fast. The horses’ strength gave out; the lackeys on the
footboard, to save the horses and wheels, stepped down; but yet the
rick did not move. The driver called to the horses: “Get up, get up!”
and struck them with the whip, as if it was their guilt. He struck them
hard and yelled and yelled, until he grew hoarse, while the horses
were covered with foam, and steam rose from them.
A gnat flew by, perceived the plight of the carriage, and was
anxious to do it a good turn, and help it out. So it began to goad the
horses and the driver, to make the driver on his box more agile, and
that the horses might draw with more vim. Now it stung the driver,
now the horses; it perspired, worked with might and main, but all in
vain; it buzzed and buzzed, but all its songs were useless; there was
not the slightest sign that the carriage would move; so after having
laboured hard, it flew away. In the meanwhile, the horses had rested
themselves, and dragged the huge mass out of the sand. The gnat
saw the carriage from afar, and said: “How foolish it all was of me to
abandon the carriage just as it was to move! ’Tis true I have worked
hard in the sand, but at least I have moved the carriage.”
FOUR ANSWERS
You ask me, my friend, what I would do: (1) if I were a small man
and a small gentleman; (2) if I were a great man and a small
gentleman; (3) if I were a great man and a great gentleman; (4) if I
were a small man and a great gentleman. To the first question I
answer: I should use all my endeavour to become acquainted in the
houses of distinguished people and men of power; I would not allow
a single holiday to pass, without making the round of the city, in
order to give the compliments of the season; I would walk on tiptoes
in the antechambers of the mighty, and would treat their valets to
tobacco; I would learn to play all kinds of games, for when you play
cards you can sit down shoulder to shoulder with the most
distinguished people, and then bend over to them and say in a low

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The Next Generation Vehicular

Networks, Modeling, Algorithm and

Biota Grow 2C gather 2C cook Loucas

Game Theory for Next Generation Wireless and

Security and Privacy for Next-Generation Wireless

Cognitive Vehicular Networks First Edition Agrawal

IPTV Delivery Networks Next Generation Architectures

Cyber Physical Systems for Next Generation Networks

5g Nr The Next Generation Wireless Access Technology

Halogen Free Flame Retardant Polymers Next generation

Zhou Su · Yilong Hui · Tom H. Luan

The Next Generation

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/14180

The Next Generation

Tom H. Luan Qiaorong Liu

ISSN 2366-1186 ISSN 2366-1445 (electronic)

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021

model of optimal computation resource allocation becomes a challenge to provide

establish a trust evaluation scheme by introducing authority units (AUs) to monitor

Shanghai, China Zhou Su

Xi’an, China Yilong Hui

Xi’an, China Tom H. Luan

Shanghai, China Qiaorong Liu

Shanghai, China Rui Xing

2.4.2 Framework of Reputation Based Content Delivery

5 Auction Based Secure Computation Offloading in Vehicular

7.4 Learning with Groups: Deep Learning Based Autonomous

5G 5th generation mobile networks

PIT Pending interest table

1.1 Overview of Vehicular Networks

1.1.1 Architecture of Vehicular Networks

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021 1

RSU BS V2V V2I

Vehicular Service Coverage of RSU

Fig. 1.1 An illustration of vehicular networks

Next, we introduce the two typical kinds of communication modes in vehicular

communication coverage areas of other vehicles, the information and contents

1.1.2 Applications in Vehicular Networks

The applications supported in vehicular networks mainly include vehicle safety

1.2 Overview of Enabling Technologies

1.2.1 Advanced Communication-5G

• According to the current development of mobile communication networks, on

1.2.2 Mobile Edge Computing

Currently, mobile edge computing (MEC) technology is emerged as a new paradigm

Table 1.1 Comparison of Characteristics MCC MEC

Cloud layer Cloud

Smartphones Desktops Tablets Laptops Watches Vehicles

Fig. 1.2 Typical three-layer service model of MEC

1.2.3 Network Function Virtualization

NFV MANO VNF

VNF Virtual Network Control

Fig. 1.3 NFV architectural framework

According to the analysis of the features of NFV, we then summarize the

1.2.4 Software Defined Network

Traditional networks are based on hardware and possess distributed or decentralized

Efficiency Security infotainment

RSUs Vehicles BSs

Fig. 1.4 Architecture of SDN-based vehicular networks