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Water Management
 GREEN CHEMISTRY AND CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
Series Editor: Sunggyu Lee
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Managing Biogas Plants: A Practical Guide
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Water Management: Social and Technological Perspectives
Iqbal M. Mujtaba, Thokozani Majozi, and Mutiu Kolade Amosa

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 Water Management
Social and Technological Perspectives

Edited by
Iqbal M. Mujtaba
Thokozani Majozi
Mutiu Kolade Amosa
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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

Names: Mujtaba, I. M., editor. | Majozi, Thokozani, editor. | Amosa, Mutiu

Kolade, editor.
Title: Water management : social and technological perspectives / edited by
Professor Iqbal M. Mujtaba, Professor Thokozani Majozi and Dr. Mutiu
Kolade Amosa.
Description: First editor. | Boca Raton : Taylor & Francis, a CRC title, part
of the Taylor & Francis imprint, a member of the Taylor & Francis Group,
the academic division of T&F Informa, plc, [2019] | Series: Green
chemistry and chemical engineering | Includes bibliographical references
and index. |
Identifiers: LCCN 2018020246 (print) | LCCN 2018029403 (ebook) | ISBN
9781351657587 (Adobe PDF) | ISBN 9781351657570 (ePub) | ISBN 9781351657563
( Mobipocket) | ISBN 9781138067240 (hardback) | ISBN 9781315158778 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Water quality management--Technological innovations. | Water
quality management--Social aspects.
Classification: LCC TD353 (ebook) | LCC TD353 .W346 2019 (print) | DDC
628.1--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018020246

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 Dedication

To our families and children.

Contents
Preface...............................................................................................................................................xi
Editors ............................................................................................................................................ xiii
Contributors ..................................................................................................................................... xv

Section i Social Perspective

Chapter 1 Water Security and the Rise of Sectarian Conflict in Yemen ...................................... 3
Afshin Shahi and Maya Vachkova

Chapter 2 Water Diplomacy: Solving the Equations of Conflict, Economic Growth,

Social Well-Being and Ecosystem Demand ............................................................... 11
Maruf Oladotun Orewole

Chapter 3 Achieving Effective Water Management and Access within Africa’s

Socio-Political and Cultural Complexities: Issues and Policy Directions/Options........21
Olawale R. Olaopa

Section ii Freshwater by Desalination

Chapter 4 The Capability of Forward Osmosis in Irrigation Water Supply ............................... 37

Alireza Abbassi Monjezi, Maryam Aryafar, Alasdair N. Campbell,
Franjo Cecelja, and Adel O. Sharif

Chapter 5 Recent Advancements in the Application of Microbial Desalination Cells for

Water Desalination, Wastewater Treatment, and Energy Production ........................ 57
Adewale Giwa, Vincenzo Naddeo, and Shadi W. Hasan

Chapter 6 Effect of the Draw Solution on the Efficiency of Two-Stage FO-RO/BWRO for
Seawater and Brackish Water Desalination ............................................................... 73
Ali Altaee, Adnan Alhathal Alanezi, Radhi Alazmi, Alaa H. Hawari,
and Claudio Mascialino

Chapter 7 Freshwater Production Using Multiple-Effect Evaporator ......................................... 89

Prashant Sharan and Santanu Bandyopadhyay

Chapter 8 Freshwater Production by the Multistage Flash (MSF) Desalination Process ........ 103
Iqbal M. Mujtaba and Salih Alsadaie

vii
viii Contents

Section iii Wastewater treatment: Membrane

and Polymer Based Process

Chapter 9 Modeling of Pore-Blocking Behaviors of Low-Pressure Membranes during

Constant-Pressure Filtration of an Agro-Industrial Wastewater .............................. 137
Mutiu Kolade Amosa, Mohammed Saedi Jami, Ma’an Fahmi Alkhatib,
Thokozani Majozi, Adewale George Adeniyi, Fatai Alade Aderibigbe,
and Sulyman Age Abdulkareem

Chapter 10 Sodalite- and Chitosan-Based Composite Membrane Materials for Treatment

of Metal-Containing Wastewater in Mining Operations ......................................... 169
Machodi Mathaba and Michael O. Daramola

Chapter 11 The Removal of Phenol and Phenolic Compounds from Wastewater Using
Reverse Osmosis: Process Modelling, Simulation, and Optimisation ..................... 191
Mudhar A. Al-Obaidi, Chakib Kara-Zaïtri, and Iqbal M. Mujtaba

Section iV Wastewater treatment: oxidation

and electrochemical Process

Chapter 12 Industrial Three-Phase Oxidation Reactor for Wastewater Treatment .................... 231
Aysar T. Jarullah, Saba A. Gheni, Awad E. Mohammed, and Iqbal M. Mujtaba

Chapter 13 Electrolytic Treatment of Wastewater for Reuse Purposes: Case Study of the
New Damietta Harbor Plants ................................................................................... 263
Mahmoud Dahroug

Chapter 14 Inactivation of Waterborne Pathogens in Municipal Wastewater Using Ozone ...... 275
Achisa C. Mecha, Maurice S. Onyango, Aoyi Ochieng,
and Maggy N. B. Momba

Chapter 15 Photocatalytic Oxidation of Non-Acid Oxygenated Hydrocarbons: Application

in GTL Process Water Treatment ............................................................................. 287
Renju Zacharia, Muftah H. El-Naas, and Mohammed J. Al-Marri

Section V Wastewater treatment: Adsorption Process

Chapter 16 Biosorption of Methylene Blue Dye Using Anise Tea Residue ................................ 305
Khaled M. Hassan, Mamdouh A. Gadalla, and Tamer T. El-Idreesy
Contents ix

Chapter 17 Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy (LIBS) as an Evaluation Tool for

Improving Industrial Wastewater Quality by Different Adsorption Methods ......... 321
Nashwa Tarek El-Tahhan

Chapter 18 Low-Cost Adsorbent for Ammonia Nitrogen Removal: A Review ......................... 343
A. Y. Zahrim, L. N. S. Ricky, Y. Lija, and I. Azreen

Section Vi Wastewater treatment: Biological Processes

Chapter 19 Application of Natural Zeolite in Textile Wastewater Treatment: Integrated

Photodegradation and Anaerobic Digestion System ................................................ 369
Seth Apollo, Benton Otieno, and Aoyi Ochieng

Chapter 20 Mathematical Process Modeling and Biokinetics of Activated Sludge Processes ..... 381
Ibrahim Hassan Mustafa, Asmaa Abdallah Awad, and Hamad Al-Turaif

Chapter 21 Hythane (H2 and CH4) Production from Petrochemical Wastewater via
Anaerobic Digestion Process ...................................................................................403
Ahmed Tawfik and Ahmed Elreedy

Chapter 22 Anaerobic Degradation of Lipid-Rich Wastewater .................................................. 415

Ahmed Tawfik and Mohamed Elsamadony

Section Vii Water networks

Chapter 23 Regeneration-Recycling of Industrial Wastewater to Minimise Freshwater

Usage with Water Cascade Analysis ........................................................................ 427
Nicholas Nyamayedenga

Chapter 24 Total Site Water Integration Considering Multiple Water Reuse Headers ............... 443
Ahmad Fikri Ahmad Fadzil, Sharifah Rafidah Wan Alwi,
Zainuddin Abdul Manan, and Jiří Jaromír Klemeš

Chapter 25 Exploring Water Reuse Opportunities in a Large-Scale Milk Processing Plant

through Process Integration ..................................................................................... 457
Esther Buabeng-Baidoo, Nielsen Mafukidze, Sarojini Tiwari, Akash Kumar,
Babji Srinivasan, Thokozani Majozi, and Rajagopalan Srinivasan
x Contents

Section Viii Water Management

Chapter 26 A Case of Wastewater Management Modeling in the Southern Singapore Sea:

Application for Coral Reef Protection ..................................................................... 475
Jaan H. Pu, Yakun Guo, Md. Arafatur Rahman,
and Prashanth Reddy Hanmaiahgari

Chapter 27 Catchments as Asset Systems: A Transdisciplinary Approach to Integrated

Water Resources Management ................................................................................. 481
Chrysoula Papacharalampou, Marcelle McManus, Linda B. Newnes,
and Dan Green

Chapter 28 Water Efficiency Lapses and Sustainable Solutions: Educational Buildings in

Johannesburg, South Africa ..................................................................................... 493
Aghaegbuna O. U. Ozumba

Section iX Water-energy nexus

Chapter 29 Simultaneous Optimization of Water and Energy in Integrated Water and

Membrane Networks: A Case for Water Energy Nexus........................................... 513
Esther Buabeng-Baidoo and Thokozani Majozi

Chapter 30 Interaction of Energy Consumption, Energy Quality, and Freshwater

Production in the Multiple Effect Desalination Process .......................................... 537
Giacomo Filippini, Flavio Manenti, and Iqbal M. Mujtaba

Index .............................................................................................................................................. 565

Preface
Exponential growth in population and improved standards of living demand an increasing amount
of freshwater and are putting serious strain on the quantity of naturally available freshwater around
the world and this goes well with the Ancient Mariners’ rime: “Water, water everywhere/Nor any
drop to drink”. Therefore, how to manage this resource carefully is not only a localised problem but
globalised, too. The management of water includes: (a) cost-effective and sustainable production of
freshwater from saline water by desalination; (b) wastewater (water being polluted due to industrial
use) treatment and re-use; (c) efficient and cost-effective water network for distribution; and (d)
effective use of water in agriculture and industries.
Science and engineering play a vital and increasing role in meeting the current and future needs
of both society and the planet Earth: from water supply to waste management, by developing new
technology, know-how, and practical solutions. This includes many technologies from membrane
meparation using reverse osmosis (RO) to the use of nano-particles for adsorption of impurities
from wastewater to the use of thermal methods for desalination. Increasing the efficiency of water
use in industry, as well as in agriculture and domestic use, are also important challenges. They are
all integrated into an efficient system of water production, usage and recycling.
With the above in mind, Professor Mujtaba and Professor Majozi organised the trilateral (UK–
Egypt–South Africa) workshop in South Africa in September, 2016, which was funded by the British
Council under the Newton Fund. The workshop focused on ‘Water Management’ and included both
the social aspects and the technical aspects of water. This workshop explored the water-energy
nexus, which is evolving as the main challenge in resources management. To this end, the workshop
did not only focus on water management, but also considered the inextricable link between water
and energy. Increases in environmental degradation and social pressures in recent years have neces-
sitated the development of manufacturing processes that are conservative with respect to both these
resources, while maintaining financial viability. The workshop had contributions from chemical
engineers, civil engineers, mechanical engineers, biochemical engineers, water resource engineers,
microbiologists, forensic scientists, social scientists and industrial chemists, clearly demonstrating
that ‘water is everybody’s business’. Ten participants from the UK, 10 participants from Egypt, and
10 participants from South Africa (academics and industrialists) presented their stimulating and
state-of-the-art research and knowledge transfer ideas for water over a period of 4 days, and the
workshop was well attended by over 60 participants.
The developments in energy efficient water production, management, wastewater treatment, and
social and political aspects related to water management and re-use of treated water were widely
discussed in this workshop. The proposed book will give the opportunity to bring forward those
social and technical discussions for wider public benefit around the globe.
The book has a total of 30 contributions (most from the workshop mentioned earlier and a few
solicited) and is divided into 9 main sections:

• Section I: Social Perspective

• Section II: Freshwater by Desalination
• Section III: Wastewater Treatment: Membrane and Polymer Based Processes
• Section IV: Wastewater Treatment: Oxidation and Electrochemical Processes
• Section V: Wastewater Treatment: Adsorption Processes
• Section VI: Wastewater Treatment: Biological Processes
• Section VII: Water Networks
• Section VIII: Water Management
• Section IX: Water-Energy Nexus

xi
xii Preface

Section I includes three contributions on social perspective covering security, sectarian conflict,
diplomacy, economic growth, social well-being, socio-political and cultural complexities linked to
water and water management.

Section II includes five contributions on making freshwater and irrigation water by desalination
covering technologies such as hybrid forward and reverse osmosis, multistage flash, multi-effect
evaporator and microbial cells.

Section III discusses membrane and polymer-based processes for wastewater treatment. This sec-
tion includes three contributions covering model-based evaluation of pore-blocking behaviours of
low pressure membranes, Sodalite- and Chitosan-based composite membrane materials for metal
removal, modelling and optimisation of RO process for the removal of phenolic compounds from
wastewater.

Section IV highlights oxidation and electrochemical processes for wastewater treatment. The four
contributions in this section cover industrial three phase oxidation reactor, electrolytic method,
ozone-based method and photocatalytic oxidation method for the treatment of wastewater.

Section V includes three contributions highlighting adsorption process for wastewater treatment.
This section covers bio-sorption of methylene blue dye, laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy
(LIBS) technique for evaluation of water quality, low cost adsorbent for nitrogen removal from
wastewater.

Section VI includes three contributions on the use of biological processes for wastewater treat-
ment and discusses application of natural zeolite in anaerobic digestion system, activated sludge
process, and anaerobic degradation process. This section also adds potential for Hythane (hydro-
gen [H2] and methane [CH4]) production from petrochemical wastewater using anaerobic diges-
tion process.

Section VII discusses water networks for water management and includes three contributions.
Regeneration-recycling of industrial wastewater to minimise usage of freshwater, total site water
integration and water re-use opportunities in dairy industry via process integration are highlighted.

Section VIII highlights issues with water management and includes three contributions discussing
wastewater management modelling for coral reefs protection, multidisciplinary approach for inte-
grated water resources management and water efficiency lapses and sustainable solutions.

Finally, Section IX includes two contributions on water-energy nexus highlighting optimisation of

water and energy in integrated water and membrane networks and interaction of energy consump-
tion, energy quality and freshwater production in multi-effect evaporative desalination process.

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Editors
Iqbal M. Mujtaba, PhD, is a professor of computational process engineering in the School of
Engineering at the University of Bradford. He earned his BSc Eng and MSc Eng degrees in Chemical
Engineering from Bangladesh University of Engineering & Technology (BUET) in 1983 and 1984
respectively and earned his PhD from Imperial College London in 1989. He is a Fellow of the
IChemE, a Chartered Chemical Engineer, and the current Chair of the IChemE’s Computer Aided
Process Engineering Subject Group. He was the Chair of the European Committee for Computers in
Chemical Engineering Education from 2010–2013. Professor Mujtaba leads research into dynamic
modelling, simulation, optimisation and control of batch and continuous chemical processes with
specific interests in distillation, industrial reactors, refinery processes, desalination and crude oil
hydrotreating focusing on energy and water. He has managed several research collaborations and
consultancy projects with industry and academic institutions in the UK, Italy, Hungary, Malaysia,
Thailand and Saudi Arabia. He has published more than 300 technical papers and has delivered
more than 60 invited lectures/seminars/short courses around the world. He has supervised 29 PhD
students to completion and is currently supervising 10 PhD students. He is the author of Batch
Distillation: Design & Operation (textbook) published by the Imperial College Press, London, 2004
which is based on his 18 years of research in Batch Distillation. Professor Mujtaba also edited books
titled Application of Neural Network and Other Learning Technologies in Process Engineering,
Imperial College Press, London, 2001 and Composite Materials Technology: Neural Network
Applications, CRC Press, USA, 2009.

Thokozani Majozi, PhD, is a full professor in the School of Chemical and Metallurgical
Engineering at Wits University where he also holds the National Research Foundation (NRF)
Chair in Sustainable Process Engineering. Prior to joining Wits, he spent almost 10 years at the
University of Pretoria, initially as an associate professor and later as a full professor of chemical
engineering. He was also an associate professor in computer science at the University of Pannonia
in Hungary from 2005 to 2009. Majozi completed his PhD in Process Integration at the University
of Manchester Institute of Science and Technology in the United Kingdom. He is a member of
Academy of Sciences of South Africa and a Fellow for the Academy of Engineering of SA. He has
served in various senior positions, including Vice-President of the Engineering Council of South
Africa (2009–2012), Director of Pelchem (2007–2010) and Director of Necsa (2010–2013). He is
currently the Chairperson of the Board at Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).
He has received numerous awards for his research including the Burianec Memorial Award (Italy),
S2A3 British Association Medal (Silver) and the South African Institution of Chemical Engineers
Bill Neal-May Gold Medal. He is also twice a recipient of the NSTF Award and twice the recipi-
ent of the NRF President’s Award. Majozi is author and co-author of more than 150 scientific
publications, including two books on Batch Chemical Process Integration published by Springer
in January 2010 and CRC Press/Taylor & Francis in 2015. Majozi is a B1 NRF rated researcher.

Mutiu Kolade Amosa, PhD, is currently a research fellow in sustainable process engineering in
the School of Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering at the University of the Witwatersrand in
Johannesburg, South Africa. He is a trained chemical engineer with bachelor’s and master’s degrees
in chemical engineering awarded by Ladoke Akintola University of Technology and Ahmadu Bello
University, respectively. Dr. Amosa earned his PhD in environmental process engineering from
the International Islamic University Malaysia and won the best doctoral award. He also won the most
highly cited researcher award at the University of the Witwatersrand in 2017. Dr. Amosa is a perma-
nent staff member of the Department of Petroleum Resources (DPR)—the Oil and Gas Regulatory
Agency in Nigeria, where he works as a senior chemical engineer at the agency’s headquarters

xiii
xiv Editors

in Lagos, Nigeria. He is also an international research expert and member of the Environmental
Engineering and Management Research Group, Faculty of Environment and Labour Safety, at Ton
Duc Thang University, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam.
Previously, Dr. Amosa served as a research fellow between 2011 and 2012 under the Petroleum
Technology Development Fund (PTDF) endowment of the Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria,
where he worked on drilling fluid technologies and development of zeolites and molecular sieves
for petroleum refining applications. He also served as research/teaching assistant between 2012 and
2015 under the Bioenvironmental Engineering Research Centre (BERC) at International Islamic
University Malaysia, where he worked on several research projects related to environmental process
engineering. He currently serves as an editor for Cogent Engineering Journal (Taylor & Francis
Group) and he is an award-winning reviewer (awarded by Publons in 2017) for many reputable
journals and conferences.
Dr. Amosa is a corporate member of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE);
Nigerian Society of Chemical Engineers (NSChE); Association of Environmental Engineering and
Science Professors (AEESP); International Water Association (IWA); the Society of Petroleum
Engineers (SPE); amongst others. Widely published and cited, he focuses his research on process
design, modelling and optimization; environmental process engineering; sustainable process sys-
tems engineering; less common separation technologies and their wide applications; and develop-
ment of micro- and nano-porous materials.
Contributors
Sulyman Age Abdulkareem Mutiu Kolade Amosa
Department of Chemical Engineering NRF-DST Chair: Sustainable Process
University of Ilorin Engineering
Ilorin, Nigeria School of Chemical and Metallurgical
Engineering
Adewale George Adeniyi University of the Witwatersrand
Department of Chemical Engineering Johannesburg, South Africa
University of Ilorin and
Ilorin, Nigeria DPR Headquarters,
Department of Petroleum Resources
Fatai Alade Aderibigbe Lagos, Nigeria
Department of Chemical Engineering
University of Ilorin and
Ilorin, Nigeria Environmental Engineering and Management
Research Group
Adnan Alhathal Alanezi Faculty of Environment and Labour Safety
Department of Chemical Engineering Ton Duc Thang University
Technology Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
College of Technological Studies
Kuwait City, Kuwait Seth Apollo
Centre for Renewable Energy and Water
Radhi Alazmi Vaal University of Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering Vanderbijlpark, South Africa
Technology
College of Technological Studies Maryam Aryafar
Kuwait City, Kuwait Department of Chemical and Process
Engineering
University of Surrey
Ma’an Fahmi Alkhatib Guildford, Surrey, United Kingdom
Bioenvironmental Engineering Research
Centre (BERC) Asmaa Abdallah Awad
Department of Biotechnology Engineering Chemical Engineering Department
Kulliyyah of Engineering Waterloo University
International Islamic University Malaysia Waterloo, Ontario, Canada
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
I. Azreen
Salih Alsadaie Universiti Malaysia Sabah
University of Sirte Kota Kinabalu, Malaysia
Sirte, Libya
Santanu Bandyopadhyay
Ali Altaee Department of Energy Science and
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering Engineering
University of Technology Sydney Indian Institute of Technology Bombay
Sydney, Australia Mumbai, India

xv
xvi Contributors

Esther Buabeng-Baidoo Ahmad Fikri Ahmad Fadzil

School of Chemical and Metallurgical Process Systems Engineering Centre
Engineering (PROSPECT)
University of the Witswatersrand Research Institute of Sustainable Environment
Johannesburg, South Africa and
Faculty of Chemical and Energy Engineering
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
Alasdair N. Campbell
Johor Bahru, Malaysia
Department of Chemical and Process
Engineering
University of Surrey Giacomo Filippini
Guildford, Surrey, United Kingdom Chemical Engineering Department
School of Engineering
Faculty of Industrial Engineering
Franjo Cecelja Politecnico di Milano
Department of Chemical and Process Milan, Italy
Engineering
University of Surrey
Guildford, Surrey, United Kingdom Mamdouh A. Gadalla
Department of Chemical Engineering
Port Said University
Mahmoud Dahroug Port Fouad, Egypt
Egyptian Water and Wastewater Regulatory
Agency (EWRA) and
Ministry of Housing, Utilities and Urban Department of Chemical Engineering
Development, Egypt The British University in Egypt
El-Shorouk City, Egypt
Michael O. Daramola
School of Chemical and Metallurgical Saba A. Gheni
Engineering Chemical Engineering Department
Faculty of Engineering and the Built Faculty of Engineering
Environment Tikrit University
University of the Witwatersrand Tikrit, Iraq
Johannesburg, South Africa
Adewale Giwa
Ahmed Elreedy Department of Chemical Engineering
Sanitary Engineering Department Khalifa University of Science and
Faculty of Engineering Technology
Alexandria University Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
Alexandria, Egypt
Dan Green
Mohamed Elsamadony Wessex Water Services Ltd
Environmental Engineering Department Claverton Down, Bath, United Kingdom
Egypt-Japan University of Science and
Technology (E-JUST) Yakun Guo
Alexandria, Egypt School of Engineering
Public Works Engineering Department Faculty of Engineering and Informatics
Faculty of Engineering University of Bradford
Tanta City, Egypt Bradford, West Yorkshire, United Kingdom
Contributors xvii

Prashanth Reddy Hanmaiahgari Chakib Kara-Zaïtri

Department of Civil Engineering Chemical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Faculty of Engineering and Informatics
Kharagpur, India University of Bradford
Bradford, West Yorkshire, United Kingdom
Shadi W. Hasan
Department of Chemical Engineering Jiří Jaromír Klemeš
Khalifa University of Science and Technology Sustainable Process Integration Laboratory
Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates – SPIL
NETME Centre, Faculty of Mechanical
Engineering
Khaled M. Hassan Brno University of Technology
Department of Chemical Engineering Brno, Czech Republic
The British University in Egypt
El-Shorouk City, Egypt
Akash Kumar
Department of Chemical Engineering
Alaa H. Hawari Indian Institute of Technology Gandhinagar
Department of Civil and Architectural Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India
Engineering
Qatar University
Y. Lija
Doha, Qatar
Universiti Malaysia Sabah
Kota Kinabalu, Malaysia
Tamer T. El-Idreesy
Department of Chemistry Nielsen Mafukidze
Faculty of Science School of Chemical and Metallurgical
Cairo University Engineering
Giza, Egypt University of the Witswatersrand
and Johannesburg, South Africa
Department of Chemistry
School of Sciences and Engineering Thokozani Majozi
The American University in Cairo National Research Foundation (NRF) Chair in
New Cairo, Egypt Sustainable Process Engineering
School of Chemical and Metallurgical
Engineering
Mohammed Saedi Jami University of the Witwatersrand
Bioenvironmental Engineering Research Johannesburg, South Africa
Centre (BERC)
Department of Biotechnology Engineering
Zainuddin Abdul Manan
Kulliyyah of Engineering
Process Systems Engineering Centre
International Islamic University Malaysia
(PROSPECT)
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Research Institute of Sustainable
Environment
Aysar T. Jarullah and
Chemical Engineering Department Faculty of Chemical and Energy
Faculty of Engineering Engineering
Tikrit University Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
Tikrit, Iraq Johor Bahru, Malaysia
xviii Contributors

Flavio Manenti Maggy N. B. Momba

Chemical Engineering Department Department of Environmental, Water and Earth
School of Engineering Sciences
Faculty of Industrial Engineering Tshwane University of Technology
Politecnico di Milano Pretoria, South Africa
Milan, Italy
Alireza Abbassi Monjezi
Mohammed J. Al-Marri Department of Chemical and Process
Gas Processing Center Engineering
College of Engineering University of Surrey
Qatar University Guildford, Surrey, United Kingdom
Doha, Qatar
Iqbal M. Mujtaba
Claudio Mascialino Chemical Engineering
Department of Chemical Engineering Faculty of Engineering and Informatics
University of Surrey University of Bradford
Guildford, Surrey, United Kingdom Bradford, West Yorkshire, United Kingdom

Ibrahim Hassan Mustafa

Machodi Mathaba
Biomedical Engineering Department
School of Chemical and Metallurgical
Helwan University
Engineering
Cairo, Egypt
Faculty of Engineering and the Built
Environment and
University of the Witwatersrand
Chemical and Materials Engineering
Johannesburg, South Africa
Department
and King Abdulaziz University
Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
Department of Chemical Technology
University of Johannesburg
Doornfontein, Johannesburg, South Africa Muftah H. El-Naas
Gas Processing Center
College of Engineering
Marcelle McManus Qatar University
Water Innovation Research Centre Doha, Qatar
Department of Mechanical Engineering
University of Bath
Claverton Down, Bath, United Kingdom Vincenzo Naddeo
Department of Civil Engineering
University of Salerno
Achisa C. Mecha Fisciano (SA) Italy
Department of Chemical, Metallurgical and
Materials Engineering Linda B. Newnes
Tshwane University of Technology Water Innovation Research Centre
Pretoria, South Africa Department of Mechanical Engineering
University of Bath
Awad E. Mohammed Claverton Down, Bath, United Kingdom
Chemical Engineering Department
Faculty of Engineering Nicholas Nyamayedenga
Tikrit University Silchrome Plating LTD
Tikrit, Iraq Leeds, United Kingdom
Contributors xix

Chrysoula Papacharalampou Jaan H. Pu

Water Innovation Research Centre School of Engineering
Department of Mechanical Engineering Faculty of Engineering and Informatics
University of Bath University of Bradford
Claverton Down, Bath, United Kingdom Bradford, West Yorkshire, United Kingdom

Mudhar A. Al-Obaidi Md. Arafatur Rahman

Chemical Engineering Faculty of Computer Systems & Software
Faculty of Engineering and Informatics Engineering
University of Bradford Universiti Malaysia
Bradford, West Yorkshire, United Kingdom Pahang, Malaysia,
and
L. N. S. Ricky
Middle Technical University Universiti Malaysia Sabah
Baghdad, Iraq Kota Kinabalu, Malaysia

Aoyi Ochieng
Afshin Shahi
Centre for Renewable Energy and Water
Division of Peace Studies & Middle Eastern
Vaal University of Technology
Politics
Vanderbijlpark, South Africa
University of Bradford
Bradford, West Yorkshire, United Kingdom
Olawale R. Olaopa
Department of Political Science
Obafemi Awolowo University Prashant Sharan
Ile-Ife, Nigeria Buildings & Thermal Science Center
National Renewable Energy
Laboratory
Maurice S. Onyango Golden, Colorado USA
Department of Chemical, Metallurgical and
Materials Engineering
Tshwane University of Technology Adel O. Sharif
Pretoria, South Africa Department of Chemical and Process
Engineering
University of Surrey
Maruf Oladotun Orewole
Guildford, United Kingdom
National Centre for Technology Management
Federal Ministry of Science and Technology and
Obafemi Awolowo University
Qatar Environment and Energy Research
Ile-Ife, Nigeria
Institute (QEERI)
HBKU, Qatar Foundation
Benton Otieno Doha, Qatar
Centre for Renewable Energy and Water
Vaal University of Technology Babji Srinivasan
Vanderbijlpark, South Africa Department of Chemical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Gandhinagar
Aghaegbuna O. U. Ozumba Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India
School of Construction Economics and
Management Rajagopalan Srinivasan
Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment Department of Chemical Engineering
University of the Witwatersrand Indian Institute of Technology
Johannesburg, South Africa Madras, India
xx Contributors

Nashwa Tarek El-Tahhan Maya Vachkova

Chemical Engineering Department
The Higher Technological Institute (HTI)
10th of Ramadan City, Egypt
Ahmed Tawfik
Environmental Engineering Department
Egypt-Japan University of Science and
Technology (E-JUST)
Alexandria, Egypt
and
National Research Centre
Water Pollution Research Department
Giza, Egypt
Division of Peace Studies & Middle Eastern
Politics
University of Bradford
Bradford, West Yorkshire, United Kingdom
Sharifah Rafidah Wan Alwi
Process Systems Engineering Centre
(PROSPECT)
Research Institute of Sustainable
Environment
and
Faculty of Chemical and Energy
Engineering
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
Johor Bahru, Malaysia

Sarojini Tiwari Renju Zacharia

Department of Chemical Engineering Gas Processing Center
Indian Institute of Technology Gandhinagar College of Engineering
Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India Qatar University
Doha, Qatar
Hamad Al-Turaif
Chemical and Materials Engineering A. Y. Zahrim
Department Chemical Engineering Department
King Abdulaziz University Universiti Malaysia Sabah
Jeddah, Saudi Arabia Kota Kinabalu, Malaysia
Section I
Social Perspective
 1 Water Security and the Rise
of Sectarian Conflict in Yemen
Afshin Shahi and Maya Vachkova

CONTENTS
1.1 Case Vignette: Yemen............................................................................................................... 3
1.2 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................7
References ..........................................................................................................................................7

In recent years, various explanations have been provided for the rise of sectarianism in the Middle East.
Iran–Saudi rivalry, uneven development, horizontal inequality, top-down ethno-sectarian discrimina-
tion, state propaganda and utilization of sectarian narratives for regime survival, US-led invasion of
Iraq and the failure of Arab Uprising and the Syrian civil war have been highlighted as influential fac-
tors behind the new wave of sectarian violence in the region. Although all these factors are important
in explaining the situation, we believe that often the environmental factors are overlooked in explaining
the emergence of political violence in fragmented societies such as Yemen. There is enough evidence
to suggest that factors such as drought and desertification are instrumental in setting the stage for social
eruption, particularly in societies with fragmented sense of national consciousness.
The link between environmental problems and conflict is already well established and given the
extreme water shortages in the region, the Middle East is particularly vulnerable to environmentally
induced instabilities. The Middle East can be characterized as semi-arid or arid and hence, vulner-
able to climate change [1]. Recurring droughts are by no means a novelty in the region. Climate
change has exacerbated the effects of droughts. The 1998–2012 period was the driest one in the
Levant for the past five centuries [2]. Moreover, severe droughts are expected in the Middle East
within the next few decades [2]. With the current population growth and rates of water consumption,
by 2050 the global water demand may reach 100% of the available supply [3]. A recent study review-
ing water availability and climate change issued a prediction for the driest countries in the next few
decades. According to the World Resource Institute, of the thirty-three countries that are expected
to face extreme water stress by 2040, more than half are situated in the Middle East. Moreover,
seven out of the ten most water-stressed countries are in the Middle East.
This chapter briefly examines how extreme water shortages have paved the way for the escalation
of sectarian violence in Yemen. Although one cannot reduce the complicated conflict in Yemen only
to one factor, water shortages have played a very important role in the instigation and the continuation
of the civil war.

1.1 CASE VIGNETTE: YEMEN

Yemen is often described as a conflict-prone, underdeveloped country stretched across an expanse
of scorched earth. It is a home to a wide diversity of tribes, all intertwined in cooperation and hos-
tilities. The Shiite-Sunnite ratio in Yemen is close to equilibrium with around 40%–47% Shiites
and 53%–60% Sunnites [4]1. The Shiite sects in the country are mostly Zaydis and Twelver Shiites,

1 Atlapedia, s.v. ‘Yemen’, accessed March 3, 2016.

3
4 Water Management

while the Sunnite sects are Shafi, Maliki, Hanbali, and Hanafi, with the Shafi sect constituting the
majority [5]. The northern parts of the country are dominated by the Zaydis, while the south and
southeastern territories are the home of the powerful Shafi Sunnites. In recent years, however, there
has been a wave of Sunnite and a corresponding wave of Shiite radicalisation. These sub-state iden-
tities began to gain more political importance after the unification of the North and the South in
1990, which spawned multitudinous sectarian political parties [6].
Yemen is one of the most water-stressed places in the world [7]. Droughts and scarce water
resources have characterised the Yemeni geography for centuries [8]. The civilisations sustained
by this climate and terrain have relied on ingenious solutions, such as terraced supply and demand
farming. Traditional agricultural practices of those types allowed for sparing consumption of
water resources. The agricultural revolution in the 1970s heralded a significant shift away from
traditional farming practices [7]. After the seventies, the country became more engaged with the
international market. Along with modern technology and investment, foreign water-demanding
crops entered the newly liberalised Yemeni market. Inadequate planning and regulation lead to
over-exploitation of land and water resources. Nonetheless, the rise of cash crops did enrich some
parts of society.
The piping network in the country is not efficient and many households are not supplied by
the state, but use drill wells instead. There have been some efforts towards regulating ground
water use and distribution [9]. There is ample evidence that illegal drilling was common even
after the introduction of a drilling permit system [10]. Ninety per cent of fresh water in Yemen is
used for agriculture. Most of it is groundwater from springs and wells, which is extremely unsus-
tainable [11]. The land degradation and ground water depletion, however, went overlooked and
unaddressed. Decades of water mismanagement left arid Yemen extremely vulnerable to climate
change [10].
Water scarcity fosters not only environmental, but also social vulnerability. Competition over
this vital resource over the past couple of years has cost more lives than the recent civil war [12].
The weak governance institutions are often unable to resolve these conflicts and to provide basic
water and sanitation to all areas of the country. In the absence of functional services, alternative
forms of government infiltrate the chasm left by the abdication of the state. Unsurprisingly, the most
water-stressed regions in Yemen host the strongholds of extremist organisations. It seems impov-
erished farmers are more likely to succumb to sectarian narratives and to enrol in ethno-sectarian
militias. In the absence of effective state intervention, social groups violently confront each other
to secure water and they use their tribal, sectarian and other ancient identities to frame their griev-
ances. In the climate of struggle over survival, the binaries of “us” versus “them” became stronger
than before.
Yemen is infamous for the weakness of its institutions. State legitimacy is often contested by
tribal law and armed militant groups. Governance in Yemen has continuously relied on a balance
between official and shadow institutions [13]. The conflict in Yemen escalated in response to anti-
government protests. Sectarian extremist groups made their way into the havoc of protest crack-
downs. Finally, at the time of writing, a heavily armed coalition in support of the government,
championed by Saudi Arabia, is bombarding key infrastructure. Since the beginning of the conflict,
6400 people have lost their lives [14]. The fighting and the foreign bombing campaign have severed
basic infrastructure and as of January 2016, 80% of the population was food-aid dependent [15]. As
of 2015, 2.3 million were internally displaced and at least 121,000 were reported to have left the
country [16]. Around 14.1 million people need support to meet basic healthcare needs and about
two million are currently acutely malnourished, including 1.3 million children—320,000 of whom
are enduring severe acute malnutrition. As of October 2015, health services reported 32,307 casual-
ties (including 5604 deaths), an average of 153 injuries or deaths per day [17]. While the conflict
turns into a sectarian bloodbath, with all sides drawing upon sacral narratives of ancient strife, the
country is facing an environmental catastrophe, and more specifically a severe depletion of ground
water resources [18].
Water Security and the Rise of Sectarian Conflict in Yemen 5

The vigour of the so-called “Arab Spring” did not bypass Yemen. In 2011, a group of women,
children and men gathered in “Change Square” in a peaceful demonstration against the authoritar-
ian 33-year rule of President Ali Abdullah Saleh. Protesters hoped to transform the poorest Arab
nation into a modern democracy. The civil society dominated the protests for a few weeks, before
the leader of the Muslim Brotherhood affiliated Yemeni organization al-Islah hijacked the protest
with the assistance of General Ali Mohsen al-Amar, commander of an elite militia with strong ties
to armed Sunnite extremists. President Saleh’s violent response to the demonstrations caused a
high death toll within the span of a few months: hundreds of protesters died, while thousands were
injured [19]. After external mediation provided by the Gulf Co-operation Council, Saleh handed
power over to his deputy, Abdrabbuh Mansour Hadi. The deal was signed in Riyadh and stipulated
that Hadi was to govern provisionally until the next presidential elections, in exchange for immunity
for Saleh [20]. The deal was dismissed by protesters in the capital, who rejected the idea of granting
the ousted president political absolution. Five years later, the country had descended into chaos and
sectarian violence.
The main fight was waged between president Hadi and the Houthis, an armed militia group
founded in the 1990s by Hussein al-Houthi. The Houthis draw recruits from the Northern Zaydi
population who practice a form of Shiite Islam. In 2004, they instigated a rebellion against President
Saleh. This internal conflict lingered, with fluctuations in intensity, until the 2011 revolution rekin-
dled it [21]. The Houthis, who come from Northern Yemen, managed to push the presidential forces
out of the capital Sana’a in February 2015. Alongside other grievances, the Houthis have continu-
ously contested the unfair distribution of water between North and South [22]. Aden, the temporary
capital in the loyal South, quickly became the next Houthi target [23]. Some of the presidential secu-
rity forces defected in order to support the Houthis. The well-connected ex-president, Ali Abdullah
Saleh, was out of power but far from powerless. While initially supporting the new presidential
regime, he switched alliances to the Houthi rebels in 2014, conveniently parading his renewed
Zaydi identity [24]. Despite coming from a Zaydi tribe, some thirty years ago the president rose to
power with the support of powerful Sunnite tribes [13]. Locally, Hadi received support from the
mostly Sunnite south, the al-Islah and internationally from Saudi Arabia and the Gulf regimes. Both
President Hadi and the Houthis were opposed by al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP), which
had strong positions in the Sunnite south and southeast. The conflict became further entangled
due to the emergence a Yemeni Islamic State offshoot that aimed to contest AQAP’s influence and
became the new Sunnite jihadi presence in Yemen.
The aggressive foreign intervention supports the claim that the Yemeni conflict is now a proxy
war with a sectarian character. The proxy conflict is waged between the two oil and religious colossi
in the Middle East: Saudi Arabia and Iran. In March 2015, Saudi Arabia declared war on Yemen,
calling on the support of a broad military coalition. In partnership with Jordan, Morocco, Bahrain,
Kuwait, Qatar, Egypt, Sudan, the United Arab Emirates (UAE), the United States, the European
Union, and Pakistan, Saudi Arabia began bombing Yemeni territories. The aim of that campaign
is the eradication of the Houthi threat [25]. Although the conflict has been portrayed as a sectarian
conflict with regional dimensions, its causes are mainly rooted in the drastic ecological problems
that were devastating the national economy. The primary trigger for this conflict is water security.
In the pre-war period, the Yemeni government regularly struggled to tackle annual budget short-
falls [26]. The country has suffered groundwater depletion that inspired many grim forecasts—for
instance that the groundwater in the capital Sana’a would be completely exhausted by 2025 [27]
or even by 2015 [28]. Despite the inaccuracy of the latter, it is undeniable that water in Yemen is
scarce. The issue of water scarcity is multi-faceted and may be traced back to a number of causes.
Hydro-management was never a public priority. After the 1970s, Yemen experienced an agricultural
revolution, spearheaded by deep tube wells—an innovation that helped expand land cultivation. In
addition, farmers switched from traditional crops to water-intensive cash crops [8]. A weak, poorly
managed system was used to deliver water to the commercial farms. The piping infrastructure is poor,
leaks often, and is thus wasteful; in addition, illegal wells are drained to pump groundwater [10].
6 Water Management

Farmers use up 90% of the ground water resources to irrigate crops and 37% of it flows into the
very water-demanding qat crops [8]. Qat is a plant with stimulating properties whose soft upper
leaves are chewed by some 72% of Yemeni men and 35% of women [13]. Lastly, climate change
plays a crucial role in water depletion. Due to recurrent droughts, aquifers struggle to recharge [13].
Insufficient effort has been expended on conservation. The government seems to have made a tenta-
tive commitment to water conservation in 2010; however, the tumultuous start of 2011 cancelled all
ecological plans, if there truly had been any [29].
Yemen is among the leaders in population growth. Simultaneously, it is the most drought-
affected country in the Middle East [10]. Yemen is the most populous country on the Arab peninsula
and its population is predicted to double by 2033 [30]. Two-thirds of Yemenis are under the age
of 24 and each Yemeni woman bears an average of six children [31]. Rapid population growth
has intensified pressure on natural resources—especially water—as well as on public services.
In 2011, water consumption from the Sana’a Basin exceeded the rate of annual recharge [32].
Moreover, in 2011 the Yemeni economy plummeted, weakened by fuel shortages, power outages
and extreme water scarcity. During the month of Ramadan, water prices escalated by 200% and
fuel prices by 900% [4]. To poor families, this turn of events meant they could no longer afford
bare necessities. Juxtaposed with the bleak prospects of starvation, militia recruitment became
ever so palatable.
Environmental scarcity exacerbates social tensions and allows the penetration of sectarian
narratives, which reinforce the binaries of “us” versus “them.” In the south, tribal formations have
reportedly already been sheltering extremist figures and symbolically approving their zeal for social
change through jihad [13]. In the north, both the perceived relative deprivation of Zaydis and the
restrictions on worship and religious expression in general have already fomented dissent against
the government.
It is undeniable that water shortages played a significant role in the militant rise of the Houthi
movement, which have contributed to the sectarian tensions in the country. Indeed, the Houthi
homeland, the Sa’dah Plain, was already suffering ground water depletion in the nineties [33].
Experts conclude that overexploitation of groundwater resources is the main problem in the Sa’dah
Plain, a semi-arid highland basin of Yemen. Groundwater-irrigated agriculture is the predominant
livelihood in the area: hence, water depletion imperils food security and threatens the socioeco-
nomic balance. In the past three decades, qat became a staple crop for the northern Zaydi highlands
and, while it did bring economic prosperity, qat farming worsened groundwater depletion [30]. Due
to poor institutional arrangements, there has been no adequate government intervention and the
water crisis of the nineties has remained unaddressed. What is more, the Houthis have continuously
reported unfair water distribution and have gained support from the North based on this grievance
[22]. Indeed, this pressing ecological problem has intensified divisive identity politics, solidified the
politics of othering and hardened the socio-religious boundaries of desperate collectivities who have
to compete tirelessly for vital resources in their struggle for survival.
While the northern highlands are a Shiite/Zaydi Houthi domain, the southern highlands and
lowlands are under the control of AQAP. Not surprisingly, water scarcity plays a key role in
AQAP’s legitimacy—the group governs water distribution and resolves disputes over water, which
are extremely common in the country. Reportedly, around 4000 Yemenis die every year in small-
scale water disputes [12]. The central role of water in AQAP’s strategy is evident in a document
discovered by the Associated Press in 2013 that states, “by taking care of their daily needs like
water . . . [w]e will have a great effect on people, and will make them sympathise with us and feel
that their fate is tied to ours” [12]. In partnership with tribes, AQAP also provides drinking water,
electricity and a form of protection for the regions under its control, thus utilising water as a politi-
cal tool [34]. Reportedly, many Yemenis have supported various extremist organisations because
they provide better governance, relative to the central government, such as education and water
provision [35]. This is the case for the Houthis, as much as for AQAP [36]. The Saudi-led forces
also utilise water as a weapon by strategically destroying hydro infrastructure [37]. The strategic
Water Security and the Rise of Sectarian Conflict in Yemen 7

blockade of humanitarian aid on behalf of both extremists and the Saudi-led interventionist forces
further exacerbated the water plight of Yemenis caught in the middle [38].
Although sub-state actors such as AQAP may have some success in hydro management in certain
areas, their ideological mission only feeds into the further fragmentation of Yemeni national con-
sciousness. AQAP’s religio-political mandate, coupled with their short-term practical success, has
reinforced the sectarian narratives and deepened the sense of distrust towards the state and other
competing groups who also want a share of the remaining water recourses. Thus, water insecurity
feeds identity politics and fosters conflict.

1.2 CONCLUSION
Yemen is one of the most water-stressed countries in the world. Droughts and scarce water resources
have characterised the Yemeni climate for centuries. Pressing environmental problems coupled with
water mismanagement have made Yemen one of the most unstable countries in the region. Although
extreme water shortage has been part of life for centuries, the country embarked on an unsustainable
agricultural revolution in the 1970s that undermined traditional farming practices suitable for that
dry environment. In this light, water-demanding crops entered the newly liberalised Yemeni market
and started to change the agricultural landscape and destroy underground water resources beyond
recognition. Hence, gradually water became scarcer and securing it became even more costly. Even
before the start of the civil war, water disputes were a permanent feature of social life. Struggle over
securing water became responsible for thousands of micro conflicts across the country. As the state
was unable to respond to these serious environmental problems, the right conditions were created
for the emergence of sub-state actors. Some of these extremist groups such as Al Qaeda thrived in
this environment because they could offer a more effective water distribution model. Whoever could
control water, could control hearts and minds.
At least partly, the rise of the Houthi movement can be seen as a reaction to the extreme water
shortage and water mismanagement. The Sa’dah Plain, the Houthi homeland has been suffering
from drought for many years. In the past three decades, qat became a lucrative crop for the north-
ern Zaydi highlands, which significantly aggravated groundwater depletion. This was coupled with
what the Houthis regarded as “unfair” water distribution by the state. These pressing issues and
grievances played a very important role in mobilising the Houthi farmers, which at least partly
led to the destructive war. The rise of the northern Houthi farmers who happened to be Shia rein-
forced sectarian binaries of “us” versus “them.” These sectarian binaries were strengthened by the
prolongation of the war and the involvement of regional actors such as Iran and Saudi Arabia. The
seemingly sectarian nature of their regional policies turned Yemen to another arena for rivalry and
proxy confrontation.
Since the Saudi-led intervention, the environmental state of Yemen has deteriorated. Twenty
million Yemenis do not have access to clean drinking water. The intervention of regional actors not
only physically destroys the already weak water infrastructure, it cements the sectarian divisions
within the country. Although the Saudi-led coalition may withdraw from the country in the near
future, the water scarcity will continue to breed violence and conflict. Although Yemen requires a
conclusive political solution to end the war, water security remains the most fundamental challenge
facing the country. It is extremely hard to envisage a stable future for Yemen without a comprehen-
sive solution for water scarcity.

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March 8, 2016).
28. C. Giesecke, Yemen’s water crisis: Review of background and potential solutions, USAID Knowledge
Services Center (KSC) Series, (June 2012). http://www.yemenwater.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/
pnadm060.pdf
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
XXI.

Nuotioniemessä on riihitetty viimeiset peltoviljat. Laarit ovat

täyttyneet kukkuroilleen. Metsävainioilla ovat säiliöt täynnä rehua ja
puimatonta viljaa ja syyslaiho näyttää lupaavalta.

Tuomas häärii työssä aamusta iltaan niin kuin ennenkin, mutta

mitään työniloa hän ei voi enää tuntea. Tekeepähän vain jotain
tehdäkseen. Ja kun ei voi tekemättäkään olla.

Päivät ovat käyneet jo lyhyiksi ja taivas on yhtämittaa pilvessä.

Öisin sataa. Tuomas kuuntelee sateen rapinaa ikkunaruutuihin ja
miettii synkkiä mietteitään. Kun ei voi miettimättäkään olla. Ei vaikka
kuinka tahtoisi.

Ja aina raastaa tukahduttava suru siitä, että poika, pikku Matti, ei

ollutkaan hänen oma poikansa. Ei ollut, vaikka oli kuitenkin vieläkin
niin kuin oma lapsi. Kiintymys ja isänrakkaus ei särkynyt niin vähällä.

Tuomas päätti olla näkemättä poikaa, syliinsä ottamatta, mutta kun

poika juoksi jo ovessa vastaan ja kapusi syliin lausuen luottavasti:
"isä ottaa syliin", "isä soutaa", ei hän hennonnut, vaan soudatteli
poikaa polvellaan ja koetti olla mitään ajattelematta.
 Kun ei olisi saanut koskaan tietää, että poika ei ollut hänen
omansa, ja kun vieläkin saisi niin uskoa, että poika oli hänen, muttei
voinut.

Ja kun voisi uskoa, että lapsi, jota Anna kantoi, on oma lapsi, olisi
helpompaa ja elämä vieläkin voisi muuttua, sammua kirvelevä suru
edes hetkiseksi, mutta sitäkään ei voinut.

Anna kantoi Isotalon sikiötä. Sanoi kantavansa katuen, vaan mikä

hänen tiesi, katuiko. Tuomas ei uskonut enää vaimonsa vakuutuksia
eikä lupauksia, vaikka tämä itkien katui ja tunnusteli luvaten
uskollisuutta. Irstaan naisen lupaus, mitä se merkitsi.

Niinkuin lehti tuulessa oli nainen rakkautensa ja intohimonsa

ajamana.

Tuomas ei voinut enää vihata eikä raivota. Kaikki muut tunteet,

paitsi suru, olivat hänestä sammuneet.

Silloin oli raivonnut viimeksi, kun tuli tietämään Annan raskauden.

Nyt oli jo kaikki samantekevää.

Tähän saakka oli häntä pitänyt yllä heikko toivo siitä, että
jotenkuten saattaisi kaikki vielä selvetä ja muuttua. Oli syntynyt
sairaalloinen mielikuva, joka saattoi joskus ajattelemaan, että kaikki
olikin ehkä vain leikkiä, keksitty kiusaksi hänelle. Pikku Matti voi olla
hänen samoin kuin toinenkin. Anna vain kiusaa häntä sanoakseen
joskus, että se onkin ollut vain leikkiä, pilaa kaikki tyyni.

Se oli sairaiden aivojen harhakuva, mielijohde, joka sai hänen

päätöstään luopua elämästä siirtymään päivä päivältä
tuonnemmaksi.
 *****

Tuomas oli Jannen kanssa ollut koko päivän kynnöksellä.

Syksyinen ilta hämärtyi. Hevoset riisuttiin ja vietiin syöttöhakaan.
Veräjällä palatessa virkkoi Janne.

— Saisit sinä Tuomas sentään olla isäntä talossa ja antaa sille

roistolle kerrankin niin, että lakkaisi taloa kiertelemästä.

— Kenelle?

— Isotalollepa tietysti. Et näy huomaavan, vai etkö näe, mutta

joskus käy vielä Annaa kärkkymässä.

— Ja uskaltaako vielä Anna ja ilkeääkö…?

— En tiedä tarkemmin, mutta niin on minullekin vastenmielinen se

ihminen, että olisin jo siihen paikkaan lopettanut, jos olisi ollut minun
kohdallani.

Tuomaan aikoja sitten sammunut viha kuohahti jälleen. Se antoi

varmuutta hänen päätökselleen. Häpeä oli nyt jo hänelle liian suuri
kannettavaksi. Hänen täytyi päästä pois näkemästä ja kuulemasta.
Elämä oli liian raskas enää päivääkään eteenpäin elettäväksi.

Tuomas istui pellon veräjäpuulla.

— Sinä olet ollut aina hyvä toveri ja ystävä minulle, virkkoi hän
tukahtuneesti Jannelle. Etkö tekisi minulle vielä yhtä palvelusta?

— Johan toki teenkin.

— Kävisit vielä tänä iltana sanomassa Kustaavalle, sisarelleni, että

tulisi aamulla Nuotioniemeen. Tahtoisin ennen lähtöäni tavata…
 Ääni särkyi. Hetken perästä jatkoi Tuomas.

— Ja veisit sanan Mäkäräiselle, että tulisi hänkin tänne

kuulemaan» viimeisiä määräyksiäni.

Janne katsoi ihmetellen Tuomaaseen. Vihdoin hänelle selvisi

kaikki.
Hänen silmäripsensä kostuivat.

— Aiotko sinä siis…?

— Minä en jaksa enää kantaa häpeääni, sanoi Tuomas

tukahtuneesti. Mitäpä hyödyttää viivyttäminen. Elämällä ei ole enää
mitään minulle annettavana. Parasta, kun poistun.
XXII.

Tuvassa oli hiljaista. Könniläinen mittasi aikaa verkalleen.

Mäkäräinen istui pöydän päässä ja kirjoitti. Tuomas istui pöydän

takana pää käteen nojaten. Mäkäräinen luki paperista.

— … Että kuolemani jälkeen jää talon hoitajaksi Janne, joka

saakoon siitä palkkioksi Nuotioniemeen kuuluvan takamaakappaleen
torppineen ja naimisiin mentyään neljä lehmää talosta…

— Ja sitten…

— Vaimoni saakoon elatuksen talosta, niin kauan kuin elää. Jos

talo jostakin syystä tulisi myytäväksi, saakoon kerta kaikkiaan
kaksituhatta markkaa. Ja sitten…

Tuomaan kasvot värähtivät ja silmäkulmaa täytyi pyyhkäistä

kädenselällä.

— Saakoon pikku Matti täytettyään kaksikymmentä vuotta

Nuotioniemeen kuuluvalla toisella ulkopalstalla olevan torpan maat ja
jo aikaisemmin samalle torpalle eroitetun metsäpalstan ikuiseksi
omaisuudeksi.
 "Tämän saakoon", Tuomas olisi tahtonut sen panna testamenttiin,
"pikku Matti lahjaksi isältä, jolla ei ollut isän oikeutta lapseensa",
mutta se jäi kirjoittamatta.

Kustaava, Tuomaan sisar, istui karsinapenkillä ja nyyhki hiljaa.

Odotahan, ajatteli Tuomas silmätessään sisareensa, kyllä minä

muistan sinuakin.

— Ja sitten?

— Saakoon sisareni Kustaava, sitten kun talo on lopullisesti

maksettu, viisisataa vuosittain kuolemaansa saakka. Saakoon
neljätuhatta markkaa kertakaikkiaan, jos talo jostain syystä tulee
myytäväksi.

Tuomaan kasvoille nousi kylmä hiki. Vaikein pykälä oli edessä.

Kustaava tuli hänen viereensä.

— Etkö sinä muistakaan lupaustasi? Sanoithan antavasi sillekin,

joka syntyy, sanoi hän katseellaan Tuomaalle.

Tuomas pyyhkäsi kylmän hien otsaltaan ja sanoi samalla tavalla

katseellaan.

— Niin teenkin.

— Sitten?

Mäkäräinen piirteli vakavana vapisevalla kädellään.

— Merkillinen mies tuo Tuomas, hymähti hän itsekseen..

 — Saakoon vielä syntymätön lapsi, jos elää, kertakaikkiaan tuhat
markkaa.

Nyt se oli tehty. Tuomas huokasi keventyneesti. Että se sittenkin

saattoi käydä niin helposti niiden monien taistelujen perästä.

Mäkäräinen katsoi kysyvästi. Tulisiko mitä vielä…?

— Ja sitten jos mitä jää, jaettakoon tasan Jannen, Kustaavan ja

pikku
Matin…

Tuomas pysähtyi.

— Yksi olisi vielä.

Kustaava nykäisi häntä hihasta ja katsoi rohkaisevasti silmiin.

— Ja vaimoni kesken, lisäsi Tuomas reippaasti. Ja siinä se nyt

onkin, kun kirjoitan vain nimeni. Sinä, naapuri, saat sitten pitää
muusta huolen.

Mäkäräinen nousi lähteäkseen ja puristi Tuomaan kättä hyvästiksi.

— Onkohan tämä nyt vaan kaikki oikein, että sinä näin…? arveli
Kustaava veljelleen.

— Etkö ole osaasi tyytyväinen? kysyi Tuomas.

— En minä sitä tarkoittanut. Sitä minä vain, että kun sinä näin
vapaaehtoisesti…

— Kyllä se on oikein, kun se on niin päätetty. Mikään ei saa minua

peruuttamaan päätöstäni.
 — Onhan se niinkin, tuntui sisar sanovan katseellaan. Kaikkea
muuta mies kestää, mutta tällaista surua ja häpeää…

Ilta alkoi hämärtää.

Tuomas istui pöydän päässä pidellen pikku Mattia polvellaan.

Kustaava istui pöydän takana. Veljellä ja sisarella tuntui olevan hyvin
paljon toisilleen sanottavaa, mutta he vaikenivat.
XXIII.

Syksyinen ilta hämärtyy. Tuuli repii irti puista kellastuneita lehtiä ja

lennättää pitkin alastomia vainioita ja rapakoisia kyläteitä. Harmaista
pilvistä putoilee sadepisaroita.

Tuomas on heittänyt hiljaiset hyvästit talolle. Surullinen silmäys on

vielä kerran hyväillyt peltosarkoja, aittoja, karjahuoneita ja lämpiävää
riihtä peltojen keskellä.

Siihen se nyt jää kaikki, toiselle. Parhaiksi kun ehti kiintyä, täytyy
siitä luopua.

Tuomas palaa suoperkkiolta, jossa on käynyt sanomassa hyvästit

työväelleen.

— Mihin se isäntä nyt? on kysynyt joku työmiehistä. Sama

kysymys on näkynyt kaikkien kasvoilla.

— Hyvin pitkälle matkalle, on Tuomas virkkanut tukahtuneesti ja

on pyytänyt Jannen seuraamaan itseään taloon.

— Pidähän huoli sitten kaikesta. Verotkin on käytävä maksamassa

ensiviikolla. Suon ympärille saat panettaa uutta aitaa, niin paljon kuin
tänä syksynä kerkeää. Saisit tarkkailla kauralatojen kattojakin,
vuotavatko. Heinäsuosta tulee hyvä niitty, kun ojitat ja muokkaat
kunnollisesti. Pikku Matin torpan palstaan, jos hän sitä kerran
tarvitsee, elä kajoa. Kun aika tulee, niin rakennat kartanon siihen.
Peltomaat saat pitää puuttomina, niin helpompi on pojan sitten
raataa, jos hänestä raatajaa tullee…

Jannesta tuntui helpommalta, kun isäntä näin lähtiessään haasteli

ja töitä toimitteli.

Tuomas meni tupaan ja otti pojan syliinsä.

— Pikku Matti raukka… et tiedä vielä mitään… kasva nyt suureksi

ja oikein hyväksi pojaksi…

— Mihin isä menee?

— Hyvin, hyvin kauas… Ole hyvä äidille ja… kiitos kaikesta.

Kuumat virrat alkoivat vierähdellä pojan suortuville.

Tuomas meni ulos. Janne seisoi pihamaalla kasvot värähdellen.

— No hyvästi nyt sitten ja kiitos kaikesta.

Miehet puristivat kättä voimakkaasti.

— Onnea vain matkallesi.

— Kiitos. Ja huolehdi pikku Matista.

Tuomas painui rantaan. Anna oli siellä vaatteita huuhtomassa.

Tuomas tarjosi hänelle kätensä.
 — Nyt minä voin antaa sinulle kaikki anteeksi. Kuolemassa ei saa
mitään muistella. Olen varannut sinulle ja lapsillesi riittävän
toimeentulon. Hoida hyvin pikku Mattia. Jää hyvästi!

Anna oli ottanut Tuomaan käden omaansa ensin huomaamatta,

mitä hän sanoi. Nyt hän jo huomasi. Tuomaan kasvoilta oli veri
paennut. Ne olivat kuin palttina.

— Herra jumala! Mitä sinä teet?

Mutta Tuomaan venhe irtaantui jo rannasta.

Jannekin oli kävellyt rantaan ja pyyhkäsi kädenselällä kasvojaan.

— Tuomas… mitä sinä aiot…? Hyvä jumala… Mihin sinä

menet…?

— Viimeiselle matkalle taisi lähteä, sanoo Janne. Nuotiokoskesta

sanoi laskevansa.

Tuomaan venhe keinuu jo laineilla ja etenee nopeasti

Nuotiokoskelle päin.

Anna purskahtaa itkuun, juoksee pitkin rantaa, huitoo käsillään,

raastaa hiuksiaan ja vaikeroi.

— Anna minulle anteeksi, Tuomas… anna anteeksi… käänny vielä

takaisin… edes hetkiseksi… Ei se käänny…! voi herra jumala!

Anna vaipuu taintuneena rantaäyräälle. Venhe kääntyy jo niemen

taakse, josta koski alkaa vetää pauhaavaan nieluunsa.

Kerran vielä nousee Tuomas seisomaan venheessä ja huiskuttaa

hyvästiksi kädellään. Sitten katoaa venhe hämärään.
XXIV.

Tuomas souti koskea kohti, jonka kumea kohina jo kuului hänen

takanaan hämärtyvässä illassa. Hän tunsi olevansa siinä
soutaessaan kuin teräksinen jännitetty jousi, niin kuin tahdoton
kappale, jota jokin outo voima veti puoleensa vastustamattomasti.

Anna liikkui siellä rannalla ja väänteli käsiään. Mikä oli Anna? Ja

mikä oli tuo talo, jonka rannasta hän äsken lähti soutamaan? Oliko
se hänen kotinsa, joka jäi nyt sinne hämärän, pimenevän verhon
taakse? Mikä oli koti ja nainen siellä…? Mikä oli se outo voima, joka
puristi rautaisilla sormillaan ja veti häntä puoleensa?

Kuolema! Haa, mikä oli kuolema? Pelkäsikö hän sitä?

Tuomas näki itsensä arkussa ja sitten haudassa. Multa kolahti

arkkuun ja jostain kuului: Maasta olet sinä tullut. Ja sitten poistui
saattajien pieni joukko ja Isotalo nauraa hohotti.

Isotalo! Hän jäisi voittajaksi. Se konna saisi nauraa hänen

haudallaan!

Huu, miten koski nyt ilkeästi kumisikin. Pyörre alkoi jo vetää

venhettä.
 Isotalo voittajaksi! Mitä hän nyt aikoikaan tehdä? Testamentti,
hyvästit talolle ja perheelle… pikku Matti…

Koski jo tempoi venhettä, joka oli kääntynyt poikkiteloin perä

edelle.

Ei, mutta mitä nyt olikaan tapahtumassa? Mitä?

Tuomas koetti ponnistaa kaikki voimansa päästäkseen johonkin

varmaan selvyyteen. Päässä humisi ja ruumis oli kuin raskas kivi.
Hän koetti nauraa. Mies tekee päätöksen ja harkitsee nyt sitä,
häväisty mies, jolla ei ole kotia eikä perhettä. Nauru tarttui kurkkuun
ja käsivarret kävivät voimattomiksi. Venhe ajautui rannalle ja tarttui
pyörteen niskassa kivien väliin.

Mitä, mitä tässä nyt tapahtuikaan? Hänenhän piti alas koskesta,

miksei venhe jo irtaudu kivestä. Kuka nauroi? Isotaloko? Mitä, eikö
pikku Matti kysynyt: Isä, mihin sinä menet?

Tuomaan otsalta tippuivat kylmät hikipisarat. Hän koetti rukoilla,

mutta jumala tuntui olevan jossain hyvin kaukana. Hän koetti huutaa,
mutta kieli tarttui suulakeen. Päässä jyskytti vain yksi ainoa kysymys:
Mitä, mitä tässä tapahtuikaan?

Pakeniko hän elämää, joka oli hänet kummallisiin verkkoihinsa

saanut sotketuksi? Tahtoiko hän väkipakolla jättää kärsimysten
painon hartioiltaan ja siirtyä suureen tuntemattomaan, olevaisuuden
rajan yli? Mitä nyt tapahtuikaan?

Itsemurha!

Salamana välähti se hänen tajunnassaan. Oliko hän jo niin

pitkällä?
 Kylmä hiki virtasi pitkin hänen ruumistaan. Laine riuhtoi venhettä
irti kivien välistä, koski pauhasi kumeasti. Pimeys ympäröi hänet ja
niinkuin niljaiset kädet olisivat vetäneet häntä alas kurimukseen.
Pimeys ympäröi vielä hänen sairaat ajatuksensakin, mutta tuntui niin
kuin jostain olisi alkanut pilkoittaa valoa. Herra jumala, mitä hän
olikaan aikonut tehdä? Näinkö hän kantoi kuormaansa? Eikö hänen
häpeänsä tulisi näin vieläkin suuremmaksi? Oliko hän mies vai
voimaton raukka?

Laine repäisi irti venheen ja pyörre alkoi sitä vetää alas, mutta nyt
tunsi Tuomas jo voiman käsivarsissaan jännittyvän. Venhe kääntyi
ylös ja ponnistaen äärimmilleen sai hän sen nousemaan.

Tumman metsän takaa pilkahti tähti. Se oli kuin jumalan silmä.

Äsken oli hän huutanut jumalaa, muttei saanut vastausta. Tähden
tuike oli kuin vastaus. Jumala tuntui lähenevän.

Koski veti venhettä nieluunsa, mutta käsivarsien voima vahveni.

Vielä hetkinen ja hän oli pelastettu jostakin hirveästä, joka nyt
värisytti sitä ajatellessa.

Venhe keinui jo laineilla. Kosken humina kuului jo kauempaa.

Tuomas ei tullut ajatelleeksi, mihin hän souti, kunhan souti vain.
Päässä ja jäsenissä tuntui kummallinen raukeus. Airot putosivat
hänen kädestään ja venhe jäi keinumaan laineille. Tuomaan raskas
pää painui polvien varaan.

Kuinka kauan hän aalloilla ajelehti, ei hän tietänyt. Kun venhe

kolahti rantaan ja hän nosti päätään, valkeni jo aamu. Tuomas
huomasi, että laineet olivat tuoneet hänet kotirannalleen.
 Saatuaan venheen maalle ja noustuaan rantatielle, näki hän,
kuinka nouseva aurinko tervehti häntä. Silloin tunsi hän, niin kuin
outo painajainen olisi hänestä hävinnyt tiehensä.

Hän seisoi siinä omalla pellollaan. Hän olikin vielä elossa.

Hetkiseksi tuli painava ajatus, että hän oli aikonut häpeäänsä vain
lisätä, eikä miehen tavalla sitä kantaa, mutta se häipyi yhtä pian kuin
painajainen äsken. Hän tunsi yöllä taistelleensa suuren taistelun,
käyneensä kuoleman läpi. Ja niin kuin uudestaan aloittaisi hän nyt
elämänsä.

Olihan hänellä vielä jotain jälellä, jos olikin perheensä menettänyt.

Olihan maa, jolla hän tässä seisoi, hänen omaansa. Se ei pettäisi
häntä ja se kyllä kykenisi parantamaan hänen kärsimyksensä.

Vähitellen nousi Tuomas pihaan.

Vilun väreet karsivat hänen ruumistaan ja jalat tuskin kantoivat

häntä. Suonet takoivat rajusti ja päätä huimasi. Oliko se sairaus, joka
nyt tavoitti hänet?

Ei tuntunut yhtään pahalta sitä ajatellessa.

Janne seisoi tuvan portailla, kun Tuomas horjuvin askelin tuli

pihaan.
Hänen kasvonsa kirkastuivat ja vaieten hän riensi ojentamaan
kätensä
Tuomaalle.

Tuomas tarvitsikin tukea. Suonet hänen ruumiissaan löivät yhä

hurjemmin ja sairaus tuntui kiertävän kuin myrkky hänen veressään.
 Voimatonna painui Tuomas vuoteelle Jannen saattamana. Hän sai
tietää, että Annakin oli heikkona sairaana. Kiertäessään rantoja
viime yönä mielettömän tuskansa vallassa oli hän aamuyöllä
painunut vuoteelle ja jäänyt siihen.
XXV.

Maatessaan sairasvuoteella ja öisin kiemurrellessaan kuumeen

kourissa kiusasivat Tuomasta vielä ilkeät harhanäyt.

Hän taisteli kosken kuohuissa ja Isotalo seisoi rannalla rumasti

nauraen. Anna ilmestyi siihen hänen vierelleen ja yhdessä he
ilkkuivat hänen ponnistuksilleen.

Isotalo oli velastaan ottanut kaikki hänen karjansa ja hevosensa.

Ilkkuen ajoi niitä edellään ja veti Annaa kädestä mukanaan. Hän
kirosi, muttei voinut mitään.

Ja vielä ilkeämmätkin kuvat piinasivat häntä.

Aamu toi rauhan ja hyvän olon tunteen ruumiiseen.

Se vähensi taudin tuomia tuskia. Sitä mukaa kun hän tunsi

ruumiinsa heikkenevän, varmistui hänen suuri ja ihana rauhansa.
Hän saattoi jo kaikkea katsella kuin ulkopuolella olijana.

Tuli mieleen siinä vuoteella viruessa, että hän yksin ei ollut

kärsimässä elämän oudoista ongelmista. Kaikilla saattoi olla omat
salaiset kärsimyksensä, suuremmat tai pienemmät.
 Eivätkö he kaikki kantaneet kuormaansa vaieten ja valittamatta?

Ainakin ne, joilla kuorma oli raskain.

Pyrkikö kukaan heistä väkivaltaisesti kuormastaan vapautumaan?

Hän oli pyrkinyt. Pimeys oli ympäröinyt hänet joka puolelta. Miten
hän oli niin saattanutkaan…?

Mutta nyt hän oli jo päässyt kaiken yläpuolelle. Hän muuttaisi

suureen tuntemattomaan niin kuin mies, eikä niin kuin voimaton
raukka.

*****

Laskevan päivän kirkas kajastus tulvahti kamarin ikkunasta sisään

ja värähteli sairasvuoteella.

Janne istui vuoteen jalkapäässä. Miehet katselivat siinä vaieten

vastakkain. Suuri hiljaisuus ympäröi heitä.

Hetkisen perästä virkkoi Tuomas.

— Sinä tiedät sen testamentin… minä olen muuttanut sitä… Pikku

Matti aikuiseksi tultuaan perii talon niin kuin poika ainakin… Eihän
pojan tarvitse vanhempien häpeätä kantaa. Sinä saat torpan ja ne
muut, jotka olivat pojalle aiotut. Oletko tyytyväinen tähän?

Janne nyökkäsi.

— Kyllä minä taloa hyvin hoidan ja poikaa myöskin, virkkoi Janne.

— Ja sitä… joka tulee… on myöskin hoidettava…

 Janne käänsi päänsä hämärään ja pyyhkäsi kädenselällä
kasvojaan. Ja laskien kätensä sairaan kädelle virkkoi.

— Kyllä minä pidän huolta kaikesta.

Tuvassa kuului väki asettuvan illalliselle. Anna tuli huoneeseen.

Tuomas ojensi kätensä hänelle.

— Nyt minä vasta lähdenkin, virkkoi hän hiljaa. Tule sinä sitten,
kun joudut. Ehkäpä siellä toisessa maailmassa voimme aloittaa uutta
elämää.

Anna nyyhkytti.

— Voitko… voitko sinä antaa minulle anteeksi?

Mutta Tuomas ei kuullut enää.

— Anteeksi on antanut… ei sanonut enää mitään muistelevansa,

virkkoi
Janne hiljaa.

Huoneeseen oli tullut hiljainen hämärä.

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