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THE TRINITARIAN CHRISTOLOGY
OF ST THOMAS AQUINAS
 The Trinitarian
Christology of
St Thomas Aquinas

DO M INIC LE G GE , O . P.

1
 3
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom
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© Dominic Legge, O.P., 2017
The moral rights of the author have been asserted
First Edition published in 2017
Impression: 1
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Nihil Obstat Imprimatur
Rev. Thomas Joseph White, O.P. Most Rev. Barry C. Knestout
Censor Deputatus Auxiliary Bishop of Washington
Archdiocese of Washington
March 16, 2016
The Nihil Obstat and Imprimatur are official declarations that a book or pamphlet
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 Foreword

Dominic Legge’s book needs no recommendation beyond itself: all its

readers will be able to confirm the high value of this research, the
conclusions of which are solidly based on a rigorous reading of the
texts of Thomas Aquinas. This work demonstrates the essentially
Trinitarian structure of the Christology of St Thomas. It is the first
monograph that treats this in a comprehensive way, and it constitutes
henceforth the reference work on the subject.
“Aquinas’s Christology is intrinsically Trinitarian.” The key to this
affirmation resides in the recognition that the Trinitarian missions,
discussed in the first two chapters, are the point of departure for
St Thomas’s Christology. The incarnation, life, and work of Christ
are presented in those chapters as the “visible mission” of the Son.
Combined with this, Legge shows convincingly that the Son’s visible
mission is inseparable from the visible mission of the Holy Spirit,
and that these visible missions are ordered to the “invisible missions,”
that is, to the gift, at once interior and ecclesial, of salvation. To be
even more precise, the key to this book’s argument is that “a mission
includes the eternal procession, with the addition of a temporal
effect.”1 The mission of a divine person “is not essentially different
from the eternal procession, but only adds a reference to a temporal
effect.”2 This approach to reading Christology in light of Aquinas’s
theology of the divine missions brings numerous consequences in its
wake; I would like to note four that, in my view, merit special
attention.
First, in CHAPTER 4, the doctrine of the missions allows one to
appreciate what, in the incarnation, pertains properly and distinctly
to the person of the Son: the incarnation is a union in the “personal
being” (esse personale) of the Son. This accounts for the personal
identity of Christ as the incarnate Son. To consider Christ “in him-
self,” in his personal being, is always to consider him in his relations
to the Father and to the Holy Spirit. Based on this, because each
divine person acts in a proper and distinct mode that corresponds to

1 2
STh I, q. 43, a. 2 ad 3. I Sent. d. 16, q. 1, a. 1.
vi Foreword
his mode of existing, Legge is able to uncover not only Christ’s “filial
mode of being,” but also his “filial mode of acting.” This mode of
acting is also itself relational: Christ acts from the Father and leads to
the Father. From one end to the other, and even unto the salvific
effects of Christ’s work, Thomas Aquinas offers a filial Christology.
Simultaneously, the Christology of Thomas Aquinas is a genuine
Spirit Christology. The central text here is STh III, q. 7, a. 13, studied
in CHAPTER 5. In becoming incarnate, the Son (with the Father) sends
“the whole Spirit” to the humanity that he assumes in the unity of his
person. The fullness of grace and knowledge in Christ (an effect of the
invisible mission of the Holy Spirit) flows from the hypostatic union
(the visible mission of the Son). This permits one to see why, accord-
ing to St Thomas, the fullness of Christ’s human knowledge, studied
in CHAPTER 6, is sometimes attributed to the Son himself (by reason of
the hypostatic union) and sometimes is more precisely attributed to
the Holy Spirit (by reason of the mission of the Holy Spirit made to
Christ at the instant of his conception): the Son sends his own Spirit
to the humanity that he assumes. In this way, Thomas Aquinas shows
that Christ as man is at the same time, under different but
intrinsically linked aspects, the beneficiary and the giver of the Holy
Spirit (CHAPTERS 7 and 8). The aspect of giving, which is explained by
the instrumental efficiency of Christ’s humanity, finds its foundation
in Trinitarian doctrine. In his visible mission (see CHAPTER 3), the Son
is sent as “the Author of salvation” (sanctificationis Auctor), that is, as
the principle of and giver of the Holy Spirit, while the Holy Spirit is
sent as “the Gift of sanctification” (sanctificationis Donum), the one
who accomplishes our sanctification interiorly. Christ unites believers
to the Father by pouring out upon them the Spirit with which his own
humanity is filled. This presence of the Holy Spirit at the heart of
Christology is a fruit of Thomas Aquinas’s understanding of the deep
significance of Trinitarian communion.
Second, a Christology centered on the divine missions presents
the great advantage of reuniting the actions of Christ with his teach-
ing. St Thomas presents the visible missions of the Holy Spirit (at
Christ’s baptism, at his transfiguration, at Pentecost) as the overflow
of Christ’s fullness of grace “by way of teaching” and “by way of
operation.” The teaching of Christ is an integral part of Christology.
This approach joins Christology and Ecclesiology under the sign of
the Holy Spirit, in the relation that Christ has with his Father. It
avoids isolating the incarnation, the passion, and the resurrection,
 Foreword vii
instead considering the whole of Christ’s life as a work of revelation
and of salvation. And in the perspective of the divine missions, the
intrinsic link between revelation and salvation that one finds at the
heart of Christology is illuminated. This is because, on Aquinas’s
account, the visible missions manifest the eternal processions of the
persons (revelation of the Trinity) and they also manifest the invisible
missions (the interior gift of salvation that is accomplished through
the sending of the Son and the Spirit into the souls of the just).
Third, St Thomas’s Trinitarian Christology accounts for the rela-
tion that believers have with each divine person. If one considers the
effects of the divine missions under their “intentional” aspect—that is,
in their dynamism toward the objects to which they lead us (the
divine persons as known and loved)—one sees that the gifts of
elevating grace (wisdom and charity) flowing from Christ’s saving
work refer us to the three persons inasmuch as these persons are
distinct from each other and are apprehended in their proper singu-
larity: the first as Father, the second as only-begotten Son, and the
third as the Holy Spirit who comes forth from the Father and the Son.
Christ and the Holy Spirit lead us to the Father by giving us a
participation in the very relations that they have with the Father.
St Thomas’s Christology, intrinsically Trinitarian as it is, is thus much
more personalist than is generally thought.
Finally, Aquinas’s Trinitarian Christology invites us to restore the
gifts of the Holy Spirit, so often neglected today, to their rightful
importance. On this score, CHAPTER 7 offers an original contribution
of the first importance. The hypostatic union constitutes the human-
ity of Christ as an instrument of the divinity, but it remains for the
Holy Spirit to perfect that humanity to make it a suitable and worthy
instrument of the divinity. The gifts of the Holy Spirit do not only
imply a habitual “instinct” to follow the Spirit’s promptings, but also
the actual motion of the Holy Spirit in the soul. In Christology, then,
along with St Thomas’s account of the connection between the
hypostatic union and Christ’s fullness of grace (STh III, q. 7, a. 13),
one can meditate upon a parallel truth found in Aquinas’s commen-
tary on Hebrews 9:14 about how the Holy Spirit moves Christ: “The
cause why Christ shed his blood . . . was the Holy Spirit, by whose
motion and instinct—namely, by charity for God and for neighbor—
he did this.”
Dominic Legge’s book brings freshness and new life to our under-
standing of the Christology of Thomas Aquinas, because it successfully
viii Foreword
restores to its primacy the Trinitarian approach that guides the theology
of the Dominican master. This permits the reader to avoid the snares
of false oppositions (e.g. incarnation vs. paschal mystery, theocentrism
vs. Christocentrism, Christomonism vs. pneumatology, ontology vs.
salvific action, and so on), and to better grasp, as Legge writes in his
conclusion, that “the Trinitarian shape of our salvation is derived
from the Trinitarian shape of the mystery of the incarnation.”
Gilles Emery, O.P.
Ordinary Professor of Dogmatic Theology
University of Fribourg (Switzerland)
Palm Sunday, 2016
 Acknowledgments

I owe a great debt of gratitude to Fr. Gilles Emery, O.P., Professor of

Theology at the University of Fribourg. His encouragement of my
research stretches back to 2007 when, as a student at the Pontifical
Faculty of the Immaculate Conception in Washington, D.C., my
interest in this subject had just been kindled. His scholarship has
given impetus to the present project, and his aid and advice have been
invaluable. I cannot thank him enough.
Thanks are due to many others. My brethren in the Dominican
Province of St Joseph have made this work possible in more
ways than I can name, beginning with their acceptance of me as
one of their own, in virtue of which I have had the opportunity to
study St Thomas as a Dominican since my entry into the Order of
Preachers. Likewise, the brethren of the Albertinum, the international
Dominican priory in Fribourg where this book was written, have been
a constant support. My time there was rich and deeply formative.
Two Dominican contemplative nuns—Sister Maria of the Angels,
O.P. (of the Monastery of Our Lady of Grace in North Guilford,
Connecticut), and Sister Mary Dominic of the Holy Spirit, O.P. (of
the Monastery of Our Lady of the Rosary in Buffalo, New York)—
read the entire manuscript and gave me invaluable help in editing and
correcting it, both as to its form and its substance. In addition, their
prayers, the prayers of the other nuns in North Guilford and Buffalo,
and many others (I must mention especially Sr. Maria Dominic of the
Incarnate Word, O.P. of Queen of Peace Monastery; the Dominican
nuns of Linden, Virginia; of Paray-le-Monial, France; and of Summit,
New Jersey; Sisters Maris Stella, O.C.D, and Mary Benedicta, O.C.D,
of the Carmelite Monastery of Flemington, New Jersey; and the
Carmelite nuns of Denmark, Wisconsin) have been an inestimable
aid over the years of my research. Finally, I would like to thank my
parents, whose love and support has been a firm foundation from the
first moment of this project until the last.
 Contents

Abbreviations and Editions of Works of

St Thomas Aquinas xiii
Other Abbreviations xvii

Introduction 1

P A R T I T H E T R I N IT Y A ND T HE
DIS PEN S AT IO N OF SA LVAT IO N
1. The Divine Missions: From the Trinity, to the Trinity 11
A. The Eternal Processions and the Reditus of
Creatures to God 12
B. The Divine Missions in General 14
2. Divine Missions: Invisible and Visible 24
A. The Invisible Missions 25
B. The Visible Missions 48

P A R T I I J E S U S CH RI S T , T H E WO R D O F
T H E FAT H ER S EN T I N TH E FLE SH
3. Why the Son Became Incarnate 61
A. The Incarnation of the Son as Word 63
B. The Incarnation of the Son as Son 82
C. The Incarnation of the Son as Image 89
D. The Incarnation of the Son as the Author
of Sanctification 96
4. The Hypostatic Union and the Trinity 103
A. The Terminus of the Assumption 104
B. The “Personal Esse” of the Son 106
C. The Yield for a Trinitarian Christology: Christ’s
Filial Mode of Being and Acting 111
D. Could Another Divine Person Become Incarnate? 123
xii Contents
PART III C HRIST A ND THE H OLY S PIRIT
5. Like Splendor Flowing from the Sun: The Holy Spirit
and Christ’s Grace 131
A. The Holy Spirit’s Mission and Christ’s Habitual Grace 132
B. Christ Receives the Holy Spirit “Without Measure” 160
6. The Holy Spirit and Christ’s Human Knowledge 172
A. The Beatific Vision and the Holy Spirit 173
B. Christ’s Infused Knowledge and the Holy Spirit 182
7. Christ’s Action and the Holy Spirit 187
A. Habitual Grace, Charity, and the Perfection of
Christ’s Human Capacity for Action 188
B. Christ’s Human Action and the Gifts of the Holy Spirit 189
C. Christ as Man is also Moved by the Holy Spirit 201
8. Christ Gives the Holy Spirit 211
A. The Son Sends the Holy Spirit 211
B. Christ Gives the Holy Spirit as Man 213
C. The Holy Spirit Makes Christ’s Salvation
Effective in Us 223
Conclusion 232

Bibliography 243
Index 253
Index of Scripture Citations 260
 Abbreviations and Editions of Works
of St Thomas Aquinas

Catena in Matthaeum Catena Aurea in Quatuor Evangelia, vol. 1,

edited by A. Guarienti, Turin and Rome:
Marietti, 1953.
Compendium theologiae Compendium theologiae seu Brevis compilatio
theologiae ad fratrem Raynaldum, in Sancti
Thomae de Aquino Opera omnia, iussu Leonis
XIII P.M. edita (“Leonine edition”), vol. 42,
1979.
Contra errores Graecorum Contra errores Graecorum ad Urbanum papam,
Leonine edition, vol. 40, 1969.
Contra doctrinam Contra doctrinam retrahentium a religione,
retrahentium Leonine edition, vol. 41, 1970.
De Caritate Quaestio Disputata de Caritate, in Quaestiones
Disputatae, vol. 2, edited by P. Bazzi, M. Calcaterra,
T. S. Centi, E. Odetto, and P. M. Pession, Turin and
Rome: Marietti, 1949.
De Pot. Quaestiones Disputatae de Potentia, in Quaestiones
Disputatae, vol. 2, edited by P. Bazzi, M. Calcaterra,
T. S. Centi, E. Odetto, and P. M. Pession, Turin and
Rome: Marietti 1949.
De articulis fidei De articulis fidei et Ecclesiae sacramentis ad
archiepiscopum Panormitanum, Leonine edition,
vol. 42, 1979.
De rationibus fidei De rationibus fidei ad Cantorem Antiochenum,
Leonine edition, vol. 40, 1969.
De unione Verbi incarnati Quaestio disputata ‘De unione Verbi incarnati’,
edited by Walter Senner, Barbara Bartocci, and
Klaus Obenauer, Stuttgart—Bad Cannstatt:
Frommann-Holzboog, 2011.
De Verit. Quaestiones Disputatae de Veritate, Leonine
edition, vol. 22/1–3, 1970–6.
Ecce ego mitto Ecce ego mitto, Leonine edition, vol. 44/1, 2014.
Ecce rex tuus Ecce rex tuus, Leonine edition, vol. 44/1, 2014.
xiv Abbreviations and Editions of Aquinas’s Works
Emitte spiritum tuum Emitte spiritum tuum, Leonine edition, vol. 44/1,
2014.
Expositio super Isaiam Expositio super Isaiam ad litteram, Leonine
edition, vol. 28, 1974.
Homo quidam fecit cenam Homo quidam fecit cenam, Leonine edition, vol.
44/1, 2014.
Germinet terra Germinet terra, Leonine edition, vol. 44/1, 2014.
In decem preceptis Collationes in decem preceptis, in Jean-Pierre
Torrell, “Les ‘Collationes in decem praeceptis’
de saint Thomas d'Aquin. Édition critique
avec introduction et notes,” in Jean-Pierre
Torrell, Recherches thomasiennes. Études revues et
augmentées, 65–117, Paris: Librairie Philosophique
J. Vrin, 2000.
In Epist. ad Col. Super Epistolam ad Colossenses Lectura, in
Super Epistolas S. Pauli Lectura, vol. 2, edited
by R. Cai, Turin and Rome: Marietti, 1953.
In Epist. ad Ephes. Super Epistolam ad Ephesios Lectura, in Super
Epistolas S. Pauli Lectura, vol. 2, edited by
R. Cai, Turin and Rome: Marietti, 1953.
In Epist. ad Gal. Super Epistolam ad Galatas Lectura in Super
Epistolas S. Pauli Lectura, vol. 1, edited by
R. Cai, Turin and Rome: Marietti, 1953.
In Epist. ad Hebr. Super Epistolam ad Hebraeos Lectura, in Super
Epistolas S. Pauli Lectura, vol. 2, edited by
R. Cai, Turin and Rome: Marietti, 1953.
In Epist. ad Phil. Super Epistolam ad Philippenses Lectura, in
Super Epistolas S. Pauli Lectura, vol. 2, edited
by R. Cai, Turin and Rome: Marietti, 1953.
In Epist. ad Philemon. Super Epistolam ad Philemonem Lectura, in
Super Epistolas S. Pauli Lectura, vol. 2, edited
by R. Cai, Turin and Rome: Marietti, 1953.
In Epist. ad Rom. Super Epistolam ad Romanos Lectura in Super
Epistolas S. Pauli Lectura, vol. 1, edited by
R. Cai, Turin and Rome: Marietti, 1953.
In Epist. ad Tit. Super Epistolam ad Titum Lectura, in Super
Epistolas S. Pauli Lectura, vol. 2, edited by
R. Cai, Turin and Rome: Marietti, 1953.
 Abbreviations and Editions of Aquinas’s Works xv
In I Epist. ad Cor. Super Primam Epistolam ad Corinthios Lectura
in Super Epistolas S. Pauli Lectura, vol. 1, edited
by R. Cai, Turin and Rome: Marietti, 1953.
In II Epist. ad Cor. Super Secundam Epistolam ad Corinthios
Lectura in Super Epistolas S. Pauli Lectura, vol.
1, edited by R. Cai, Turin and Rome: Marietti,
1953.
In I Epist. ad Thess. Super Primam Epistolam ad Thessalonicenses
Lectura, in Super Epistolas S. Pauli Lectura,
vol. 2, edited by R. Cai, Turin and Rome:
Marietti, 1953.
In II Epist. ad Thess. Super Secundam Epistolam ad Thessalonicenses
Lectura, in Super Epistolas S. Pauli Lectura, vol. 2,
edited by R. Cai, Turin and Rome: Marietti,
1953.
In I Epist. ad Tim. Super Primam Epistolam ad Timotheum Lectura,
in Super Epistolas S. Pauli Lectura, vol. 2, edited
by R. Cai, Turin and Rome: Marietti, 1953.
In II Epist. ad Tim. Super Secundam Epistolam ad Timotheum
Lectura, in Super Epistolas S. Pauli Lectura,
vol. 2, edited by R. Cai, Turin and Rome:
Marietti, 1953.
In Ioan. Super Evangelium S. Ioannis Lectura, edited by
R. Cai, Turin and Rome: Marietti, 1952.
In Matt. Super Evangelium S. Matthaei Lectura, edited
by R. Cai, Turin and Rome: Marietti, 1951.
In Psalm. In Psalmos Davidis Expositio, in Opera omnia,
vol. 14, Parma: Typis Petri Fiaccadori, 1863.
In Symbolum Apost. In Symbolum Apostolorum scilicet ‘credo in
Deum’ Expositio, Leonine text as published in
The Sermon-Conferences of St Thomas Aquinas
on the Apostles’ Creed, trans. Nicholas Ayo,
Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press,
1988. See also Opuscula Theologica vol. 2, ed.
R. M. Spiazzi, Turin: Marietti, 1954.
Officium de festo Officium de festo Corporis Christi in P. M. Gy,
Corporis Christi La Liturgie dans l’histoire, Paris: Éditions Saint-
Paul, 1990.
xvi Abbreviations and Editions of Aquinas’s Works
Puer Iesus Puer Iesus, Leonine edition, vol. 44/1, 2014.
Quodlibet Quaestiones de Quolibet, Leonine edition, vol.
25/1–2, 1996.
Rigans montes Breve Principium Fratris Thomae de Aquino
“Rigans montes de superioribus,” in Opuscula
Theologica, vol. 1, edited by R. A. Verardo,
Turin and Rome: Marietti 1954, 435–43.
ScG Summa contra Gentiles, Leonine edition, vols.
13–15, Rome, 1918–30.
Sent. Scriptum super libros Sententiarum. Prologue
edited by Adriano Oliva in Les débuts de
l’enseignement de Thomas d’Aquin et sa
conception de la Sacra Doctrina: avec l’édition
du prologue de son Commentaire des Sentences
(Paris: Librairie Philosophique J. Vrin, 2006).
Books I and II, edited by Pierre Mandonnet,
Paris: Lethielleux, 1929. Books III and IV (up
to dist. 22), edited by Maria Fabianus Moos,
Paris: Lethielleux, 1933–47. Book IV (dist.
23–50), Opera omnia, vol. 7/2, Parma: Typis
Petri Fiaccadori, 1858.
STh Summa Theologiae, Leonine edition, vols. 4–12,
1888–1906.
Super Boet. De Trinitate Super Boetium de Trinitate, Leonine edition,
vol. 50, 1992.

All quotations of Aquinas in English are my translations from the Latin of

the printed editions, except where noted.
 Other Abbreviations

CCL Corpus Christanorum. Series Latina.

PG Patrologiae cursus completus, Series Graeca, edited by J. P. Migne.
PL Patrologiae cursus completus, Series Latina, edited by J. P. Migne.
 Introduction

Many of the witnesses in the canonization process for St Thomas

Aquinas testify that he was a man of deep faith, much given to
contemplation and to regular and fervent prayer, even with tears,
and especially before teaching or writing. To some, however,
St Thomas’s writings seem analytical, dry, and bereft of the zest of
the Gospel. Yet to the attentive reader, his texts offer important clues
pointing to the fervor for the divine mysteries that fueled his labors.
The opening lines of Aquinas’s Compendium of Theology are a
good example.1 St Thomas composed that short work, a condensation
of the essentials of the Christian faith, for his longtime secretary and
socius, Brother Reginald of Piperno, and he begins it with a rather
striking commendation:
I hand on to you, my dearest son Reginald, the condensed doctrine of
the Christian religion, so that you might keep it always before your
eyes. . . . The first thing necessary is faith, through which you may know
the truth. . . . The whole knowledge of faith revolves around . . . two
points, namely, the divinity of the Trinity and the humanity of Christ.
Nor is this to be wondered at, since the humanity of Christ is the way to
come to the divinity. As a wayfarer, [you] must know the way by which
[you] can come to the end.2
Among all the doctrines that the Dominican Master might underline,
he exhorts Reginald keep the divinity of the Trinity and the humanity
of Christ always before his eyes. This is more than advice for success

1
Many other examples could be cited; perhaps the most prominent is ScG I, cc. 2
and 8. See also Rigans montes (no. 1214); Contra doctrinam retrahentium cc. 1 and 16.
St Thomas’s sermons are also an excellent source.
2
Compendium theologiae I, cc.1–2.
2 The Trinitarian Christology of St Thomas Aquinas
as a university theologian; St Thomas speaks of it as key to the
Christian life, a recipe for beatitude. Does this not sound like
St Thomas here reveals something at the heart not only of his
doctrine, but even of his own life as a Christian? We come to the
Trinity, our final end, through the humanity of Christ, who is our way
to God, and therefore, above all else, it is Christ whom we must seek
to know—and him crucified.3 In fact, in bringing us salvation,
Thomas continues, Christ sums up and condenses in himself, in the
“abbreviated word” (Verbum abbreuiatum) of his own humanity,
the mystery of the Triune God:
The Word of the eternal Father, comprehending the universe by his
immensity, . . . willed to be made brief by assuming our brevity, not by
laying down his majesty. And that there would be no excuse for
grasping the doctrine of the heavenly Word, . . . he compressed the
doctrine of human salvation, for the sake of the busy, in a brief
summary.4
St Thomas’s commendation to Reginald, though unusually personal
in its form, typifies his thought. Christ makes present in time, and for
the sake of our salvation, the mystery of the Word’s eternal proces-
sion from the Father. The Word comes in the flesh to save us, sending
us the Holy Spirit, revealing the Trinity, and opening the way of our
return to the Trinity. Consequently, Aquinas’s account of the mystery
of the incarnation leads us into the heart of the Trinitarian mystery.
Indeed, there is no way to the Trinity but through Christ.5 For
St Thomas, Christology is intrinsically Trinitarian.
This is a controversial claim. Contemporary critics intone the
refrain that the Dominican Master’s Trinitarian doctrine is so trapped
in abstractions and so “very remote . . . from the biblical data con-
cerning the actual events of salvation history,”6 that it ceases to

3
De rationibus fidei c. 1.
4
Compendium theologiae I, c. 1.
5
This is why Aquinas sets Christ at the head of his explication of the articles of
faith: “the whole Christian faith’—Thomas intends to include our knowledge of the
Trinity—“revolves around the divinity and the humanity of Christ.” De articulis fidei
I. See also In I Epist. ad Thess. c. 1, lect. 1 (no. 5); Compendium theologiae I, c. 201.
6
Anne Hunt, The Trinity and the Paschal Mystery: A Development in Recent
Catholic Theology (Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 1997), 4. See also Eugene
Webb, In Search of the Triune God: The Christian Paths of East and West (Columbia,
MO: University of Missouri Press, 2014), 224; Catherine Mowry LaCugna, God for Us:
The Trinity and Christian Life (New York: HarperCollins, 1991), 143–80.
 Introduction 3
present the Trinity as a saving mystery. A generation ago, Karl
Rahner accused Aquinas of divorcing Christology from the Trinity,
above all because, according to Aquinas’s teaching on the incarnation,
any divine person could become incarnate. According to Rahner, if
Aquinas’s view were accepted, “[t]here would no longer be any
connection between ‘mission’ and the intra-trinitarian life. Our son-
ship in grace would in fact have nothing to do with the Son’s sonship,
since it might equally well be brought about without any modification
by another incarnate person. That which God is for us would tell us
absolutely nothing about that which he is in himself, as triune.”7 Hans
Urs von Balthasar leveled a similar accusation.8 Many prominent
theologians, both Catholic and Protestant, have since joined in.9
Similarly, Aquinas’s Christology is mistrusted for its alleged “one-
sidedness,” overemphasizing the hypostatic union and forgetting
about the Holy Spirit’s presence in Christ’s life and ministry.10 As
we shall see, this is all based on a serious misunderstanding of
Aquinas’s thought. Clearing this away can only enrich contemporary
theological debates, since it is precisely this sort of misunderstanding
that has led some theologians quite far afield from the main lines of
the Western theological tradition in their search for a Christology that
is genuinely Trinitarian. We shall endeavor to show that such a
Trinitarian Christology is already present in St Thomas, and that it
offers a tested and sure theological account of the interconnection of
the most fundamental Christian mysteries.

7
Karl Rahner, The Trinity, trans. Joseph Donceel (New York: Herder & Herder,
1970), 30.
8
Hans Urs von Balthasar, The Theology of Karl Barth: Exposition and Interpret-
ation, trans. Edward T. Oakes (San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 1992), 260, 263–5.
Balthasar even claims that, for Aquinas, the Trinity and Christology “have . . . little
structuring impact in his theology,” and that “the temporal nature of salvation history . . .
recede[s] into the background.” Ibid., 263–4.
9
Walter Kasper, Jesus the Christ, trans. V. Green, pbk ed. (London: Burns and
Oates, 1977), 184; 249–50. See also Thomas G. Weinandy, “Trinitarian Christology:
The Eternal Son,” in The Oxford Handbook of the Trinity, ed. Gilles Emery and
Matthew Levering (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011), 392–4; Robert Jenson,
Systematic Theology, vol. 1, The Triune God (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999),
112–14; Jürgen Moltmann, Der gekreuzigte Gott: Das Kreuz Christi als Grund und
Kritik christlicher Theologie (Munich: Chr. Kaiser Verlag, 1972), 226–8.
10
Kasper, Jesus the Christ, 250–1; Philip J. Rosato, “Spirit Christology: Ambiguity
and Promise,” Theological Studies 38 (1977): 437. See also Bruce D. Marshall, “Ex
Occidente Lux? Aquinas and Eastern Orthodox Theology,” Modern Theology 20
(2004): 25, 40, articulating the criticisms of twentieth-century Orthodox theologians.
4 The Trinitarian Christology of St Thomas Aquinas
More important than any defense of Aquinas, however, is the
positive reason for undertaking this study: the better we grasp how
Aquinas’s Christology is intrinsically Trinitarian, the better we will
understand the unity of his thought and the intelligible order he
discerns in the whole dispensation of salvation, as it emerges from
the Trinity and leads us back to the Trinity. One could even say that, to
the extent that we remain ignorant of this overarching perspective, the
deepest significance of the mystery of the incarnation will be unknown
to us. Indeed, as St Thomas’s words to his socius Reginald suggest, our
study of Christ can thus be far more than a merely academic exercise,
since it is the very way by which we return to the Triune God.
In what follows, therefore, we will examine how Aquinas conceives
of the mystery of the incarnation—in its origin and ratio (i.e., “rea-
son,” “meaning,” or “explanation”), its shape, its structure, and its
role in the dispensation of salvation—as intrinsically Trinitarian. The
crux of our investigation will be the Trinitarian shape of the incar-
nation itself, which Aquinas conceives as the visible mission of the
Son, sent by the Father, implicating the invisible mission of the Holy
Spirit to his assumed human nature.
In doing this, we will not review the whole of Aquinas’s Christology,
nor even highlight every aspect of it that implicates the doctrine of the
Trinity, which would produce a study both overlong and scattered.
Neither do we propose a forced march through a long sequence of
Aquinas’s texts. Rather, we are after what makes Aquinas’s theology of
the incarnation essentially or intrinsically Trinitarian, its ratio and its
ordering principles—its Trinitarian heart, bones, and lifeblood, so to
speak. Consequently, we will treat only what helps us grasp this
Trinitarian ratio, and especially what pertains to the structure of the
mystery of the incarnation in itself.
Our study does not correspond to a given range of questions in the
Summa Theologiae, though we will often find ourselves in the part
especially devoted to the incarnation in the Tertia pars. In fact, this
book’s interest and originality stems partly from this fact. The Trini-
tarian dimension of Aquinas’s thought is everywhere present in his
Christology, but if we were to read only the Tertia pars, our percep-
tion of it would be dulled, since Aquinas assumed that his Christology
would be read in continuity with his treatment of the Trinitarian
processions, of the divine missions, of grace, and so forth. (Indeed,
Thomas’s own method in the Summa Theologiae is calculated to
promote concision and avoid repetition.) Consequently, we will
 Introduction 5
explore a wider terrain, venturing beyond the trusty but well-worn
paths of the Tertia pars and into lesser-known regions of Aquinas’s
oeuvre—especially his biblical commentaries and his commentary on
Peter Lombard’s Sentences. We do so not for the sake of mere variety,
but to bring to light the fundamentally Trinitarian shape of the
incarnation in Aquinas’s thought.
We have tried, as much as possible, to let St Thomas speak for
himself. To achieve this, we have often brought together texts from a
variety of different works. This cannot be done without discernment,
however: we have paid close attention to the original context of each.
Likewise, we have carefully studied the historical development of
Aquinas’s own thought. Though some of the key principles that
guide St Thomas’s theological reflection remain constant throughout
his career, he changes his position on other points as he develops
deeper insights into the Trinitarian and Christological mysteries
that he treats. We have noted these changes when relevant to our
discussion.
This book has three main parts. PART I examines how the eternal
processions in God are “extended” into time in the divine missions,
which link God in himself (theologia) with the economy or dispen-
sation of salvation.11 Though it may not at first seem to be part of
Christology, this key prologue will enable us to understand what
Aquinas means when he says that the incarnation is the visible
mission of the Son, and hence to grasp an important reason why
Christology is intrinsically Trinitarian: the incarnation’s origin and
cause is found in the eternal processions of the Son from the Father
and of the Holy Spirit from the Father and the Son; Christ thus
becomes the path of our return to the Trinity.
PART II analyzes the incarnation as the visible mission of the second
person of the Trinity. We begin with Christ’s identity as the eternal
Son, which implies his relation, as both God and man, to the Father
from whom he proceeds. We will probe why, for Aquinas, it was the
person of the Son who became incarnate, and what this reveals to us
about the Triune God and about the relation of creatures to distinct

11
Aquinas rarely uses the term “economy,” preferring to speak instead of the
divine “dispensation” or dispensatio, by which God realizes in time his eternal plan, in
particular through the Word’s incarnation; we will follow St Thomas’s usage. See
Gilles Emery, “Theologia and Dispensatio: The Centrality of the Divine Missions in
St Thomas’s Trinitarian Theology,” The Thomist 74 (2010): 517–18.
6 The Trinitarian Christology of St Thomas Aquinas
persons of the Trinity. We will also see how, in Aquinas’s thought, the
hypostatic union terminates in the personal being of the Son, which is
“from the Father,” and therefore accounts, at the deepest metaphys-
ical level, for why Christ is oriented entirely to the Father and reveals
the Father in all that he is and does.
PART III investigates the relation between Christ and the Holy
Spirit, a relation much more important for Aquinas’s approach to
the incarnation than is usually recognized. The key here is that Christ
receives, as man, an invisible mission of the Holy Spirit in the fullness
of habitual grace. This presence of the Holy Spirit in Christ’s human-
ity follows from the hypostatic union because the divine persons are
never separated: when the Word joins a human nature to himself, he
breathes forth the Holy Spirit in full to that human nature. This has
important consequences for Christology. The Holy Spirit becomes an
indispensable principle of the elevation of Christ’s human nature, so
that it receives every perfection it needs to be the perfect conjoined
instrument of the eternal Word. We will pay special attention to the
Holy Spirit’s role in Christ’s supernatural human knowledge, includ-
ing both his beatific vision, by which Christ as man sees the divine
essence and knows the divine will perfectly, and his infused super-
natural knowledge. Likewise, we will show how the Holy Spirit both
disposes Christ’s humanity to act as an instrument of his divinity, and
actually moves it to action. We will also consider how, having
received the Holy Spirit in full as man, Christ becomes, as man, the
source of the Holy Spirit for the world. In other words, for Aquinas,
the order of the eternal processions of the persons is manifested
through Christ’s humanity and his saving actions: as the Word
(with the Father) breathes forth the Holy Spirit from all eternity, so
the Word made flesh (who is from the Father) breathes forth the Holy
Spirit in time.

* * *
The Trinitarian shape of St Thomas’s teaching on the Word’s incarna-
tion for our sake is a rich subject for theological study. It brings us into
contact with some of the most important themes of Aquinas’s over-
arching theological vision, which begins from the Triune God and sees
all of creation as returning to the Trinity through the temporal missions
of the Son and the Holy Spirit. Although at times they are rather
technical and demanding, St Thomas did not write his theological
works only as an academic exercise, but also to draw his readers into
 Introduction 7
the search for the highest truths—and into the delightful contemplation
of the divine mystery—that animated his own life. It is our hope that, in
this study of the Trinitarian shape of Aquinas’s theology of the incar-
nation, we too may share in some measure in the precious fruit of the
Dominican master’s contemplation.
 Part I

The Trinity and the Dispensation

of Salvation
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
young in all stages are similar. The flight, voice, general habits, and
all other circumstances, are the same. What, then, shall we say to
those who have pretended that the American bird differs from the
European? Merely this, compare the two, outside and inside, shew
us differences, and then we shall judge if they be sufficient to
indicate different species; but until you have done this, do not
imagine that a mere “Sula Americana Nob,” is enough to satisfy the
world on this or any similar point.
 SHOVELLER DUCK.

Anas clypeata, Linn.

PLATE CCCXXVII. Male and Female.

The Creoles of Louisiana are well acquainted with this species,

under the name of “Micoine,” the etymology of which I am unable to
trace. In that country it arrives, both from the westward and from the
eastern inland districts, along with the Blue-winged Teal, or at the
commencement of autumn. It associates with that species, to which,
as well as to the Green-winged, the Mallard, the Dusky Duck, and
the Gadwall, I should consider it very nearly allied, notwithstanding
the peculiar expansion of its bill. The Shovellers remain in the lower
parts of Louisiana during the whole of the winter, and depart along
with the Blue-wings between the end of April and the middle of May.
There, in early spring, they resort chiefly to ponds, where they feed
on grasses and their seeds, as well as at times a small kind of onion,
the bulbs of which they pull up from the moist grounds on their
margins. This may perhaps to some seem strange, but I have long
since made up my mind to learn from Nature, and believe what is,
rather than what philosophers imagine ought to be. Having fed
through the night, they collect towards dawn into large bands, and
betake themselves to the margins of sand-bars on the Mississippi,
where they spend the greater part of the day. At other times I have
found them swimming or wading along the muddy margins of ponds
and streams, immersing the head and part of the neck while
alternately moving the bill to either side, in the manner of the
Roseate Spoonbill, sifting as it were the contents of the soft mud or
water, and ejecting the substances unfit for food. Repeated
inspection of the stomach has shewn me that the Shoveller is not
more nice as to the quality of its food than the Mallard or any other of
the Duck tribe, for I have found in it leeches, small fishes, large
ground-worms, and snails. They never however, I believe, feed by
semi-immersion, like the Mallards and Teals, nor do they dive unless
hard pressed, or when in a sportive mood, when they will dash for a
moment beneath the surface.
This species is generally considered scarce in the United States, and
I believe it is so, for, although many pass northward and breed in the
Fur Countries, a greater number spend the summer months in the
Texas and the districts farther westward. It is however abundant on
the streams of the Rocky Mountains, as well as on the tributaries of
the Columbia River, where it was frequently observed by Dr
Townsend, during summer.
We have no Ducks in the United States whose plumage is more
changeable than that of the male of this beautiful species. While the
female is sitting on her eggs, he undergoes a moult, after which he
appears mottled, and seems as if inclined to assume the garb of his
partner. From this period, the beginning of July, until late in
November, very few finely-coloured males are to be seen, and only
such as have not mated that season, in which case they do not
moult until the beginning of winter, as if to be the sooner ready to
associate with females on the approach of the next breeding season.
In the Carolinas, this species, though found during winter in the rice
fields, is not abundant; more than three or four being seldom seen
together. In our Central and Eastern Districts, they are rather rare,
and a male in full dress is not to be obtained without difficulty,
although I have seen some in the markets of New York and
Philadelphia.
The Shoveller walks prettily, and I have often admired its movements
in the puddles formed by heavy dashes of rain in our southern corn-
fields, where I have found it in company with the Wood Duck, the
Mallard, and the Pin-tail. Its flight resembles that of the Blue-winged
Teal; and in tenderness as well as in flavour, it rivals, as an article of
food, that beautiful bird. No sportsman who is a judge will ever pass
a Shoveller to shoot a Canvass-back. It is rarely however found on
salt water, and that only when compelled to resort thither.
In the beginning of May, when I was in Texas, I found Shovellers
breeding in considerable numbers. The males had already left the
females, and were seen on the sand-bars of the Bay of Galveston,
up to the River St Jacinto, but none of my party discovered the nest.
During the autumn, they are to be seen on the waters adjoining the
Ohio, and generally in ponds in company with the Bald-pate or
American Widgeon, when they become very fat, and afford delicious
eating. At this time I have been often much pleased when, on
perceiving a flock of eight or nine of these ducks, probably members
of a single family, and cautiously approaching them, while they were
busily engaged in searching for food with their heads and necks
immersed, I have obtained several of them at the first shot, and as
the survivors flew off have succeeded in procuring one or two more.
On such occasions, they rise almost perpendicularly to the height of
fifteen or twenty feet, and then fly off in a direct course, in the
manner of Mallards.

Anas clypeata, Linn. Syst. Nat. vol. i. p. 200.—Lath. Ind. Ornith. vol. ii. p.
856.—Ch. Bonaparte, Synopsis of Birds of United States, p. 382.
Shoveller, Wils. Amer. Ornith. vol. viii. p. 45, pl. 67, fig. 7.
Anas clypeata, Shoveller, Richards. and Swains. Faun. Bor. Amer. vol. ii.
p. 439.
Shoveller, Nuttall, Manual, vol. ii. p. 439.
Adult Male. Plate CCCXXVII. Fig. 1.
Bill longer than the head, higher than broad at the base, depressed
and much widened towards the end, where its breadth is doubled.
Upper mandible with the dorsal line sloping and very slightly
concave, the ridge at the base broad, narrowed over the nostrils;
sides nearly erect at the base, gradually more decimate and convex;
the tip very broadly rounded, with the unguis oblong, rather small,
curved and rounded at the extremity; the margins soft, with very
numerous lamellæ, which are prolonged beyond the edges and taper
to a point, unless at the commencement of the broadest part of the
bill. Nasal groove elliptical, and filled by the soft membrane of the
bill; nostrils elliptical, pervious, placed near the ridge. Lower
mandible slightly curved upwards, with the angle very long and
narrow, the unguis obovate.
Head of moderate size, oblong, compressed, rounded above; neck
moderate; body rather full, slightly depressed. Feet short, stout,
placed a little behind the centre of the body; legs bare a little above
the joint; tarsus very short, moderately compressed, anteriorly with
small scutella, and an external short series of larger, on the other
parts reticulated with small scales. Hind toe very small, with a narrow
free membrane; third toe longest, fourth almost as long; the three
anterior slender, with numerous oblique scutella, and connected by
webs which have the margin concave and denticulate; the inner toe
with a broad margin. Claws small, arched, compressed, acute; that
of middle toe slightly dilated on the inner edge.
Plumage dense, soft, and elastic; of the head and neck short,
blended, and splendent, of the occiput and nape considerably
elongated; of the other parts in general broad and rounded. Wings of
moderate length, acute; primaries narrow and tapering, the first
longest, the second very little shorter; the secondaries broad, curved
inwards; the inner elongated and tapering. Tail short, rounded, of
fourteen acute feathers, of which the two middle extend five twelfths
of an inch beyond the next.
Bill greyish-black tinged with yellow. Iris reddish-orange. Feet
vermilion; claws dusky. Head and upper part of neck, deep green
with purplish reflections, the top of the head of a darker tint with less
vivid gloss. A longitudinal band on the hind neck and the back,
greyish-brown, the feathers edged with paler; the rump and upper
tail-coverts greenish-black. The anterior scapulars white, the
posterior elongated, light blue on the outer web, longitudinally
banded with white and greenish-black on the inner. Smaller wing-
coverts light blue; alula, primary coverts, and primary quills blackish-
brown, their shafts white. Outer secondaries greyish-brown, eight of
them externally of a rich duck-green; the inner greenish-black, with a
longitudinal white streak; the secondary coverts broadly tipped with
white. Tail-feathers greyish-brown, irregularly variegated and
margined with reddish-white, that colour enlarging on the outer
feathers. Lower part of neck pure white; breast and middle part of
abdomen dull purplish-chestnut. A large patch of white on each side
of the rump, with a band of the same towards the tail; lower tail-
coverts greenish-black, with bright green and blue reflections;
axillaries and lower wing-coverts pure white.
Length to end of tail 20 1/2 inches, to end of wings 19, to end of
claws 21 1/4; extent of wings 31 1/2: bill along the ridge 2 8/12; wing
from flexure 9 8/12; tail 2 10/12; tarsus 1 4/12; first toe and claw 8/12;
third toe 1 9/12, its toe 5/12, fourth toe 1 9/12, its claw 3 1/2/12. Weight 1
lb. 9 oz.
Female. Plate CCCXXVII. Fig. 2.
Bill dull yellowish-green, iris paler than in the male; feet as in the
male but lighter. The upper parts are blackish-brown, the feathers
edged with light reddish-brown; the throat and sides of the head are
light reddish-brown, which is the prevailing colour over the lower part
of the neck, a portion of the breast and the sides, of which however
the feathers are margined with dusky; the middle of the breast white.
Smaller wing-coverts dull brownish-grey; alula and primaries as in
the male; inner secondaries brownish-black; the speculum as in the
male, but paler, and changing to blue; the secondary coverts tipped
with white; tail nearly as in the male.
Length to end of tail 17 inches; to end of claws 20; bill along the
ridge 2 1/12; extent of wings 29 1/2. Weight 1 lb. 1 oz.

The bill of a male measures 2 inches and 8 twelfths along the ridge,
the frontal angles 4 twelfths more; the breadth of the upper mandible
at the base is 8 1/2 twelfths, near the end 1 inch and 3 twelfths. The
roof of the mouth is broadly and deeply concave, with a prominent
median ridge, which becomes papillate towards the base; the edges
of the mandible soft, direct, inflected towards the end; lamellæ
projecting beyond the margins and tapering to a point. On each side
of the lower mandible are about 220 lamellæ, and about 180 on the
upper. The tongue is 2 3/4 inches long, deeply emarginate at the
base, with numerous papillæ, for half an inch narrow and
compressed, then for an inch expanded, with a thin longitudinal flap
above on each side divided into lamellæ and minute bristles, at its
anterior part having a breadth of 1 inch and terminating abruptly, but
with a median thin semicircular tip, which is 3 twelfths long.
The œsophagus is 8 inches and 10 twelfths long, 4 1/2 twelfths in
diameter, its walls thick. The proventriculus is oblong, 1 inch in
length; its glandules of moderate size. The stomach is a strong
gizzard of moderate size; the lateral muscles and their tendons large
as in all other ducks. The intestine is very long, measuring 8 feet,
and very narrow, its diameter being from 2 twelfths to 1 1/2 twelfth,
for half its length, after which it enlarges to 3 1/2 twelfths at the
distance of about 2 feet from the commencement of the rectum, then
gradually diminishes to 2 twelfths. The rectum is 3 inches 2 twelfths
long, the cœca 4 inches, their diameter for 1 1/4 inch 1 1/2 twelfth,
afterwards 3 1/2 twelfths.

The trachea is 6 inches 9 twelfths long, very little flattened, its

diameter at the upper part 2 1/2 twelfths, gradually enlarging to 4
twelfths. On the left side of the inferior larynx there is a rounded
expansion of very moderate size compared with that observed in
many other ducks. The rings are 98; those at the lower part broader
and much stronger, but all of them ossified. The bronchial half rings
about 35.

In another individual, the stomach is 1 1/2 inch long, 1 5/12 broad; the
right lateral muscle 6 twelfths thick. Contents, particles of quartz, and
fragments of shells. Intestine 11 feet 6 inches long; cœca 6 1/4
inches long; rectum 3 1/2 inches.

Long intestines, like long bills, often exhibit great differences in the
same species; for which reason characters taken from the length of
these parts must be received with latitude. Even in the Rapacious
Birds, in which the intestine is generally very short, considerable
differences are observed in individuals of the same sex and size. It
will be seen from the above statement that the Shoveller has a
longer and more slender intestine than any other American duck. In
this respect it is analogous to Pandion and Haliaetus among the
Raptores; generalizing vaguely from the consideration of which, as
some have done, one might be apt to conclude that it is more
piscivorous than the Canvass-back and Pochard, which however is
by no means the case. Although in some birds and mammalia a very
elongated intestinal canal is connected with piscivorous habits, yet
many birds which feed exclusively on fish, such as Gannets, Auks,
and Guillemots, have the intestine of only moderate length or short.
It appears simply that when for some reason resulting from the
economy of the species, the intestine must be elongated, it is made
proportionally narrow; whereas if it be expedient that it should be
short, its calibre is increased.
 BLACK-NECKED STILT.

Himantopus nigricollis, Vieill.

PLATE CCCXXVIII. Adult Male.

A few individuals of this singular species occasionally pass the

winter in the lower parts of Louisiana, especially in the section called
Oppellousas. I have also found it at the same period in the Floridas,
but the greater number follow the shores of the Gulf of Mexico, and
proceed beyond our southern limits. In April 1837, I observed their
first appearance at Galveston Bay in Texas, where many remained
until our departure. They were in small flocks, seldom composed of
more than seven or eight individuals, which almost immediately
separated into parties of two or three, and commenced their search
for food. They kept about the small shallow brackish ponds on the
islands of the bay, and now and then were observed following the
sinuosities of bayous in company with other birds. They were much
more shy than they are while breeding, and it was with some
difficulty that we procured specimens. When one was killed, the rest
would fly to a considerable distance, sometimes from one island to
another, in a rapid manner, with regular beats of the wings, their
necks and legs extended. On such occasions they uttered a
whistling cry, different from the cleek, cleek, cleek, which they emit
when they have nests or young.
All the writers who have described the habits of this bird, allege that
it walks with a “staggering gait;” but this is by no means the case, for
they appeared to us to walk as firmly as any other long-legged birds,
such as Herons, Curlews, and the American Avoset; and I had many
opportunities of observing them, as had my friend Edward Harris,
my son, and all the members of our party.
Toward the end of April, flocks of this bird reach the Middle Districts,
by following the coast, for they are very rarely met with at any great
distance from the sea shore. They generally betake themselves to
extensive marshes abounding in muddy inlets and small ponds, in
the vicinity of which they usually place their nests. About the middle
of May, parties of from ten to twenty collect, and are seen wading
sometimes up to their breast, in search of food, which is extremely
abundant in such places. They are now paired, and select suitable
spots for their nests, which are generally not far distant from each
other, and near the margins of the ponds, or on small islets. The nest
is very similar to that of the Willet, or Semi-palmated Snipe, Totanus
semipalmatus, being rather large, and formed of dry weeds and the
twigs of small shrubs. I have never observed the singular manner of
augmenting and raising their tenements, described by Alexander
Wilson, although, like him, I have found and examined several in
the very same districts. The eggs are always four, placed with the
smaller ends together, pyriform, almost 2 inches long, with the
smaller end rounded, 1 3/8 in their greatest breadth; of a pale
yellowish-clay colour, and plentifully marked with large irregular
blotches and lines of brownish-black.
While the females are sitting, the males pay them much attention,
acting in this respect like those of the American Avoset, watching the
approach of intruders, giving chase to the Red-winged Starlings, as
well as to the Fishing and American Crows, and assailing the truant
young gunner or egger. When there is no appearance of annoyance,
they sometimes roam as far as the sea-beach. When the young are
hatched, they leave the nest, and follow their parents through the
grass, but on the appearance of danger squat and remain
motionless. About the beginning of September, young and old
commence their journey southward.
This species is rather scarce along the shores of the Carolinas; nor
is it abundant in any part of the United States, and is seldom seen to
the eastward beyond Long Island. Its food consists of insects, small
crustacea, worms, and young fry of fishes. I have frequently
observed them running after flies, and attempting to seize the
smaller Libellulæ. When wounded so as to fall on the water, they are
unable to dive, but on reaching the shore they run nimbly off and
hide themselves.
I feel confident that in spring the males migrate apart from the
females, but in autumn in company with them. The flesh of this
species is not decidedly good or bad, being of ordinary quality. The
males are larger than the females, and individuals of both sexes vary
considerably in size.

Long-legged Avoset, Recurvirostra Himantopus, Wils. Amer. Ornith. vol.

vii. p. 48, pl. 55, fig. 1.
Himantopus nigricollis, Ch. Bonaparte, Synopsis of Birds of United States,
p. 322.
Black-necked Stilt, Nuttall, Manual, vol. ii. p. 8.

Adult Male. Plate CCCXXVIII.

Bill about twice as long as the head, very slender, roundish, tapering,
slightly recurved. Upper mandible with its outline very slightly curved
upwards, at the tip declinate; the ridge convex, the sides convex, the
edges sharp and inflected, the tip narrow and rather acute. Nasal
groove nearly half the length of the bill; nostrils linear, direct, sub-
basal, pervious. Lower mandible with the angle very long and
narrow, the sides grooved as far as the angle, the edges sharp and
inflected, the tip narrow.
Head small, ovate, rounded above; neck very long and slender; body
rather compact. Legs extremely elongated and slender; tibia bare for
more than half its length, covered anteriorly with large curved
scutella; tarsus very long, moderately compressed, scutellate before,
reticulate on the sides; toes of moderate length, slender; hind toe
wanting, outer a little longer than inner, and connected with the
middle toe by a web extending nearly to the second joint; the inner
toe also connected with the middle by a very short web. Claws small,
nearly straight, moderately compressed.
Plumage ordinary, the feathers ovate and rounded. Wings very long,
of moderate breadth, acute, the first quill longest, the other primaries
rapidly graduated. Tail short, even, of twelve feathers.
Bill black, iris bright carmine; feet lake-coloured, claws dusky.
Forehead, a spot above the eye, another below it, fore part and
sides of the neck, and all the other lower parts, pure white. Upper
part of head, hind neck, and upper parts, bluish-black, glossed with
green; tail white.
Length to end of tail 14 1/2 inches, to end of wings 16 1/2, to end of
claws 21 3/4; extent of wings 27; wing from flexure 9; tail 2 10/12; bill
along the ridge 2 8/12, along the edge of lower mandible 2 11/12; bare
1/
part of tibia 3 1/4; tarsus 4 2 /12; middle toe 1 1/2, its claw 3/12.
2

Weight 6 1/4 oz.

The Female is smaller than the male but otherwise similar.

Length to end of tail 14 inches, to end of wings 15 1/4, to end of
claws 20; extent of wings 25 3/4. Weight 5 oz.
The median ridge of the anterior part of the roof of the mouth is
furnished with a few short papillæ. The tongue is 1 inch 2 twelfths
long, slender, tapering, emarginate and papillate at the base. The
œsophagus is 7 inches long, with an average diameter of 4 twelfths;
the proventriculus 9 twelfths long, and 6 twelfths in diameter. The
stomach is elliptical, 1 inch in length, 8 1/2 twelfths in breadth; its
lateral muscles of moderate strength, the right being 4 twelfths thick;
the inner coat or epithelium dense, longitudinally rugous, and of a
brownish-red colour. The intestine is 20 inches long, its diameter
varying from 3 to 1 1/2 twelfths. The cœca are 1 1/2 inch long, 1/12 in
diameter at the base, 2 twelfths towards the end, which is blunt.
The trachea is 5 1/4 inches long, rather wide, its diameter at the
upper part 3 twelfths, gradually diminishing to 1 1/2 twelfth; the rings
120, unossified, excepting a few at the lower part. The contractor
muscles are feeble; the sterno-tracheal slender. The bronchi are very
short, with about 10 half rings.
The Prince of Musignano has introduced into his lately published list
a species of this genus, under the name of Himantopus Mexicanus. I
have received from Florida two skins, which from their large size
might at first sight be thought to differ from the common kind; but
after closely comparing them with my other specimens, I can find no
difference indicative of a distinction of species. Nor have I ever met
with individuals in North America of any other species than that
above described.
 YELLOW-BREASTED RAIL.

Rallus Noveboracensis, Bonap.

PLATE CCCXXIX. Male.

The Prince of Musignano, who purchased one of these birds in the

New York market, in February 1826, gave a figure of it, and
considered it as an arctic species. This opinion, however, is
incorrect, for the Yellow-breasted Rail is a constant resident in the
Peninsula of the Floridas, as well as in the lower parts of Louisiana,
where I have found it at all seasons. That a few straggling individuals
should proceed northwards, advancing even to pretty high latitudes,
is not much to be wondered at, as we have a similar case in the
Common Gallinule. But at the season mentioned the individual
referred to must have been forced thither by a storm, as no Rails of
any kind are found in that part of the country in winter.
In the neighbourhood of New Orleans, this species is found in all the
deserted savannahs, covered with thick long grass, and pools of
shallow water. There you hear its sharp and curious notes many
times in the course of the day, just as you hear those of Rallus
crepitans near the sea-shore, more especially after the report of a
gun, when they are louder and more quickly repeated. These sounds
come on the ear so as to induce you to believe that the bird is near;
but whether this be the case or not is not easily determined, for when
you move towards a spot in which you suppose it to be, the sounds
recede at your approach, and you may think yourself fortunate if,
after half an hour of search, you discover one on wing. Indeed, if we
have a bird in America approaching in its habits the Corn Crake of
Europe, it is the Yellow-breasted Rail; and were I disposed to
systematize, I should consider it as a connecting link between land
and water birds, as in some of its habits it also resembles the
European Quail, a bird as fond at times of damp meadows bordering
rivers as this species is wont to be, when it seeks for a place of
safety in which to form its nest and rear its young.
In the Floridas, this bird is more abundant than even in Louisiana;
and I met with it frequently in the course of my wanderings there, not
only on the mainland, but also on several of the keys, where they
begin breeding in March. On Sandy Island, near Cape Sable, I found
several pairs, in May 1832. About New Orleans it commences
breeding at the same period. Dr Bachman has procured specimens
near Charleston. I have also found a few near Vincennes on the
Wabash River in summer, when they had young broods. In the
course of my stay at the Silver Springs in East Florida, I observed a
good number of these birds along the margins of the lakes and
swampy bayous, and had ample opportunities of assuring myself
that this species is far from being nocturnal, as authors have alleged,
at least when in places where they are under no apprehension of
danger. In those sultry solitudes I have at times seen them following
the margins of the muddy shores, with delicate and measured steps,
until attracted by something worthy of their attention, when they
suddenly jerked their tail upwards and for a moment disappeared.
Again, they would gracefully leap upon the slender twig of some low
shrub or bush, apparently in search of small snails or other objects,
jerking their tail at every movement. There it was that I again saw the
extraordinary power of contraction which their body is able to
assume while they are pushing forward between two or more
stubborn branches. They were all so gentle that I at times
approached within a few yards of them, when they would now and
then look cunningly at me, rise more erect for a moment, and then
resume their occupations.
When searched for by a dog, they seem as if determined to put him
out by continual manœuvring, running and cutting backwards within
a few yards of extent until the dog can no longer follow the last trail.
Just then they rise on wing, or run off to some other spot equally
adapted for security. A friend of mine who resides in New Orleans,
and has shot some hundreds of this species, told me that the best
method of obtaining a shot is to lie concealed near an opening in the
grass, and call the bird out of cover by imitating its notes, when in a
few minutes, being extremely pugnacious, it comes to the clear
space, and may be easily shot. Its flesh is delicate and savoury.
The nest somewhat resembles that of Rallus elegans. It is generally
placed upon the ground in the centre of a thick tuft of grass, and the
bed of it is at times elevated above the soil to the height of four or
five inches. It is composed of weeds of various kinds, and is now and
then covered over in the same manner as that of our Meadow Lark.
The eggs are from eight to ten, pure white, thin-shelled, and
measure 1 1/8 inch by nearly seven eighths. The young are at first
black, and are able to follow their parents almost immediately after
birth. I am induced to believe that two, or perhaps three, broods are
reared in the season.
The flight of this pretty little bird is rather swift, and more protracted
than that of some of our Rails, especially when put up by a dog
coming inadvertently upon it. At other times, when in places not
frequented, it rises and removes to a distance rarely exceeding thirty
or forty yards, falling as it were among the grass with wings
stretched upwards and dangling legs. The gizzard is large and
muscular, as in the Water-hen and our other Rails. One which I
opened was filled with minute fresh-water shell-fish and gravel. They
feed also on insects of various kinds, and the seeds of grasses.
My friend Thomas Nuttall has so well described the notes of this
bird, that I cannot do better than present you with his account of
them. “On the 6th of October (1831), having spent the night in a
lodge, on the borders of Fresh Pond, employed for decoying and
shooting Ducks, I heard, about sunrise, the Yellow breasted Rails
begin to stir among the reeds (Arundo Phragmites) that thickly skirt
this retired border of the lake, and in which, among a host of various
kinds of Blackbirds, they had for sometime roosted every night. As
soon as awake, they called out in an abrupt and cackling cry, ’krèk,
’krèk, ’krèk, ’krèk, ’kuk’ k’kh, which note, apparently from the young,
was answered by the parent (probably the hen), in a lower soothing
note. The whole of these uncouth and guttural notes have no bad
resemblance to the croaking of the tree frog, as to sound. This call
and answer, uttered every morning, is thus kept up for several
minutes in various tones, till the whole family, separated for the night,
have met and satisfactorily recognised each other.”
I once shot a female bird of this species near New Orleans upon
which I had nearly trodden as she was on the nest and about to lay
an egg, and which she dropped as she flew before me, previously to
my touching the trigger. In August and September I have found this
species uncommonly fat, and most delicious. The difficulty of
procuring them, however, renders them a rarity for the table even in
those parts of the country where they are most abundant.
I have no doubt that a few stragglers now and then go far north to
breed, as I find in the Fauna Boreali-Americana the following note
from Mr Hutchins’s manuscripts:—“This elegant bird is an inhabitant
of the marshes (on the coast of Hudson’s Bay, near the efflux of
Severn River, where Mr Hutchins resided) from the middle of May to
the end of September. It never flies above sixty yards at a time, but
runs with great rapidity among the long grass near the shores. In the
morning and evening it utters a note, which resembles the striking of
a flint and steel; at other times it makes a shrieking noise. It builds no
nest, but lays from ten to sixteen perfectly white eggs among the
grass.”
Now, this making no nest is to me a convincing proof that the
species is not there in its natural place, but finding itself pushed for
time, and yet obliged to breed, is contented to do so under
unfavourable circumstances. Dr Richardson, who spent several
years in the northern parts of America, did not meet with this
species. I saw none in Labrador or Newfoundland; and in the British
provinces of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, the only bird of this
family known is the Sora, Rallus carolinus.

Gallinula Noveboracensis, Lath. Ind. Ornith. vol. ii. p. 771.

Rallus Noveboracensis, Ch. Bonaparte, Synopsis of Birds of United States,
p. 335.—Ch. Bonaparte, American Ornith. vol. iv. p. 136, pl. 27, fig. 2.
Yellow-breasted Rail, Rallus Noveboracensis, Richards. and Swains.
Fauna Bor.-Amer. vol. ii. p. 402.
Yellow-breasted Rail, Nuttall, Manual, vol. ii. p. 402.

Adult Male. Plate CCCXXIX.

Bill shorter than the head, rather stout, compressed, tapering. Upper
mandible with the dorsal line nearly straight, being slightly convex
towards the end, the ridge narrow and convex in its whole length, the
sides convex towards the end, the edges sharp, slightly overlapping,
destitute of notch. Nasal groove broad, and extending to a little
beyond the middle of the bill; nostrils linear, lateral, submedial,
pervious. Lower mandible with the angle long and narrow, the sides
erect, the dorsal line sloping upwards, the edges a little inflected, the
tip narrowed, the gape-line straight.
Head rather small, oblong, compressed. Neck shortish. Body
compact, deeper than broad. Feet of moderate length, rather stout;
tibia bare a short way above the joint; tarsus of ordinary length,
compressed, anteriorly covered with broad scutella, posteriorly with
smaller, and on the sides reticulated. Hind toe small and very
slender; middle toe longest, and longer than the tarsus; inner toe
considerably shorter than the outer; toes free, with numerous
scutella above. Claws much compressed, slightly arched, tapering to
a fine point, flat and marginate beneath.
Plumage rather stiff, but soft, blended, and slightly glossed above.
Feathers of the forehead somewhat bristly, broad and rounded; of
the hind parts elongated. Wings short, broad, concave; alula large,
primaries curved, broad, abruptly rounded, the second longest, third
scarcely shorter, first equal to seventh; secondaries broad and
rounded, the inner elongated, some of them extending a quarter of
an inch beyond the longest primary. Tail extremely short, much
rounded, of ten feeble rounded feathers; the upper and lower tail-
coverts as long as the tail-feathers.
Bill greenish-black, with the base dull yellowish-orange. Iris hazel.
Feet and claws light flesh-colour. Upper part of the head and hind
neck blackish-brown, the feathers slightly edged with dull light
brownish-red, those on the occiput and hind neck with a small white
spot on the outer edge. The upper parts are brownish-black,
longitudinally streaked with brownish-yellow, each feather being
broadly margined with the latter, and crossed with from one to three
narrow white bars. Alula greyish-brown, each feather with a white dot
near the tip; primaries similar, the outer four unspotted; the edge of
the wing, and the basal half of the outer web of the first primary
yellowish-white; outer secondaries greyish-brown, white towards the
end, three of them having that colour extending over more than half
of their length; inner secondaries like the back; as are the tail-
feathers. Loral space and a line beyond the eye blackish-brown.
Sides of the head, neck, and anterior part of the body light brownish-
red, each feather terminally margined with deep brown; sides like the
back; axillaries, lower wing-coverts, and middle of the abdomen,