Government Islamia College, Gujranwala

BS-Chemistry 1st Semester

Zoology Invertebrates Animals (ZOOL-101)
Professor Imran
Important Short Questions
Define Genetics?
Genetics is the scientific study of genes, heredity, and genetic variation in living
organisms. It involves the study of how traits and characteristics are passed from one
generation to another through the transmission of genetic information encoded in
DNA.
The field of genetics is important for understanding the biology of living organisms
and has applications in medicine, agriculture, and biotechnology.

Define Chromatin?
Chromatin is the material that makes up the chromosomes in eukaryotic cells. It is
composed of DNA, RNA, and proteins.
Functions: "Chromatin packages and organizes DNA in the nucleus and also plays a
role in DNA processes such as replication, repair, and recombination.

What do you know about different types of histones?

Histones that bind to DNA between nucleosomes to stabilize chromatin structure.
Core histones that make up the nucleosome structure, with different variants
specialized for various functions. Histones involved in stabilizing the nucleosome
structure and regulating DNA accessibility. Histones that play a key role in regulating
gene expression and maintaining chromatin structure. Another type of core histone
involved in stabilizing the nucleosome structure and regulating DNA accessibility.

Define Interphase?

Definition: The longest phase of the cell cycle, during which the cell grows, replicates
its DNA, and prepares for cell division.
It includes G1 phase, S phase and G2 phase.
Function: To allow the cell to grow and replicate it’s DNA before undergoing cell
division.
Define G0 Phase?

Definition: During cell cycle some cells cell does not replicate its DNA and become
metabolically inactive.
It is also called resting phase.
Function: Cells in G0 phase can perform specific functions or wait to repair DNA
damage before starting the cell cycle again.

Briefly define different phases of mitosis.

Prophase: The chromatin condenses into visible chromosomes, and the nuclear
membrane breaks down. The spindle fibers begin to form.
Metaphase: The chromosomes line up at the center of the cell, called the metaphase
plate, and attach to the spindle fibers.
Anaphase: The sister chromatids separate at the centromeres and are pulled towards
opposite poles of the cell by the spindle fibers.
Telophase: The chromosomes reach the opposite poles of the cell, and a new nuclear
membrane forms around each set of chromosomes. The spindle fibers disassemble,
and the cell prepares to divide into two daughter cells.
Cytokinesis: The division of the cytoplasm and organelles between the two daughter
cells begins. In animal cells, a cleavage furrow forms, while in plant cells, a cell plate
forms to divide the cell.

Define Synapsis?

Definition: The pairing and physical connection of homologous chromosomes during

meiosis.
Importance:
Synapsis allows for homologous chromosomes to pair up and physically connect and
the creation of new genetic combinations.

Define Homologous chromosomes?

Definition: Two chromosomes that have the same genes at the same loci, but
potentially different versions (alleles) of those genes.
Importance:
Homologous chromosomes play a crucial role in meiosis by pairing up and
undergoing crossing over, which creates genetic diversity and helps to ensure proper
segregation of chromosomes during cell division.
Define Crossing over?

Definition: The exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes

during meiosis.
Importance:
Crossing over promotes genetic diversity by creating new combinations of alleles on
homologous chromosomes, which can result in offspring with unique traits.

Difference between sex chromosomes and autosomes.

Feature Sex Chromosomes Autosomes

Number of
chromosomes Two (XX or XY) Twenty-two pairs

Inheritance Inherited differently based on the Inherited equally from both

pattern sex of the parent parents

Genetic Contains genes related to Contains most of the genes in

information biological sex and other traits the genome

Mutations or alterations can lead Mutations or alterations can

Role in genetic to sex-linked disorders such as cause a wide range of genetic
disorders Turner or Klinefelter syndrome disorders
Difference between haploid, diploid and polyploidy.

Feature Haploid Cells Diploid Cells Polyploidy Cells

Number of
Chromosomes One set (n) Two sets (2n) Three or more sets

Contains one
Genetic copy of each Contains two copies Contains more than two
Information chromosome of each chromosome sets of chromosomes

Formed from the

fusion of haploid
Produced by gametes during Can result from errors in
Formation meiosis fertilization meiosis or mitosis

Haploid
gametes (sperm Most somatic cells Polyploidy organisms such
Examples and egg cells) in the body as certain plants or fish

Allows for genetic

Enables genetic recombination and Provides opportunities for
Role in diversity and gene expression adaptive evolution and
evolution speciation regulation genomic innovation
Difference between spermatogenesis and oogenesis.
Spermatogenesis:
Definition: The process of producing mature sperm cells in the male reproductive
system.
 Occurrence in Testes.
 Produces four haploid sperm cells from diploid germ cell.
 Begins at puberty and continues throughout male’s life time.
Oogenesis:
Definition: The process of producing mature egg cells in the female reproductive
system.
 Occurs in ovaries.
 Produces one haploid egg cell and three polar bodies from one diploid germ
cell.
 Begins during fetal development and is completed only after fertilization
occurs.

Describe components of DNA?

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) is a complex molecule composed of three basic
components: nucleotides, a sugar-phosphate backbone, and nitrogenous bases.
Nucleotide are the building blocks of DNA, consisting of a sugar molecule
(deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.
DNA contains the sugar deoxyribose, while RNA contains the sugar ribose. The sugar
molecule provides the backbone of the nucleotide. Phosphate group is attached to the
sugar molecule and links the nucleotides together through phosphodiester bonds. The
phosphate group provides the negative charge that gives DNA and RNA their acidic
properties.
In DNA, the nitrogenous bases adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine
(C) pair up to form base pairs. In RNA, adenine (A), uracil (U), guanine (G), and
cytosine (C) pair up to form base pairs. The specific sequence of nucleotides in DNA
and RNA carries the genetic information that determines the traits of an organism.
 Define point mutation with example?
A point mutation is a type of genetic mutation that involves a change in a single
nucleotide base pair in the DNA sequence of an organism.
For example: a point mutation can occur when a single nucleotide base pair is
substituted for another, such as when an adenine (A) is replaced by a guanine (G).
This type of point mutation is known as a "missense" mutation because it changes the
codon that specifies a particular amino acid, potentially leading to a different protein
being produced.

Difference between DNA and RNA.

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) RNA (Ribonucleic acid)

Stores and transmits genetic Transmits genetic information and

Function information plays a role in protein synthesis

Double-stranded helix composed of Single-stranded molecule composed

nucleotides containing deoxyribose of nucleotides containing ribose
sugar, phosphate, and nitrogenous sugar, phosphate, and nitrogenous
bases (adenine, guanine, cytosine, and bases (adenine, guanine, cytosine, and
Structure thymine) uracil)

Found in the nucleus and cytoplasm

Location Found in the nucleus of cells of cells

Can replicate itself through semi-

Replication conservative replication Cannot replicate itself
Define Nondisjunction?
Nondisjunction is a genetic event in which chromosomes fail to separate properly
during cell division, resulting in daughter cells with an abnormal number of
chromosomes.
Occurrence: It can occur during either meiosis or mitosis.
Disorders: It can lead to various genetic disorders, such as Down syndrome, Turner
syndrome, and Klinefelter syndrome.

Discuss monohybrid cross and dihybrid cross?

Monohybrid Cross Dihybrid Cross

1. The study of one trait with
two alleles
2. Follows the principle of
segregation, where alleles
segregate during gamete
formation
3. Involves a single Punnett
square to determine
genotypic and phenotypic
ratios
4. Examples include flower
color in pea plants or
widow's peak in humans
The study of two traits with two
alleles each
Follows the principle of
segregation and the principle of
independent assortment, where
alleles for each gene segregate
independently during gamete
formation
Involves two Punnett squares to
determine genotypic and
phenotypic ratios
Examples include seed color and
seed texture in pea plants or coat
color and tail length in dogs

Define multiple alleles with examples?

Multiple alleles refer to a situation where a particular gene has more than two alleles
in a population, but an individual can still only inherit two alleles - one from each
parent.
For example: of multiple alleles is the ABO blood group system in humans, which is
determined by the presence or absence of three different alleles: A, B, and O. the
different combinations of these three alleles can result in four different blood types: A,
B, AB, and O.

Define complete and incomplete dominance?

Complete Dominance
Definition: A genetic pattern where the dominant allele completely masks the
recessive allele.
Expression in offspring: Homozygous dominant and heterozygous individuals have
the same phenotype.
Example: The flower color of snapdragons, where red (dominant) and white
(recessive) flowers produce all red flowers in heterozygous offspring.
Incomplete Dominance
Definition: A genetic pattern where the phenotype of a heterozygous individual is
intermediate between the homozygous dominant and homozygous recessive
individuals.
Expression in offspring: Heterozygous individuals have a distinct phenotype that is a
blend of the homozygous dominant and homozygous recessive phenotypes.
Example: The color of carnation flowers, where red (dominant) and white (recessive)
flowers produce pink flowers in heterozygous offspring.

What are genetic bases of inheritance?

The molecular basis of inheritance are on genetic information that is transmitted from
one generation to the next. At the molecular level, genetic information is stored in the
DNA’ which contains the instructions for the development and function of all living
organism.
DNA replication ensures that each daughter cell receives a complete set of genetic
information. Transcription uses DNA as a template to produce RNA molecules that
carry genetic information. Translation uses RNA as a template to synthesize proteins,
the primary functional molecules in cells. Mutations can result in changes to the
genetic code and affect an organism's phenotype. Genetic recombination during
meiosis can contribute to genetic diversity within populations