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Unitary Analysis, Synthesis, and
Classification of Flow Meters
Unitary Analysis, Synthesis, and
Classification of Flow Meters

Horia Mihai Moţit

CRC Press
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To my beloved wife, Ina, for her total support and in memory of my late parents.
Contents

Preface..........................................................................................................................................................................................ix
Acknowledgments.....................................................................................................................................................................xi
Author....................................................................................................................................................................................... xiii

1. Flow Measurement—Branch of the Measurement Technique.................................................................................. 1

1.1 Flow Measurement (Definition and Importance)................................................................................................ 1
1.2 The Concept of Flow Meters Unity........................................................................................................................ 1

2. Identification and Analysis of the Functional Logic of Flow Meters...................................................................... 3

2.1 Identification of All Variants of the Basic Analytical Expression of the
Flow Rate and Their Unity.. ....................................................................................................................3
2.1.1 Flow Rate Definition.................................................................................................................................... 3
2.1.2 Conventional Analytical Expression (Definition) of Flow Rate............................................................ 8
2.1.2.1 Direct Analytical Expression for Flow Rate............................................................................. 8
2.1.2.2 Indirect Analytical Expression for the Flow Rate................................................................... 8
2.1.3 Unconventional Analytical Expression (Definition) for the Flow Rate............................................... 8
2.1.3.1 Analytical Expression Depending on the Local Velocity....................................................... 8
2.1.3.2 Analytical Expression for the Main Flow Q by Measuring a Secondary Flow q,
Smaller but Proportionate to the Main Flow........................................................................... 9
2.2 Identification and Analysis of the Variants of Basic Structural Schemes of Flow Meters
and Their Unity.................................................................................................................................................. 9
2.2.1 The Unique Structural Scheme of Conventional Flow Meters............................................................ 10
2.2.1.1 The Components of the Structural Scheme............................................................................ 10
2.2.1.2 Practical Exemplifications on Unitary Structure of Conventional Flow Meters............... 18
2.2.2 Unitary Structural Schemes of Unconventional Flow Meters............................................................. 36
2.2.2.1 Structural Schemes of Insertion Flow Meters........................................................................ 36
2.2.2.2 Structural Schemes of Flow Meters with Determination of the Main Flow Rate by
Measuring of a Secondary Flow (q) Proportional to the Main Flow (Q)............................ 42
2.3 Unitary Classification of Flow Meters................................................................................................................. 54

3. Method of Unitary Analysis, Synthesis, and Classification of Flow Meters....................................................... 59

3.1 Preliminary Considerations.................................................................................................................................. 59
3.2 Elaboration and Presentation of the UASCF Method........................................................................................ 60
3.2.1 Elaboration of Flow Meters Reference Matrix (Logical Support of the UASCF Method)............... 60
3.2.2 Presentation of the UASCF Method........................................................................................................ 67
3.3 Practical Implementation of the UASCF Method: Examples............................................................................ 69

4. Flow Measurement Systems (Using Complex Methods).......................................................................................... 77

4.1 Preliminary Considerations.................................................................................................................................. 77
4.2 Flow Measurement Systems Using Velocity-Area Methods............................................................................. 77
4.2.1 Analytical Expression............................................................................................................................... 77
4.2.2 Structural Scheme...................................................................................................................................... 78
4.3 Systems Using Tracer Dilution Methods............................................................................................................. 80
4.4. Unitary Classification............................................................................................................................................. 81

5. Compound Gauging Structures (Combinations of Flow Meters).......................................................................... 83

5.1 Need for Compound Gauging Structures (Combinations of Flow Meters)
(Hereinafter Abbreviated as “CGS”).................................................................................................................... 83
5.2 Identification and Analysis of the Functional Logic of “CGS”......................................................................... 84
5.2.1 Identification of the Unity of Basic Analytical Expression of Flow Rate........................................... 84

vii
viii Contents

5.2.2 Identification and Analysis of the Unity of Variants of Basic Structural Schemes of CGS............. 84
5.2.2.1 Structural Scheme Type CGS 1................................................................................................ 84
5.2.2.2 Structural Scheme Type CGS 2................................................................................................ 90
5.2.2.3 Structural Scheme Type CGS 3................................................................................................ 90
5.2.3 Unitary Classification of CGS.................................................................................................................. 90
5.2.3.1 Compound Gauging Structures Type CGS 1......................................................................... 91
5.2.3.2 Compound Gauging Structures: Type CGS 2........................................................................ 91
5.2.3.3 Compound Gauging Structures: Type CGS 3........................................................................ 91
5.2.3.4 Conclusion on the Classification of Compound Gauging Structures................................ 91
5.3 UASC-CGS Method................................................................................................................................................ 91
5.3.1 Elaboration of the Compound Gauging Structures (Combinations of Flow Meters)
Reference Matrix (Logical Support of the UASC-CGS Method)......................................................... 92
5.3.2 Presentation of UASC-CGS Method........................................................................................................ 92
5.3.3 Practical Implementation of the UASC-CGS Method........................................................................... 93
5.3.3.1 Compound Gauging Structures (Combinations of Flow Meters)
Made up to the Present.............................................................................................................. 95
5.3.3.2 New Compound Gauging Structures (Combinations of Flow Meters)
Imagined by Using the UASC-CGS Method.......................................................................... 95
5.3.3.3 Compound Gauging Structures (Combinations of Flow Meters)
Containing Unconventional Flow Meters.............................................................................. 96

6. Conclusions—Identification of the Unitary Bases of Flow Measurement and Application of the

UASCF Method and the UASC-CGS Method............................................................................................................ 97
Selective Bibliography............................................................................................................................................................ 99
Index......................................................................................................................................................................................... 101
Preface
Flow measurement plays an important role in the
optimal management of industrial processes and, in
general, of resources (water, oil products, natural gas,
thermal energy, etc.) to ensure the quantitative charac-
terization of fluids flowing through their transmission
lines (closed conduits, open channels, and rivers).
Since flow is a derived parameter (defined as the
quantity of fluid flowing into a unit of time through
a cross section of the transmission line), its measure-
ment is performed according to a dynamic fluid regime
for a wide variety of status parameters. This diversity
causes additional difficulties for the phenomenological
and constructive measurement compared to the static
measurement (without fluid flow) situation, which in
most situations is specific to the measurement of other
parameters of fluids (e.g., pressure, temperature, level,
density, viscosity, and concentration).
An accelerated time-progressive interest in flow
measurement, which is determined concomitantly by
increased industrial activity and accelerated exhaus-
tion of natural resources, explains why only the flow of
liquids was initially measured, and then the measure-
ments progressively expanded to gas, steam, and mol-
ten metals, currently measuring the flow of all fluids.
The globalization endeavor to rigorously measure the
flows of all fluids is imposed by the acute necessity of
optimizing their management in order to limit their
exhaustion and to expedite the efficiency improving of
the involved industrial processes.
The generalization of fluid flow measurement was,
therefore, a consequence and necessity of the economic
development of humanity and of the understanding
of the essential truth that any decision on the perspec-
tive is not possible without the actual knowledge, by
effective measurement, of the processes and related
consumptions.
In this context, the accelerated dynamics of general-
izing fluid flow measurement required an accelerated
increase in flow meter performance, especially in the
last period.
This trend has determined the major role of flow
meters in the means of measuring the various parame-
ters of fluids, a role enhanced by an accentuated dynam-
ics of diversification of their constructive solutions,
implicitly by “intelligent solutions” integrated in the
data transmission and digital processing systems, con-
nected to management information systems.
Satisfying these desires also requires the achieve-
ment of a variety of basic types of flow meters designed
to accommodate the variety of conditions of use
(determined by both the measured fluid status condi-
tions and the operating conditions).
The main trends in the performance of flow meters,
apart from a constant upgrade of their computerization,
are as follows: increasing the measurement precision,
increasing the measuring range extension of turndown,
increasing the resistance to pressure and temperature,
reducing the energy consumption functionally imposed
on the measuring fluid, reducing the energy consump-
tion of flow meter itself, increasing reliability in opera-
tion, and reducing dimensions.
Analyzing the evolution of the flow meters, is to be
noted the worldwide gradual diminution in the rate of
achievement of new basic types of flow meters, which
attempt to compensate for this situation by improving
and diversifying in a dynamic and accelerated manner
the constructive solutions of the basic types of recog-
nized flow meters and introducing for industrial use
some types of flow meters initially used only in the
laboratory.
These perspectives indicate that we are after a period
of intense quantitative accumulations that require the
qualitative step that can be achieved by identifying the
basics of the functional logic of the flow meters and con-
nections between the basic analytical bases of the flow
meters and their main structural schemes, to ensure the
accelerated flow measurement developed by identifying
the logical bases of the synthesis (achievement) of new
main types of flow meters.
The unity of the global approach to the analysis, syn-
thesis, and classification of all basic types of flow meters
is essential in this respect.
To this requirement is intended to answer this book,
which based on a unitary approach of all flow meters,
demonstrate rigorously that flow measurement is a
stand-alone branch of the measurement technique, pro-
viding all the necessary conditions for its systematic,
predictable, and accelerated development.
Processing in this way was accomplished by ana-
lyzing all basic types of flow meters made up to the
present and by successively identifying initially the
variants of analytical basic expression (definition) of
the flow measured by them and then, correspondingly,
of all variants of the structural schemes of flow meters.
Given the identification both of all the variants of ana-
lytical basic expression of flow, and of all the variants
of the basic structural schemes related to flow meters,
it was possible to identify and define the common cri-
teria for the analysis, synthesis, and classification of
all flow meters in general, respectively, criteria (logical
ix
x Preface
questions) that allowed the systematization of their
wide diversity within a unitary classification.
We must point out that the identification of these “cri-
teria” (logical questions), with unitary applicability for
all basic types of flow meters, allowed a similar identifi-
cation of “solutions” for each criterion.
Furthermore, based on the knowledge of both the crite-
ria “questions” and the “response solutions” that ensured
the achievement of all structural types of flow meters, the
method of unitary analysis, synthesis, and classification
of flow meters (UASCF method) was developed.
The provisions of the “UASCF method” complement
the decisive leap to demonstrate the unity of the flow
measurement, which is particularly useful for acceler-
ating its development, now providing a “unitary and
coherent method” of analysis of all basic types of flow
meters achieved up to the present, especially of the sys-
tematic and predictable synthesis (achievement) of new
types of flow meters.
The unitary treatment of all types of flow meters is
an important progress and, as explained in this volume,
the analysis is made especially from the perspective of
the primary part of the flow meter, a part with specific
structures only for flow meters (flow contacting part),
and less than that of the secondary part (secondary ele-
ment) of the flow meter that does not have a specific
structure (implicitly functioning) to flow meters only.
We mention that this unitary view on the flow meters
made it possible to treat, on the same unitary basis, both
the flow measurement systems and the compounds
gauging structures, initially identifying their func-
tional logic. The analysis of all the compounds gauging
structures (combinations of flow meters) made to date
is completed with the elaboration and presentation of
the “UASC-CGS method” (method of unitary analysis,
synthesis, and classification of compounds gauging
structures—combinations of flow meters). This method
implicitly refers to the synthesis of new variants of com-
pound gauging structures.
For a comprehensive presentation, especially of the
most important new discovered aspects, we addi-
tionally provided their consistently systematic and
synthetic explanations (following their logical con-
nections), mostly in a tabular form and with practical
examples.
This pioneering work demonstrates the unitary
character of flow measurement and identify its unitary
bases (analytical, structural, and classification) and
enabled the author to explore the opinions and obser-
vations of those who work in this important field of
technology.
This volume is addressed to all specialists in the field
of flow measurement and instrumentation, and espe-
cially R&D specialists, in addition to the teaching staff
and students at such specialized, technical, and high-
level universities.
Horia Mihai Moţit
Acknowledgments
Drafting of this book was largely due to “idea-­
exchanging meetings” held by the author successively
within its R&D activity with reputable specialists in the
field of flow measurement. Their constructive comments
and advice suggested the need for this finalization.
Therefore, I consider that it is a moral obligation to
express, in this way, gratitude for their support, although
unfortunately some of them are no longer with us.
I pay reverence to the memory of Prof. Caius Iacob, a
former member of the Romanian Academy who appreci-
ated my innovative outcomes in the research and design
of flow meters and their calibration. He encouraged and
advised me, at the beginning of my activity, to diversify
them, and thus collaterally arrived at the intuition of exis-
tence of a structural unity of flow meters.
I express my thanks to Paul A. Hoglund, chair of
North American Fluid Flow Measurement Council and
chair of the 2nd International Symposium on Fluid Flow
Measurement, Calgary, Canada, June 1990, who appreci-
ated the correctness of my “new vision” and proposed
its promoting within an international standard on fluid
flow measurement.
I express my thanks to Dr. R. J. W. Peters, chair of
ISO/TC30, and Victor Ramos, governor of ISO/TC30/
G4, who in the Report for the ISO/TC30 meeting, held
in June 1998 at Cascais, Portugal, considered regarding
the new standard, as shown in this remark: “H.M. Moţit
(Romania) produced a relevant paper entitled ‘The
Unitary Structures of Flow meters.’ ”
I also express my thanks to reputable specialists
and members of the IMEKO-TC9 (Flow Measurement
Committee) who requested a few years ago comments
on a synthetic material of the author titled “Unitary
Synthesis and Classification of Flow Meters” (U.S.C.F.).
They appreciated this new vision as an “excellent way
to identify flow measuring methods” (Dr. John Wright),
respectively that “comparing with classification of flow
meters according to actual standards the U.S.C.F. is a
great advance” (Prof. Yan zuo Sun, China), and sug-
gested the need to develop the presentation of this “new
vision.” In this respect, they are somehow the “moral
authors” of this book.
I am grateful to Dr. John Wright, National Institute of
Standards and Technology; late Dr. Jean Pierre Vallet,
former chief executive officer of CESAME EXADEBIT
SA, France; and Prof. Yan zuo Sun, former member of
the Editorial and Advisory Committee (China), Flow
Measurement and Instrumentation journal.
Finally, I am also grateful for the constructive and
useful comments by well-known specialists Mike
Touzin (Endress + Hauser FLOWTEC AG, Reinach,
Switzerland) and Guido Hahnel (KOBOLD Messring
GmbH, Frankfurt, Germany).
I consider that this book, written at the suggestion
and following the constructive comments from a num-
ber of renowned experts in the field of flow measure-
ment, could occur only through the outstanding effort
and support of the publisher and the professionalism
and collaboration of Nora Konopka, editorial director,
Engineering, Kyra Lindholm, senior editorial assistant,
Engineering and Glenon C. Butler Jr., project e­ditor;
and also through the constructive vision of Richard
Goodman, managing editor, and Richard Delahunty,
editorial director.
To all of them and to my close collaborators from
Romania, I express my gratitude. Last but not least,
I express my appreciation to my dear wife Ina, who
stood by me and understood me during my commit-
ment in the field of flow measurement and especially
during the writing of this book. She is a true supporter
during my long and difficult moments of exhausting
activity.
Horia Mihai Moţit
xi
Author
Horia Mihai Moţit, PhD, graduated from Automatic
Control and Computers Faculty, University
POLITEHNICA, in Bucharest, Romania, and received a
PhD in flow measurement in 2000.
He developed a prodigious career with over 30 years of
research, design, and production of a considerable vari-
ety of types of flow meters (variable area flow meters,
insertion flow meters, oscillating piston meters, bypass
flow meters, flow measurement structures using flumes,
and test stands for volumetric calibration, respectively
for gravimetric calibration of flow meters).
He received the distinguished awards for creativity:
National Prize for Patented Inventions (2nd place) in
1985, National Prize for Patented Inventions (1st place)
in 1987. He has achieved a significant number of pat-
ents in the field regarding new types of industrial flow
meters (then produced in a large number), including the
world premiere “method for the determination of con-
version curves of flow scales of gas variable area flow
meters, using only water.”
Dr. Moţit is the author of several reference books in
the field, of which the most relevant include the follow-
ing: Industrial Flow Measurement (1988), Meters (water
meters, heat meters, gas meters) (1997), and Variable Area
Flow Meters (2006).
He developed an intense scientific activity in the flow
measurement field, by presenting more than 30 lectures
to national and international symposia/congresses and
publishing more than 35 articles in national technical
and scientific journals.
Dr. Moţit was director of the R&D department for
flow measurement of:
• Measurement and Control Instruments
Company S.A. in Otopeni (Bucharest).
• Fine Mechanics Company S.A. in Bucharest.
• Mechatronics and Measuring Technique
Institute in Bucharest.
Then, Dr. Motit was also technical director of
Schlumberger Industries in Romania.
Dr. Moţit is the founding president of the Romanian
Technical Standardization Committee for Flow
Measurement (1990–2006), the member and Romania’s
representative at IMEKO/TC9—Flow Measurement
Committee (1991–present), the founding president of
A.A.I.R.—Control and Instrumentation Association
of Romania (1990–present), and the editorial director
of Automation and Instrumentation journal (1991–present).
xiii
1
Flow Measurement—Branch of the Measurement Technique
1.1 F
 low Measurement (Definition
and Importance)
Flow measurement is the branch of the measuring tech-
nique which aims to measure the fluid flow, respectively
the amount of fluid passing per time unit over the cross
section of a transmission line (closed conduit, open
channel, riverbed, etc.) from a source to a consumer
using, as a technique, the adequate measuring means
called flow meters.
When totaling the amount of fluid for a specific
elapsed time interval (by integrating the flow), flow
meters have a counting function referred to as counters
of flow or counters, that is, “meters.”
At the outset, we note that the flow measurement has its
own characteristics, occupying a specific and important
place within the measuring technique, which refers to the
measurement of all physical quantities, setting the gen-
eral rigors imposed on all measuring instruments.
In this respect, it is necessary to mention that the con-
tinued and accelerated economic growth of the world
economy and population imposed the generalization of
the optimal management of fluid consumption, action
that requires to start by the measurement of the fluids
flow rate.
Measurements of fluid flow rates encounter a com-
plexity of applications arising from the economy involv-
ing a considerable diversity of measured fluids, of their
parameters (monophase fluid), multiphase fluid, clean
or with impurities, viscous, under laminar or turbulent
regime, that is, subsonic or supersonic regime, neutral,
toxic, or inflammable, with temperatures ranging from
close to 0 K to about 1400°C (i.e., pressures ranging from
high vacuum up to several hundreds of bars), as well as
the value of the cross area of the fluid passage (ranging
from values of less than 1 mm2 up to large values of the
pipes, or up to very large values of the open channels
and of the river courses).
To this broad diversity should be added condition-
ings on the measurement accuracy, the reliability level,
the maintenance cost, and primarily the cost of the
flow meter itself.
Given the complexity of the conditions already men-
tioned, one cannot achieve one type of basic universal
­flow meter, usable in all these situations, and therefore, it
was necessary over time to imagine a diversity of types
of flow meters, complementary to each other, each basic
type of flow meter having an optimal field of use.
Considerable economic importance of the fluid flow
measurement is required by these aspects, to which we
should further mention the largest share of flow meters
in measurements (fiscal or operating) and, hence, the
automation of the economy.
In general, the development of any field, especially
after the accumulation of extensive experiences within
it, such as the field of the fluid flow measurement, requires in
time a qualitative leap determined by these quantitative
accumulations, namely, identification of the fundamental
connections existing in this field, that is, in the principles that
govern it.
Subject to conditions of determining its basic
principles, this area makes the qualitative leap by
becoming the “Flow measurement,” an indepen-
dent branch of the “Measurement technique.”
We have determined these fundamental connections of
the domain in question not from the vain ambition to
discover but based on the need to establish the criteria
for grouping various types of flow meters in the book
titled Industrial Flow Measurement (Mot it, 1988), which
suggests the principles of the bases of “flow measure-
ment” as an independent branch of the measurement
technique.
The present work provides an in-depth analysis of
unitary bases of “flow measurement” and finalizes a
synthesis methodology (creation) of new basic types of
flow meters and similarly of compound gauging struc-
tures (combinations of flow meters).
1.2 The Concept of Flow Meters Unity
In order to analyze all types of flow meters made so
far, we started from the premise that each basic type
of flow meter (i.e., method for flow measuring) should
have a basic structural scheme that should ensure
­structurally the modeling of a basic relation defining
the flow.
First, it was necessary to analyze (identify), all variants
of analytical expressions of flow and all basic structural
schemes for modeling these relations using the entire
diversity of basic types of flow meters achieved so far.
1
2 Unitary Analysis, Synthesis, and Classification of Flow Meters
The unitary basic analysis of all types of flow meters
initially required the identification of their “logical
unitary investigation instrument.” This instrument
consists of a set of criteria (logical questions) of analy-
sis and identification of possible answers for each basic
type of flow meter that we called “flow meters reference
matrix” and similarly elaborated as the “compound
gauging structures reference matrix.”
Anticipating the results of this extensive analysis
that will be detailed in this paper, we point out that all
these aspects led to the unification of our findings in the
­“concept of flow meters’ unity” (CFU) as follows:
“Concept of Flow meters Unity”: All types of ­flow
meters are unitary among them, as highlighted
by all points of view, respectively by their ana-
lytical bases (variants of analytical expression of
flow), structures (“basic structure” and “detailed
structures”) as well as by their classification.
A synthesis of this vision, new at the international level,
was presented at the “ISO-TC30 Flow Measurement
Meeting” in Cascais, Portugal, in 1998.
In this work, we show explicitly by its use, on the
one hand, the structural basic approach of making all
flow meters known so far (and systematization thereof)
and, on the other hand, provides “a tool and methodol-
ogy for logic unitary creation” of new basic types of
flow meters (some of them are already synthesized
by us). From the continuation of the investigation
was as follows: this “unitary logic investigation tool”
is ­efficiently useful for both the analysis of all basic
types of flow meters made to date and for the synthe-
sis (­creation), on predictable bases, of new basic types
of flow meters.
The analysis that led to identifying the “instrument of
unitary logical investigation” and the results of its use
for analyzing all basic types of flow meters made so far
and creating new basic types, are joined by us under
“the unitary analysis, synthesis, and classification of
flow meters” (abbreviated as UASCF).
The CFU has therefore the UASCF as an “applicative
logic matrix.”
UASCF is therefore the logical analysis instru-
ment of analytical and structural bases of all
basic types of flow meters made to date as well
of designing basic structures of new types of
­flow meters.
The great advantages of UASCF are that it makes avail-
able to specialists, for the first time, the unitary bases of
Flow Measurement (analytical, structural and classifica-
tion) and a logical instrument of investigation, instru-
ment which is already successfully applied.
Following this new vision, Flow Measurement has
become now an independent branch of the measure-
ment technique.
2
Identification and Analysis of the Functional Logic of Flow Meters
We have identified and analyzed the functional logic of
all basic types of flow meters made up to the present.
The essential reason in the identification and analysis
of the functional logic of all basic types of flow meters
was as follows: Every basic type of flow meter (i.e., method
of flow measurement) ensures the modeling of a basic defining
equation of the flow rate.
In the first stage, the analysis of the functional logic of
all types of flow meters identified the basic equations
governing the operation of each type of individual
flow meter.
Thus, we have identified “all variants of the basic
analytical expression for the measured flow”, respec-
tively the analytical basis of all basic types of flow
meters made up to the present, thus discovering their
unitary character.
In the second stage, based on the conclusions drawn
from the first stage, we have identified “the variants of
the basic structural schemes” corresponding to all types
of flow meters made up to the present, thus discovering
their unitary character.
In the third stage, as a consequence of the conclusions
of the previous two stages, we have elaborated, for the
first time, the “unitary classification of flow meters.”
These results have demonstrated the existing unity
between all basic types of flow meters (see Table 2.1,
Section 1 (Flow meters)).
In this chapter, we will comment on the conclusions
presented in Table 2.1, for each of the two stages of anal-
ysis mentioned above.
2.1 Identification of All Variants of
the Basic Analytical Expression of
the Flow Rate and Their Unity
2.1.1 Flow Rate Definition
Before clarifying the conclusions presented in Table 2.1,
Section 1 (Flow meters), it is necessary to reiterate the
primary definition of fluid flow rate:
Fluid flow rate is the ratio between the amount of fluid
passing over a cross section of way that measured fluid
flows (closed conduit, open channel, water stream, etc.)
and duration (elapsed time interval) of that passing over.
The relationship of the primary definition of the flow rate, Q,
is consequently
Q = amount of fluid/passing time of the amount of fluid
 (2.1)
Because it is a derived parameter, the flow rate can be
analytically expressed in several ways, which, however,
are analytical expressions unitary among them, for example,
ones derived (directly or through analytical processing)
from the same primary flow rate definition presented
above.
Identifying and analyzing the various analytical
expressions of flow rate used in the operation of the
entire diversity of the basic types of flow meters made up
to the present have allowed us to group them, depend-
ing on the non-processing/processing of the relation-
ships of the primary flow rate definition, as follows:
a. Conventional analytical flow rate expressions
b. Unconventional (complex) analytical flow rate
expressions
Characteristic for conventional analytical flow rate expres-
sions is the fact that these expressions directly transpose, by
analytical expressions, the primary flow rate definition.
Characteristic for unconventional analytical flow rate
expressions (complex expressions) is the fact that these are
complex analytical expressions obtained by an analytical and
complex processing of the relationship of the primary defini-
tion (conventional) of flow rate.
From the beginning, after the identification and analy-
sis of the analytical relationships of flow rate, we men-
tion that specific to all types of flow meters, the obvious
conclusion is that all these relationships are unitary, having
as their origin and deriving from the same relationship of
the primary definition of flow rate, Q, presented above.
Next, we explore the two groups of analytical expres-
sion for flow rate (conventional and unconventional,
respectively) in close correlation with the conclusions
already presented in Table 2.1, Section 1 (Flow meters),
Column 1.
3
4 Unitary Analysis, Synthesis, and Classification of Flow Meters

TABLE 2.1
Unitary Bases of Flow Measurement (Analytical, Structural, and Classification)

Section 1: Flow meters

Variants of basic analytical Variants of structural schemes of flow meters Unitary classification of flow meters
expression of the measured flow (caused by variants of analytical expression of flow) (restricted form)
1.1 Direct expression 1.1 Direct flow meters
1.1.1 Average flow rate (τ >> 0) EP
(Flow meters with Measuring Chamber—MC)
QV = V/τ (1a) 1.1.1 Flow meters with Measuring Chamber with
average
Qm = m/τ (1b) Q XV XC QR = QRENDERED
average RB discontinuous filling/discharge
(XR = constant) SB SE
1.1.2 Instantaneous flow rate (τ → 0) measuring “Calibration stands (Calibrators) of flow meter”:
QV = V/τ (2a) flow — volumetric calibration stands (Calibrators) of flow meter
Qm = m/τ (2b) — mass calibration stands (Calibrators) of flow meter
1. CONVENTIONAL ANALYTICAL EXPRESSION

where: V—volume of fluid Structure of conventional flow meters (Structural scheme S1) 1.1.2 Flow meters with Measuring Chamber with
m—mass of fluid quasi-continuous/continuous filling/discharge:

1. CONVENTIONAL FLOW METERS

1. CONVENTIONAL STRUCTURE

τ—time needed to pass the volume Notations: 1.1.2.1 Positive displacement meters
“V” or the mass “m” (flow meters) (-energy extractive)
PE—primary element
Note: “Direct definition” performs the direct 1.1.2.2 Dispensing pumps (flow meters) (-energy additive)
analytical expression of the “primary flow rate SE—secondary element
definition” RB—reference block (RB functionally ensures, or allows to be ensured, a constant 1.2 Indirect flow meters
(Flow meters with Measuring Section—MS)
1.2 Indirect expression value of the reference parameter XR to the variation of the measured flow Q) 1.2.1 Constant area flow meters
(only for “instantaneous flow rate”) SB—sensitive block (SB detects variation of XV and implicitly flow rate Q variation) (Flow meters with constant area of
QV = A × v (3a) Measuring Section):
XR —reference parameter (XR is kept constant to the flow rate variation by the 1.2.1.1 Flow meters with moving parts of MS
Qm = v × A × ρ (3b)
running mode itself of the RB) 1.2.1.2 Flow meters without moving parts of MS
where:
A—measuring section area XV —variable parameter (XV is variable depending on the variation of flow rate Q) 1.2.2 Variable area flow meters
v—velocity of the measured fluid (Flow meters with variable area of MS):
XC —characteristic parameter (XC characterizes the output from PE) 1.2.2.1 Flow meters for closed conduits
ρ—measured fluid density
Note: "Indirect definition" is performed by QR —parameter rendering the measured flow rate Q (already named “Variable area flow meters”)
analytical processing of the “Direct definition." 1.2.2.2 Flow meters for hydrometry (named
“Flow measurement structures” — “Gauging structures”)
using: flumes, weirs, gates
2.1 Expression depending on the local
IS PEinsertion
velocity (only for “instantaneous flow rate”) XV = v(r) r = r0
2.1.1 Expression depending on a local v0 = v(r0)
velocity “v0” r0
2.1 Insertion flow meters
QV = A · (k · v0) (4) Q XC QR = QRENDERED
RB SB SE 2.1.1 Monopoint insertion flow meters
where: k—constant measuring (XR = constant)
(only for closed conduits)
Note: flow
According to Structural scheme S2a: XR = A Structure of monopoint insertion flow meters (Structural scheme S2a)
Notations: IS—insertion system of SB
2.1.2 Expression depending on several SPE PE1,1 insertion
XV1,1 = v1,1 IS1,1
local velocities “vi,j” XC1,1
Q1,1
2. UNCONVENTIONAL ANALYTICAL EXPRESSION

RB1,1
m,n m,n RING “I” (XR1,1 = const.) SB1,1
PE1,n insertion
2. UNCONVENTIONAL FLOW METERS

QV = Σ QV = Σ Ai,j . vi,j (5) (r = r1)

1. UNCONVENTIONAL STRUCTURE

i,j = 1 i,j i,j = 1 (to close XV1,n = v1,n IS1,n

QR = QRENDERED

XC1,n
Q1,n

conduits) RB1,n
where: (XR1,n = const.) SB1,n SE
PEm,1 insertion

m,n Q m,n
A = Σ Ai,j measuring XV =v QR = mA. n · Σ XC
ISm,1 i,j = 1 i.j
Qm,1

i,j = 1 m,1 m,1

flow XCm,1
RBm,1
Ai,j—partial measuring areas in which is (XRm,1 = const.) SB m,1
imaginary divided the measuring section RING “m”
(r = rm) where
with total area “A” XVm,n = vm,n ISm,n PE A = ASM = Measuring
Qm,n

(to close m,n insertion

conduits) RBm,n XCm,n section area 2.1.2 Multipoint insertion flow meters
Note: (XRm,n = const.) SBm,n
(only for closed conduits)
1. For ease understanding the “multipoint
insertion flow meters” functioning, it is Structure of multipoint insertion flow meters (Structural scheme S2b)
“imaginary” considered that the “measured Notations:
flow Q” is divided in “m × n partial flows Qi,j” i—index of m circular crowns (rings) in which is imaginary divided the total
related to “m × n partial areas” in which is measuring section area A; on the other hand this index marks the structural blocks
and related values of each circular crown;
imaginary divided the measuring section SM
j—index of the n ring segments in which is imaginary divided each circular crown
2. According to structural scheme S2b: (ring) i; on the other hand this index marks structural blocks and related parameters to
XR = XR = ... = XR ,..., each and every circular segment;
1,1 1, n m,1
= XR = A/m × n PE1.1 insertion,..., PEm, n insertion—Individual primary elements (each PEi, j insertion
m,n
having same structure as that indicated for PEinsertion in Structural scheme S2a and
corresponding to a circular segment of the total area A);
SPE—set of individual primary elements,..., PE1.1 insertion,..., PEm,n insertion.

(Continued)
Identification and Analysis of the Functional Logic of Flow Meters 5

TABLE 2.1 (Continued)

Unitary Bases of Flow Measurement (Analytical, Structural, and Classification)
Variants of basic analytical expression of Variants of structural schemes of flow meters Unitary classification of flow meters
the measured flow (caused by variants of analytical expression of flow) (restricted form)
2.2 Expression of main flow “Q” depending on the SPE 2.2 Flow meters with determination
Q
secondary flow “q”, which is proportional with the PEmain of the main flow rate by measuring a
main flow measuring secondary flow (q), proportional to the
XCp(Q)
(only for an “instantaneous flow”) flow main flow
Q = f(q), usually Q = k · q (6) VFR (only for closed conduits)
q (varible fluidic q = q(Q)
where functionally: q = q (Q) with variants: resistence PEauxiliary
auxiliary with XC )
p
fluid XCs 2.2.1 Flow meters with (q) assured by an
2.2.1 (q)—secondary flow, produced by an
auxiliary fluid
auxiliary fluid SE
k.q =QRENDERED
Structure of an auxiliary fluid flow meter (Structural scheme S3) Note: The auxiliary fluid is different from main
Notations: PEmain—main primary element; PEauxiliary—supplementary primary flow (Q) fluid
element; XCp—main characteristic parameter; XCs—supplementary characteristic
parameter

Q Q–q SPE
PEmain
measuring
flow XCp=∆Ps(Q)
VFR q = q(Q)
q PEopen derivation
(variable fluidic
resistence with XC ) 2.2.2 Flow meters with (q) in open
p XCs
2.2.2 (q)—secondary flow, taken in open derivation
derivation from the measuring fluid SE
k.q = QRENDERED Note: Secondary flow (q) is taken in an open
Structure of auxiliary fluid flow meters (Structural scheme S4) derivation from the main flow Q
2.UNCONVENTIONAL ANALYTICAL EXPRESSION

Notations:

1. UNCONVENTIONAL FLOW METERS

1. UNICONVENTIONAL STRUCTURE

PEopen derivation—supplementary primary element;

XCp = ∆Ps(Q)—main characteristic parameter is carried out by static pressure drop ∆Ps
that depends on the flow Q. Static pressure drop ∆Ps formal depends on (Q–q)
but because Q is much bigger than q, basically it is considered that ∆Ps depends
directly on Q.
PEmain
Q Q–q Q Q–q
RBmain RBmain
XVp PEmain
XVp
r0
q = q(Q)
q = q(Q)

SBmain SBmain SI
r=r0
XC = ∆Ps(Q) XCp = pd(Q)
p
q(Q)
RBby pass RBby pass
q(Q)
XVbp SPE XVbp SPE
SBby pass PEby pass SBby pass PEby pass
2.2.3 (q)—secondary flow, taken in closed 2.2.3 Flow meters with (q) in closed
derivation (bypass) from the measured flow XC XC derivation (named “bypass flow meters”):
s s
2.2.3.1 “q” is generated by a static pressure drop ∆ps(Q) 2.2.3.1 Bypass flow meters with (q) generated
(corresponds to Structural scheme S5a) SE SE by a differential static pressure (corresponds to
2.2.3.2 “q” is generated by dynamic pressure pd(Q) k.q =QRENDERED k.q =QRENDERED Structural scheme S5a)
(corresponds to Structural scheme S5b) Structure of bypass flow meters Structure of bypass flow meters 2.2.3.2 Bypass flow meters with (q) generated
with generation of (q) by a static with generation of (q) by a by a dynamic pressure (corresponds to Structural
pressure drop (Structural dynamic pressure (Structural scheme S5b)
scheme S5a) scheme S5b)
Notations: Notations:
PEbypass—supplementary primary XCp = pd(Q)—main characteristic Note: The secondary flow (q) is taken in bypass
element; parameter achieved by a dynamic from the main flow
XCp = ∆ps(Q)—main characteristic parameter pressure pd which formally
(achieved by the static pressure difference depends on the difference (Q–q)
∆ps, which based on the same considerations but, due to the fact that q is very
indicated in Structural scheme S4, directly small comparing to Q, it is
depends on the flow rate (Q); practically considered that pd
XCs—supplementary characteristic depends on Q
parameter;

(Continued)
6 Unitary Analysis, Synthesis, and Classification of Flow Meters

TABLE 2.1 (Continued)

Unitary Bases of Flow Measurement (Analytical, Structural, and Classification)
Section 2: Flow measurement systems (using complex methods)
Variants of basic analytical Variants of structural schemes of systems Unitary classification of systems
expression of the measured flow (caused by variants of analytical expression of flow) (restricted form)

1. Expression using exploration and processing 1. Systems using “velocity-area methods”:

velocities field referring to Measuring Section (MS):

A1 SEP
Note: This expression involves a simultaneous SBA1 XC1(A1)
measurement of local velocities (implicitly establishing Q1
average velocities) and related partial areas, in contrast RB1 IB1

QR = QRENDERED
with the expression of measured flow for flow meters, v1 XC1(v1)
SBv1 QR1
where it is sufficient to measure only one of these two n
variables namely that which varies and depends on Q PE1 Σ QR
measuring j=1 j
the measured flow. An QRn
flow SBAn XCn(An)
Qn
RBn IBn
1.1 Expression using (referring to MS) simultaneous vn XCn(vn)
SBvn
measurement of local velocities distribution
related to corresponding partial measuring areas: 1.1 Systems with simultaneous measurement and
PEn SE
processing of the local velocities profiles in the
Structure of equipment with integration (exploring) of measurement section (MS) and of their corresponding
n n
QV =ΣQj = ΣAj . vj (7a) the velocities field (Structural scheme S6) partial areas:
j=1 j=1
Notations:
Q1 ,..., Qn—partial flows in which is imaginary divided the total measuring flow Q; a. Systems for large full closed conduits
where:
A1 ,..., An—partial areas in which is imaginary divided the total area A of the b. Systems for partially filled conduits
Qj—partial flow
measuring section; c. Systems for Hydrometry:
vj—average velocity related to partial passing area “Aj”
Aj—partial area SBA1 ,..., SBAn—sensitive structural blocks of the area (which provide partial
measuring areas A1 ,..., An);

v1 ,..., vn—average velocities corresponding to partial areas A1 ,..., An ;

1.2 Expression using (referring to MS having 1.2 Systems with simultaneous measurement of
area A) simultaneous measuring of average SBv1 ,..., SBvn—sensitive structural blocks of the velocities (which provides average
the average velocity in the measuring section (MS)
velocity vaverage and of area A: velocities measuring corresponding to partial areas A1 ,..., An);
and of MS area (respectively measuring the level
of liquid free surface):
QV = vaverage A (7b) PE1 ,..., PEn—individual primary elements (each PEj corresponding to each pair of
where: parameters—partial area Aj and average velocity vj related to this partial area);
SPE—is achieved only by PE1 1.2.1 Systems using “full channel width coil method”
XC1(A ) ,..., XCn(An)—characteristic parameters related to partial areas
A = A1 1
vaverage = v1 (i.e, outputs from PE1 ,..., PEn, corresponding to the measurements of partial areas
A1 ,..., An); 1.2.2 Systems using “the transit time methods”:

2. Expression using tracer dilution measurements, PE1 ,..., PEn, corresponding to the measurement of each average velocity vj);
according to general equation:
Q = f (C1, C2)
XC1(v ) ,..., XCn(vn)—characteristic parameters related to velocities (i.e., outputs 1.2.2.1 Systems using “the ultrasonic transit time
1
method” (for Hydrometry)
1.2.2.2 Systems using “the transit time methods”
SPE—set of individual primary elements PE1 ,..., PEn;
(8) without the injection of tracers
IB1 ,..., IBn—multiplying blocks corresponding to each pair of characteristic
1.2.2.3 Systems using “the transit time methods”
parameters XCj(Aj) · XCj(vj);
TRACER TECHNIQUES

where: with the injection of tracers

C1—undiluted tracer concentration at the point of QR ,..., QR —parameters rendering partial flows Qj in which was divided total
1 n 2. Systems using “tracer dilution methods”
injection flow Q, each partial flow QRj corresponding to a product Aj · vj;
C2—diluted tracer concentration at the sampling point
(at distance downstream, after a suitable mixing with QR—parameter rendering the total flow Q; 2.1 Systems using “constant tracer rate
the flow) injection method”
SE—secondary element (provides processing of all characteristic parameters
according to the algorithm based on the adding of all outputs from IB1 ,..., IBn 2.2 Systems using “sudden tracer injection
Note: and determines its output QR). (integration) method”
The flow rate Q (only for liquids) is calculated
(according to a mathematical equation between Note: Structural scheme S6 is the only structural scheme that, unlike all other types of
C1 and C2) using the measurement of the dilution of a flow meters and related structural schemes, uses within each individual primary
tracer substance which is injected into the flow rate. element PEj , two sensitive blocks SBAj and SBvj .

(Continued)
Identification and Analysis of the Functional Logic of Flow Meters 7

TABLE 2.1 (Continued)

Unitary Bases of Flow Measurement (Analytical, Structural, and Classification)
Section 3: Compound gauging structures (combinations of flow meters)
Basic analytical expression of the Unitary classification of the compound
Variants of structural schemes of the compound gauging structures
measured flow rate gauging structures (restricted form)
Total flow rate measured by the compound gauging F1 (Flow meter “1”)
structures Q = QCGS = Qcombination, is the total Q1 XC QR1
1
PE1 SE1
sum of the partial flow rates (measured by each Adder
QR = QRENDERED 1. Compound gauging structures
component structure): Q n
ΣQ (combinations of flow meters) type CGS1
(a) Volumetric expressed: n measuring j =1 Rj with variants:
flow QRn
XC
QV = QVCGS = QVcombination = Σ QVj (9a)
Qn
PEn n
SEn
j=1 Fn (Flow meter “n”) • Variant 1: Combinations of meters for closed
(b) Mass expressed: conduits;
n
Qm = Qmcombination = Σ Qmj (9b) Notations: Structural scheme CGS1 • Variant 2: Compound gauging structures for
j=1 open channels (for situations when measuring the
F1, ..., Fn—individual gauging structures of the compound gauging structures;
Note: liquid level for each individual flow meter is required,
Q1, ..., Qn—partial flow rates measured by F1, ..., Fn;
a) Till now, compound gauging structures measure only the so that each flow meter has its own primary element
Adder—structural block specific to any compound gauging structure that provide calculation of QR,
volume flow rate QV . PEj, with its own sensitive block);
rendering total measured flow Q.
b) Combinations of meters for closed conduits may also
Note: For variants of compound gauging structures comprising flow meters for open channels, • Variant 3: Compound gauging structures
have in future variants for measuring the mass flow rate Qm .
characteristic parameters XCj are: occurring in variants 1 and 2
c) Compound gauging structures comprising gauging
- free surface level of the liquid upstream of the Measuring section (modular flow range)
structures only for open channels, measure only
- pair of values of the free surfaces levels of the liquid, upstream/downstream to the Measuring section
volume flow rate QV .
(non-modular flow range)
Q1 XV = A1 Xc = L F1 (Flow meter “1”)
1
RB1 SE1 Adder Q = Q
Q QR1n R RENDERED

measuring
SB
QRn ΣQRi
flow RBm SEm i=1
Qm XVm= Am
Fm (Flow meter “m”)
The total flow rate measured by the compound gauging Structural scheme CGS2
Notations: 2. Compound gauging structures type CGS2
structures is only the volume flow rate, having the
F1, ..., Fm—individual gauging structures of the compound;
expression: Note:
Q1, ..., Qm—partial flows measured by flow meters F1, ..., Fm;
n SB—sensitive block related to the compound gauging structures (it is common to all individual These compound gauging structures contain only
QV = QVCGS = QVcombination = Σ QVi (9c) flow meters F1, ..., Fm of the compound). SB is sensitive to the variation of the fluid passing areas flow meters for open channels, to which is sufficient
j=1 only the measuring of the liquid free surface level
(A1, ..., Am), depending on the partial flows Q1, ..., Qm and transforms it in a variation of the level
Note: L of the liquid free surface upstream of the measuring sections; upstream of the gauging structures, a level common
Above expression is similar with expression (9a). now, partial XC = L—unique characteristic parameter, structurally common to all individual flow meters, related for all meters.
flow rates related to meters are denoted by QVi to the combination;
L—level of the free surface of the measured liquid, common to all measuring sections of the partial
flows Q1, ..., Qm (the liquid level is measured upstream of the measuring sections constructively
achieved by each structural reference block RB1, ..., RBm of each individual flow meters);
RB1, ..., RBm—structural reference blocks of the flow meters F1, ..., Fm, blocks which constructively
achieve the measuring sections.

Q1 XC1 QR1
PE1 SE1

F1 (Flow meter “1”)

Total flow measured by the compound gauging Qn XCn QRn
QR = QRENDERED

PEn SEn
structure is only volume flow rate, having expression: Q Adder
Fn (Flow meter “n”)
measuring n
n+m
n n+m flow
XVn+1 = An+1 Fn+1 (Flow meter “n+1”) Σ Q +Σ Q
QRn+1 j = 1 Rj i = 1Ri 3. Compound gauging structures type CGS3
QV = QVCGS = QVcombination= Σ QVj + Σ QVi Qn+1
(9d) RBn+1 SEn+1
j = 1 j = n+1 Note: Structural scheme CGS3 is the result of
SB
Note: Qn+m QR
n+m
“combining” structural schemes CGS1 and CGS2.
RBn+m XC = L SEn+m
The above relation results from combining relations (9a) and (9c)
XV = An+m
n+m
Fn+m (Flow meter “n+m”)
Structural scheme CGS3
Notations:
F1, ..., Fn—gauging structure having structural schemes related to combination CGS1
Fn + 1, ..., Fn + m—meters having structural schemes related to combination CGS2
Note:
The compound gauging structure CGS3 is only theoretically possible in principle, by proposing that meters
F1, ..., Fn be meters for closed conduits.
In practical terms, this variant is more difficult to achieve because it is necessary to ensure a continuity
between small values of the measuring flow rate intervals related to flow meters for closed conduit and the
high values of the measuring flow rate intervals corresponding to gauging structures for open channels.
General Note:
a) Notation, respectively meaning of the structural blocks, of the structural elements and their related parameters (which were initially explained for Structural scheme S1 or where appropriate in next structural schemes),
remain valid for all “structural variants of flow meters” and all “structural variants of compound gauging structures”, previously presented in column 2 of the table.
b) We emphasize that for the “alternatives of structural schemes” where intervened some specific structural blocks (or specific parameters) have been explained separately, at their first inclusion in respective structural
schemes, their significance remaining available for their eventual use within structural variants of schemes subesequently presented in this table.
8 Unitary Analysis, Synthesis, and Classification of Flow Meters
2.1.2 Conventional Analytical Expression
(Definition) of Flow Rate
A transposition (conventional) of the flow rate definition
in analytical expressions is achieved in two ways:
a. Direct analytical expression (definition) of flow
rate
b. Indirect analytical expression (definition) of
flow rate
Next, we analyze successively all variants of conven-
tional analytical expressions of flow rate.
2.1.2.1 Direct Analytical Expression for Flow Rate
The direct analytical expression (definition) of flow rate
takes identically the relationship of the primary defini-
tion of flow rate.
In Table 2.1, Section 1, Column 1, the practical forms of
“direct analytical expression” for flow rate are presented:
a. Depending on how to express the amount of fluid
• Volumetric, providing the relationships (1a
and 2a, respectively) of analytical expres-
sion for the volume flow rate (QV)
• Mass, providing the relationships (1b and
2b, respectively) of analytical expression for
the mass flow rate (Qm)
b. Depending on the size of reference time inter-
val “τ” corresponding to the amount of liquid
passing through the measuring section
• τ >> 0, results the average volume flow rate
(QV av), respectively, the average mass flow rate
(Qm av), according to the relationships (1a
and b, respectively) and
• τ → 0, results instantaneous volume/mass flow
rates (QV, Qm), in accordance with the rela-
tionships (2a and b, respectively)
2.1.2.2 Indirect Analytical Expression for the Flow Rate
We mentioned that the relationships of indirect analytical
expression (definition) for the flow rate are obtained and
used only for instantaneous flow rate, as they are pre-
sented in Table 2.1, Section 1 (Flow meters), according
to the relationships (3a and b, respectively) for QV and
Qm, obtained by processing the relationships (2a and b,
respectively) of the direct analytical expression for the
flow rate.
We underline the fact that because the indirect analyt-
ical expression for the flow rate is always based on the
instantaneous velocity v of the fluid in the measuring
section, this expression can be used only for determin-
ing the instantaneous flow rate of fluid.
Only in exceptional cases, when instantaneous veloc-
ity v is constant throughout the entire elapsed time
interval “τ”, it results in
Q instantaneous = Q average
2.1.3 Unconventional Analytical Expression
(Definition) for the Flow Rate
Conventional analytical expressions have been the first
ones chronologically elaborated, and they are used for
most basic types of flow meters.
However, practice has shown that in certain applica-
tions, the use of flow meters, made on the basis of con-
ventional analytical expressions, is very difficult or even
not possible.
Consequently, other ways for analytically expressing
the flow rate have also been imagined, so we grouped
them under the term of unconventional analytical expres-
sions (complex) for the flow rate.
Generally, the unconventional expression for the
flow rate is applicable for measuring very big flow rates
that would necessitate cumbersome, large, expensive
and sometimes impossible to make conventional flow
meters. A search for pragmatic solutions specific to these
situations showed that the use of an unconventional
analytical expression (complex expression) allows, in
some applications, a miniaturization of fl ­ ow meters,
which is implicitly a drastic reduction of their cost and
maintenance.
Corresponding to these unconventional analytical
expressions, diverse flow meters have been made with
good practical results.
These unconventional analytical expressions are
obtained using the analytical processing of the con-
ventional analytical expressions of the flow rate, con-
sequently resulting in analytical expressions being
unconventional (complex).
Next, we present two unconventional analytical
expressions of the flow rate, which we have identified
as being imagined and used, till now, for the devel-
opment of some types of flow meters with specific
applications.
2.1.3.1 Analytical Expression Depending
on the Local Velocity
A. Analytical expression depending on a local velocity
Under the conditions of ensuring a certain flow
regime, the analysis of the fluid flow using
closed conduits allowed us to establish a rela-
tionship between the value of the local velocity
Identification and Analysis of the Functional Logic of Flow Meters
measured in a point rigorously located within
the measuring section and the value of the fluid
average velocity in that section.
Taking these reasons from hydraulics, have
been made flow meters that ensure the calcula-
tion of fluid flow by measuring a local velocity,
v0, in a characteristic point of the measuring sec-
tion, and not by measuring the average velocity
according to the indirect conventional analyti-
cal expression for the flow rate.
In Table 2.1, Section 1 (Flow meters), Column
1, Equation 4 renders this method, which is
referred to as expression of the flow rate depending
on a local velocity.
B. Analytical expression depending on several local
velocities
In the case of the pipes with large-diameter sec-
tions and in the situation of an existing nonuni-
formity in the distribution of the local velocities
within the measuring section of the pipes, the
expression of the flow rate, depending on a
single local velocity, which is considered to be
characteristic of the entire distribution of local
velocities within the measuring section, is no
longer satisfactory.
In this situation, an imaginary division of
the measuring section in more measuring sec-
tors as well as the measurement for each sec-
tor, in a characteristic point, of a characteristic
local velocity, which is correlated with the value
of the average velocity within that sector, are
necessary.
Consequently, in this situation, the relation-
ship (5) from Table 2.1, Section 1 (Flow meters),
Column 1 is used as a valid expression for flow
rate depending on more local velocities.
2.1.3.2 Analytical Expression for the Main Flow Q
by Measuring a Secondary Flow q, Smaller
but Proportionate to the Main Flow
This method of definition is used, up to the present, only
for closed conduits and commences with the reasoning
that in the case of a main flow Q with large values, it is
cheaper and more convenient that this flow Q should be
analytically determined by measuring only a secondary
flow q, which is smaller but is dependent on the main
flow Q, using an analytical equation known previously
at the beginning of the measurement.
In these situations, the analytical expression for the
main flow rate Q is produced by the generic equation (6)
shown in Table 2.1, Section 1 (Flow meters).
As demonstrated in Table 2.1, Section 1 (Flow meters),
grouping these expressions for the main flow rate Q by
9
the measurement of a secondary flow rate q, which is
smaller but dependent on the main flow, is determined
in three ways in which the dependency of the second-
ary flow q on the main flow Q was obtained, up to the
present:
a. Secondary flow q assured by an auxiliary fluid
(a different fluid from the measuring fluid, hav-
ing the flow Q)
b. Secondary flow q taken by open derivation from
the measuring fluid (having the flow Q)
c. Secondary flow q taken by closed derivation (by
pass) from the measuring fluid (having the flow
Q), in variants:
• q is generated by a differential static pres-
sure Δps
• q is generated by a dynamic pressure pd
2.2 Identification and Analysis of the
Variants of Basic Structural Schemes
of Flow Meters and Their Unity
The analysis of all “variants of the basic analytical
expression for the measured flow,” expressions that gov-
ern the operation of all types of flow meters, allowed us
to demonstrate in Chapter 2.1 the unity of the analytical
bases of all basic types of flow meters.
Commencing with these results, obtained in the first
stage of the identification and analysis of the functional
logic of flow meters, one could pass to the second stage
of analysis.
This stage comprises the identification and analysis
for each variant of the basic analytical expression of the
flow rate, respectively of the basic structural scheme
that can be found in all functional types of flow meters,
made up to the present, that use that variant of analyti-
cal expression of the flow rate.
In this second stage of analysis, the logical reason
was that every “structural scheme of every functional
(basic) type of flow meter” represents modeling of one
of the relations of basic analytical expression of the
flow rate presented above, a relationship according to
which it functions and with which it is in a biunivocal
correspondence.
This biunivocal correspondence between “the basic
structural schemes” of the flow meters and “the rela-
tions of the basic analytical flow rate expression,” a cor-
respondence ensured intuitively, up to the present in
the production of every new basic type of flow meter,
decisively consolidates, by practical demonstration,
10
(­ Table 2.1, Section 1 (Flow meters) the validity and
correctness of “the Concept of the Unity of the Flow
meters.”
Subsequently, by following the succession of the
relationships of “the basic analytical flow rate expres-
sion,” the relationships indicated synthetically in
Table 2.1, Section 1 (Flow meters), Column 1, we iden-
tified for the first time “the basic structural schemes”
and the related parameters corresponding to all types
of basic flow meters (referring to Table 2.1, Section 1,
Column 2).
This detailed description demonstrates the unity of
all variants of structural schemes of flow meters.
2.2.1 The Unique Structural Scheme
of Conventional Flow Meters
Our analysis led to the conclusion that all types of
flow meters that use and model the relationships of the
conventional analytical flow rate expression (definition),
(both those with direct analytical flow rate expression
and those with indirect analytical flow rate expression)
have the same structural scheme (structural scheme S1),
shown in Table 2.1, Section 1, Column 2.
All basic types of flow meters, having this structural
scheme S1, which models the conventional analytical
flow rate expression, were referred to by us as conven-
tional flow meters.
The basic structural scheme of every conventional
flow meter consists of two functional elements: the pri-
mary element (PE) and the secondary element (SE).
The measuring flow Q is applied at the input of the
PE, which is functionally in series with the SE and the
output is Qrendered (“the rendering parameter” of the
measuring flow Q).
The PE is always mounted on the way that measures
fluid flows, respectively closed conduit, open channel,
water stream, etc.
The output of the PE is the characteristic parameter
(XC), applied as input to the SE.
The PE consists of two serial functional blocks: the
reference block (RB) and the sensitive block (SB).
This structure of the primary element (PE) was intui-
tively adopted and used, in time, for all basic types of
conventional flow meters, made till now, based on the
necessity to maintain functionally constant, against
the variation of the measuring flow Q, of any of the two
parameters involved in the relationships of the conven-
tional analytical flow rate expression. Thus the flow
rate Q can be simply determined by measuring only the
second parameter that intervenes in any of the respec-
tive relation of analytical expression of the flow rate Q,
latter parameter being variable, depending on the flow
Q, corresponding to the structural way of the primary
element (PE).
Unitary Analysis, Synthesis, and Classification of Flow Meters
2.2.1.1 The Components of the Structural Scheme
Furthermore, the components of the structural scheme
of the conventional flow meters will be presented in
their logical connection, specifying their functional
role, the parameters that characterize their operation,
the basic variants regarding their constructive achieve-
ment, and their general functional equations.
In this regard, this presentation follows, as natu-
rally, the information flow through the conventional
flow meters, from the input (by the measured Q flow
rate) to the output (expressed by the rendering param-
eter Qrendered of the measured flow).
The presentation commences with the primary part
of the conventional flow meters, of the PE, expressed by
the detailing of its constituent blocks: the RB and the SB.
The presentation of the secondary part of these
flow meters, of the SE and its constituent blocks, contin-
ues: BPQ—the block for taking the parameter “XC” and
calculating the measured flow rate “Q,” and BRQ—the
block for rendering the measured flow rate “Q” by the
parameter Qrendered.
2.2.1.1.1 Reference Block
Measuring flow Q, that is, the input in the flow meter,
is performed at the input of the RB, which is the
flow meter input structural block, implicitly in the PE
of flow meter (see the structural scheme S1 in Table 2.1,
Section 1).
The reference block (RB) has a decisive and essen-
tial role in the functional logic of all conventional
flow meters (direct or indirect) because it ensures, by
its construction, a functional providing at a constant
value, no matter the variation of the measuring flow Q,
of any of the two parameters that essentially intervenes
in all conventional analytical flow rate expressions
(parameter referred to as by the author, for this reason,
the reference parameter X R).
The other parameter is variably dependent on the varia-
tion of the measuring flow Q and, for this reason, we
call it variable parameter XV.
As previously mentioned, the RB ensures function-
ally the constancy to the variation of flow rate Q of the
“reference parameter (XR),” that can be, depending on
the basic type of conventional flow meter, any of “the
parameters” that intervenes in the relation of conven-
tional flow rate definition (direct/indirect), as follows:
A. Reference block (RB) and their respective param-
eters, for “direct analytical expression of the flow
rate”
Following the Equations 1a and b from Table 2.1,
Section 1, Column 1, the RB assures by its basic
constructive solution, from a functional point of
Identification and Analysis of the Functional Logic of Flow Meters
view, a constant value for the reference param-
eter XR (referring to V, m, τ−1), as follows:
For Equation 1a:
• Variant 1: XR = V = ct.; XV = τ−1 (using
dynamic gauging method)
• Variant 2: XR = τ−1 = ct.; XV = V (using static
gauging method)
Note: In fact, is constant “τ”; consequently,
τ = ct.—the filling time of the measuring
chamber (MC).
For Equation 1b:
• Variant 1: XR = m = ct.; XV = τ−1 (using
dynamic gauging method)
Note: At present, this variant is a theoretical
variant.
• Variant 2: XR = τ−1 = ct.; XV = m (using static
gauging method)
Note: In fact, is constant “τ”; consequently,
τ = ct.—the filling time of the MC.
For this analytical expression of flow rate, the
reference parameter (XR) is consequently one
of the parameters intervening in the relation-
ships (1a, 1b, 2a, 2b) as indicated in Table 2.1,
Section 1, by determining “the gauging method
of the flow rate” and implicitly “the basic type
of direct conventional flow meters” (shortly
referred to as “direct flow meters”).
Consequently, depending on the various
physical parameters which achieve the param-
eter (XR), which characterizes the RB of every
direct conventional flow meter, resulted “the
A.2 RB operation according to the static gauging
gauging method” of the RB and implicitly of
every corresponding flow meter is used.
These methods are presented below, with
the concrete indication and different basic con-
structive solutions of RB, made up to the pres-
ent, that provide a constant functionality of the
reference parameter (XR) related to the variation
of the measured flow rate.
A.1 RB operation according to the dynamic gauging
method
The “operation of RB according to the dynamic
gauging method of flow” is characterized by
ensuring, from a functional point of view, a ref-
erence parameter of XR = V = ct. and by deter-
mining its output for both variants of values
indicated above for XR, of a variable parameter
XV = τ−1 = variable.
Given the parameters V or m that provide
the reference parameter XR, has been achieved,
intuitively and logically in time the constructive
11
solution of RB, that ensures “RB operation accord-
ing to dynamic gauging method,” by conceiving
“the measuring chamber” shortly referred to as
MC, as a material support of XR.
The MC is a volumetric, calibrated, con-
structive enclosure that ensures implicitly the
knowledge of the fluid volume V, when XR = V,
the fluid being accumulated/evacuated in/from
its inside when its filling/discharging is made
integrally and successively during the opera-
tion of the flow meter.
In conclusion, “the measuring chamber”
ensures the constructive achievement of “the
operation of the reference block RB according to
dynamic gauging method,” allowing the practi-
cal obtaining of “the reference parameter” XR =
V, as a fluid quantity having a volume V with
preset values.
In this way, “the measuring chamber” is essen-
tial to achieve “direct flow meters with RB func-
tioning according to dynamic gauging method.”
We underline that for the flow meters under
discussion, “the measuring chamber fills/discharges
completely” during the measuring process of the
flow, determines different values of the variable
parameter XV = τ−1, depending on measuring
flow value.
We mention that τ is the necessary elapsed
time of filling/discharging the MC; τ is a variable
time depending on the measured flow value Q.
Note: It is necessary to mention the theoreti-
cally variant XR = m with XV = τ−1, but this vari-
ant is not yet a practical solution.
method
“RB operation according to the static gauging
method” is characterized by ensuring the refer-
ence parameter XR = τ−1 = ct. and determining its
output, either the variable parameter XV = V =
variable (when the volume flow rate QV is mea-
sured), or the variable parameter XV = m = vari-
able (when the mass flow rate Qm is measured).
Given the fact that for flow meters with
“RB operation according to the static gauging
method,” XR = τ−1 = ct., the constructive solu-
tion of RB has been conceived intuitively and
logically by using “a timer connected and con-
trolled by a diverter of the fluid jet in/out of
MC,” so that between the moments of “begin-
ning” and “ending” of the filling/discharging
process of the MC, the time interval preset by
the reference parameter XR = τ−1 should pass.
Direct flow meters, using “RB operation
according to the static gauging method” made
12
up to the present, are only calibration stands
(calibrators) of flow meters, operating according
to the static gauging method.
Consequently, the value of time interval τ
(respectively XR = τ−1) is preset, according to a
preliminary calculation, to ensure that a suf-
ficient liquid quantity is collected in the stor-
age tank, for to attain the necessary calibration
accuracy.
Thus, after determining the initial quantity of
fluid in the storage tank, the fluid jet is diverted
into this tank until it contains a sufficient quan-
tity, by driving a diverter that actuates a timer,
which so measures the filling time of the tank.
However, there are actual delays in final-
izing the timer’s received commands from the
diverter, corresponding to the inertia of the
moving components of the diverter.
The “in” and “out” commands of this timer
are made automatically by two position sen-
sors, “final race” sensors placed in front of the
two extreme positions of the diverter, that is,
“the MC bypassing position by the jet” and “the
jet leaking position into the MC.”
So, when the diverter is in “the jet leaking
position into the MC,” the start of the timer is
ordered, and when the jet diverter points “the
MC bypassing position by the jet,” the timer is
stopped. Regarding the measured time inter-
val between these two moments, mentioned
above, it is necessary to correct the value of τ 0,
in accordance with the procedure indicated by
ISO standards to consider any timing error.
Then the final quantity of fluid in the collect-
ing tank is determined.
Reversing the time τ 0 interval between the
two moments, is considered as being the true
reference parameter XR = τ 0−1 = ct., based on
which the average volume flow rates QVav = V/τ0
or mass flow rates Qm av = m/τ 0 are calculated,
based on the measurement of the fluid volume
V or fluid mass m.
This configuration of RB ensures the measure-
ment of the reference parameter XR = τ 0−1 = ct.
Consequently, “the measuring chamber
(MC)” does not ensure anymore, in this situa-
tion, the constructive solution of RB, as in the
case of flow meters with “RB operation accord-
ing to dynamic gauging method.”
Now, the MC fills/empties with a variable
volume of fluid, depending on the measured
flow value, participating in the solution of the
SB that ensures the measurement of the variable
parameter, XV = V (respectively, XV = m), ensur-
ing measurement of the volume flow.
Unitary Analysis, Synthesis, and Classification of Flow Meters
The RB of the direct conventional flow meters
is made up of a single MC or several MCs that
are correlated regarding the filling/discharge
operations of fluid. Within a functional cycle of
flow meter, a filling and a discharging opera-
tion occurs in each MC specific to the RB of con-
ventional flow meters.
The RB has an essential role in the opera-
tion of direct conventional flow meters, which
is demonstrated in the decisive way in which
its operation (complete filling/discharging of
the MC for the dynamic regime, or in various
proportions for the static regime) determines
the two logics (implicitly, the two groups of
basic types of direct conventional flow meters),
namely,
• Flow meters with MC with discontinuous
filling/discharge (RB, MC operating accord-
ing to the dynamic/static gauging method),
which is referred to as “calibration stands
(calibrator) of flow meters using dynamic/
static gauging method”
• MC flow meters with quasi-discontinuous/con-
tinuous filling/discharge (RB, MC operating
using a dynamic gauging method)
For direct conventional flow meters, a par-
ticular situation is assured using flow meters
with MC with discontinuous filling/discharge
known as “calibration stands (calibrators) of
flow meters,” which by their functional logic
can ensure only the discontinuous measure-
ment of the average flow Qav (because the fluid
is introduced/evacuated discontinuously and
not continuously to/out of the MC), as it is
achieved in the case of the other flow meters
that always ensure the continuous measure-
ment of instantaneous flow Q.
The calibration stands (calibrators) of flow
meters (referred to in Table 2.1, Section 1,
Column 3) have the same structural scheme
S1, as any other direct conventional flow meter,
and provide a similar direct analytical expres-
sion of the flow rate.
Regarding the two variants of the opera-
tion of the MC, these stands function in two
variants:
• Calibration stands (calibrators) of flow
meters using a static gauging method:
a. For volumetric calibration using a
method of fluid collection in a volumet-
ric tank
b. For mass calibration using a weighing
method
Identification and Analysis of the Functional Logic of Flow Meters
• Calibration stands (calibrators) of flow
meters using a dynamic gauging method:
a. For volumetric calibration, using a
method of fluid collection in a volumet-
ric tank
All the other basic types of direct flow meters are
MC flow meters with quasi-continuous/continuous
filling/discharge.
Regarding the operation of the MC, all MC
flow meters with quasi-continuous/continuous
filling/discharge use the dynamic regime.
Finally, let us return to the previously pre-
sented matters regarding the variants to achieve
the parameters that correspond to the RB, to
ensure the operation of the flow meters based on
the “direct analytical expression of the flow rate.”
The resulting conclusions are synthesized
in Table 2.2, showing a functional correla-
tion among the possible variants of practical
­achieving the reference parameter XR and the
possible ­variants of practical achieving the
­variable parameter XV, depending on the type of
the measuring flow (volume flow QV or mass
flow Qm).
Table 2.2 indicates that for both analytical
relations of flow definition (i.e., for volume flow
rate QV or mass flow rate Qm), each of the physi-
cal values which intervenes in the relation of the
flow could be, at a time, the reference parameter
XR or the variable parameter XV, depending on
the basic variant of the flow meter.
B. RB and its respective parameters for “indirect ana-
lytical expression of the flow rate”
A second possibility of the “conventional ana-
lytical expression of the flow rate” is, as already
presented, the “indirect analytical expression of
the flow rate.”
For this indirect analytical expression of the
flow rate, the reference parameter (XR) is, in
turn, one of the parameters that intervenes in
the relations (3a and b) indicated in Table 2.1,
Section 1, determining “the basic type of the
indirect conventional flow meters,” shortly
referred to as “indirect flow meters.”
TABLE 2.2
Functional Correlation among the Variants of the Parameters X R and XV
for Direct Analytical Expression of the Flow Rate
Q Qv = V/τ
XR = constant V τ−1
XV = variable τ −1
Note: The correlation relation among the three structural parameters is: Q = X R ⋅ XV
13
Consequently, the reference parameter (XR),
for the indirect analytical expression of the flow
rate, can be XR = A = ct. or XR = v = ct.
Starting from these two possible variants of
the expression for the reference parameter XR,
which characterizes the RB of each and every
indirect flow meter that has been achieved intu-
itively and logically during time, to the basic
constructive solution of the RB, solution specific
to all indirect flow meters made up to the pres-
ent, under the form of “the measuring section,”
referred to as MS.
Corresponding to the two possible variants
of the analytical expression of the characteristic
parameter XC, mentioned above, the “reference
blocks (RB) of indirect flow meters” have been
achieved intuitively but logically in two basic
variants, namely,
• RB is a measuring section with constant
crossing area.
• RB is a measuring section with variable
crossing area (i.e., with constant velocity of
passing).
The two basic constructive variants of the RB
implicitly determine the two basic structural
types of the indirect flow meters.
We are successively analyzing the two con-
structive solution variants of the RB:
B.1 RB is a measuring section with constant crossing
area
Referring to the relationships (3a and b,
Table 2.1) of the indirect definition of the flow
rate, indirect conventional flow meters having
“RB a measuring section with constant cross-
ing area” ensures the reference parameter XR = A
= area = constant.
For these flow meters, the output param-
eter from RB is the variable parameter
XV = v = velocity = variable, which is the param-
eter applied at the input of the SB.
Flow meters, having this structure, are
referred to as indirect conventional flow meters
with constant area MS or abridged constant area
flow meters.
Qm = m/τ
m τ−1
V τ−1 m
14
B.2 RB is a measuring section with variable crossing
area (i.e., constant flowing velocity)
Indirect conventional flow meters having
“RB as an MS with variable crossing area”
are characterized by the reference parameter
XR = v = velocity = constant.
For these flow meters, the output parameter
from the RB is the variable parameter XV = A =
area = variable.
These flow meters are referred to as indirect
flow meters with variable area MS, or abridged
variable area flow meters.
We continue with the presentation of the
variants aimed at achieving the parameters
specific to the RB, the block ensures the opera-
tion of the flow meters with “indirect analytical
expression of the flow rate.”
The resulting conclusions are synthesized
in Table 2.3, demonstrating the functional cor-
relation among possible variants of practical
achieving the reference parameter XR and pos-
sible variants of practical achieving the variable
parameter XV, depending on the type of the mea-
sured flow (volume flow QV or mass flow Qm).
For the indirect analytical expression for the
mass flow rate, because the relationship is: Qm =
QV·ρ = A·v·ρ, and the density ρ of the fluid does
not vary depending on the variation of Q, for
the mass flow rate Qm, it is obtained the same
correlation between XR and XV as for the vol-
ume flow rate QV.
We conclude the presentation of the RB (role,
structure, and corresponding parameters), a
structural block specific to all flow meters, as
follows:
• For both basic constructive variants men-
tioned above (with “direct expression of the
flow rate” and with “indirect expression of
the flow rate”), at the output of the RB is
obtained the variable parameter XV, by relat-
ing the measuring flow Q (variable value) to
the reference parameter XR (which is con-
stant to the variation of flow rate Q).
• The parameter XV has been referred to
by us as “variable parameter” because it
TABLE 2.3
Functional Correlation among the Variants of the Parameters X R and XV
for the Indirect Analytical Expression of the Flow Rate
Q QV = A · v
XR = constant
XV = variable
Note: As for “the direct analytical expression of the flow rate,” the correlation relation
among the three structural parameters is: Q = X R ⋅ XV
Unitary Analysis, Synthesis, and Classification of Flow Meters
varies proportionally with the variation of
the measuring flow Q.
• We underline the essential role of the RB in the
operation and the basic structure of conventional
flow meters. RB is the result of the intuitive way
in which it has been managed in time by imagin-
ing the operation mode of each and every type of
conventional flow meter, by functional ensuring,
depending on the variation of the measuring flow
Q, the only variation of a single parameter of the
two that defines the flow (i.e., a parameter that
we refer to as variable parameter, denoted XV,
the other one being kept functionally constant,
which we call reference parameter XR), and not
the variation of both parameters (XR and XV),
which determine the flow Q. This essential sim-
plification has been intuitively applied, allow-
ing the flow measurement, and it is a derivative
parameter, depending on the two parameters
mentioned above.
• The ingenuity of this solution, intuitively
applied up to the present, of the structural
method of achieving flow meters, that is,
the approach for measuring flow, which
avoided the concomitant measurement of
both parameters (XR and XV), that deter-
mines the flow. Thus, an essential simpli-
fication of the flow measurement applied
to conventional flow meters has been pro-
vided by measuring the variation of only
one parameter, XV.
After this concrete explanation of the
essential role regarding the method of
physical achievement and its respective
parameters (XR and XV), corresponding to
the RB, structural block specific to all flow
meters, we continue to present the unitary
structural scheme of the conventional flow
meters, with a series of reasons concerning
the SB, the second structural block of the PE.
2.2.1.1.2 Sensitive Block
According to the earlier discussion and the structural
scheme S1 presented in Table 2.1, Section 1, the vari-
able parameter XV, the output of the RB, is applied at
Qm = QV · ρ
A v A v
v A v A
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Title: Luke's wife

Author: Evelyn R. Garratt

Illustrator: Francis M. Parsons

Release date: September 4, 2023 [eBook #71564]

Language: English

Original publication: Ipswich: Smiths, Publishers, Suitall, 1926

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LUKE'S WIFE ***

Transcriber's note: Unusual and inconsistent spelling is as printed.

"SING," SAID LUKE GREVILLE, AS HE LEANT ON HIS OARS.

 LUKE'S WIFE

BY

EVELYN R. GARRATT.

Author of "Meg of the Heather," "The Cry,"

"Millicent's Freedom," "The Radiant City,"

"A Diamond in the Rough," etc.

Illustrations by FRANCIS M. PARSONS.

IPSWICH: SMITHS, PUBLISHERS, SUITALL.

AND ALL BOOKSELLERS.

 1926.

(Copyright.)

SMITHS,

PRINTERS, BOOKBINDERS, AND PUBLISHERS,

SUITALL, IPSWICH.

"Love is not blind, it is an extra eye, which

shows us what is most worthy of regard."

J. M. Barrie.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER
I. MOONLIGHT ON THE SEA

II. THE HOME COMING

III. LUKE'S MOTHER

IV. AN INCAPABLE HOUSEKEEPER

V. TWO POINTS OF VIEW

VI. THE STUDY

VII. RACHEL CONFIDES IN THE BISHOP

VIII. THE BISHOP COMES TO LUNCH

IX. GWEN

X. THE TRAINING BEGINS

XI. THE CHOIR THREATEN TO STRIKE

XII. RACHEL MAKES A MISTAKE

XIII. A BOX OF VIOLETS

XIV. DISAPPOINTMENT

XV. RACHEL'S PEARLS

XVI. THE CHURCH COUNCIL

XVII. LUKE IS DISCOURAGED

XVIII. GAS STOVES VERSUS MOUNTAINS

XIX. GWEN WRITES TO THE BISHOP

XX. NO LADY HEAD OF THE PARISH

XXI. THE BISHOP LOOKS INTO THE KITCHEN

XXII. THE DREAM OF HIS LIFE

XXIII. LUKE SEES HIMSELF

XXIV. FOR LUKE'S SAKE

XXV. THE DISTURBING ELEMENT

XXVI. LUKE TELLS RACHEL ABOUT HIS DREAM

XXVII. RACHEL'S GARDEN PARTY

XXVIII. "THINK OF RACHEL"

XXIX. IN THE LIGHT OF THE MOON

 LUKE'S WIFE.

CHAPTER I.

MOONLIGHT ON THE SEA.

"Sing," said Luke Greville, as he leant on his oars and looked at his wife sitting
in the stern of the boat.

And Rachel sang.

The boat lay almost still in the silver pathway flung by the moon across the
sea. There was scarcely a ripple.

Rachel's voice trembled a little when she began to sing, as a sense of mystery
and wonder enveloped her. The dark sea beyond them; the earnest face of
her husband lit up by the moonlight; the fact that they were quite alone on the
vast waste of water, combined to fill her with awe and to make her voice a little
unsteady for a moment.

Her singing thrilled her husband as he sat listening. His dream had come true;
and this last evening of their honeymoon they were alone on the sea; in quiet;
with God.

Rachel sang; and these were the words that she sang:—

"And love is God, and God is love,

And earth beneath and Heaven above
Are swathed in it and bathed in it;
For every flower of tender grace
Hath God and Love writ on its face,
And silver shining stars on high
Spell Love and God across the sky."
When the last note of her song trembled away across the waters, there was
silence between them while they looked at one another as only those who
love and trust can look. Words were not needed between them. They were so
absolutely united in spirit that outward expression of their love was
unnecessary.

Then Luke took up his oars and rowed vigorously towards land.

"All things must have an end," he said, "even the happiest honeymoon that
was ever spent. I suppose we must go back to our rooms."

"Must we yet? Let us stay out till the last minute. Perhaps we shall never have
such an evening again together, with the moonlight on the sea."

"We'll come here next year," he answered laughing, "and after a year of
happiness it ought to be better still. Why are you pessimistic?"

Rachel was silent for a moment, then she said, "I'm afraid of your work."

"Afraid? Why?" He leant towards her in surprise.

"Because I have a feeling that it will take you from me," she answered. She
knew perfectly well by this time that his work was his passion. The thought of
it had at times absorbed him even during their days of bliss. They had been so
happy together, almost like light-hearted children, but Rachel had noticed the
last few days that his parish and his people were engaging many of his
thoughts and that he was getting a little restless. If his work weighed on his
heart even during his wedding tour, thought Rachel, was there not a fear that
it would be pre-eminent in his thoughts when in the midst of it, to the exclusion
of her?

Luke laughed at her fears, and after a few moments remarked, "There is only
one thing I regret and that is that I am not taking you to a comfortable
Vicarage. I don't mind a small house myself nor did my mother, but I'm afraid
you will feel cramped."

"But they are going to build a vicarage soon," said Rachel.

"They will be a good time about it, I fear. You see the Parish has only just
been divided, so it is not in proper working order yet; besides which, I think it
may be as well for us to live in a small house, anyway at first. A Vicarage
means a certain amount of expenditure not to mention dilapidations.
Nevertheless I am sorry that the home I am taking you to is not larger. But
after all we don't want to live in the lap of luxury. We are out to fight the great
enemy of souls, you and I, and we can do that as well in a small house as in a
large one. Perhaps better."

"How I wish I were more capable," sighed Rachel; "I don't know anything at all
about Parish work. You ought to have married someone very different."

Luke laughed.

"It's too late to give me that advice. And let me tell you that I prefer a wife who
comes to the work fresh, rather than one who is already tired and perhaps
discouraged. I said so to my mother."

"I am afraid that your mother would not agree. Did she feel leaving you very
much? And are her rooms close by?" Rachel listened for the answer rather
anxiously.

"She was wonderfully unselfish about leaving the coast clear for you; but her
rooms are not far off. You will soon love her."

"I am sure I shall make no end of mistakes," sighed Rachel, a little depressed
at his answer.

"Don't you know that it has been said that a person who makes no mistakes
makes nothing else?"

"Yes; but—" she paused, then she suddenly changed her mind, saying—

"Let us forget everything for a moment but the moonlight on the sea, and that
we have one another."

Luke rested on his oars and the moon shone down upon their faces alive with
love, as if it blessed them.
 CHAPTER II.
THE HOME COMING.

Rachel leant back in the railway carriage and watched the fields and hedges
rapidly passing. But her thoughts were far away. She was going home, but not
to the old familiar place she had hitherto called by that name. It was to her
new home, and the life that she was to spend there was all untried.

She could not but remember the welcoming smile that her mother always
gave her even when she had returned only from a walk among the hills. She
knew that whatever new interest might come into her mother's life that she
would never cease to think first of her children. She had always made
everything subservient to their interests and welfare. Before she became an
invalid she had never allowed social or any other claims to interfere with
theirs, and since she had had to lead a semi-invalid life their interests had still
been hers, their joys and sorrows were felt to be her own.

And now, Rachel would have to make her own way in her new world; and
have no mother to fly to in any of her difficulties. Her mother-in-law would
certainly not take her place, although Luke had talked of her with complete
satisfaction and the greatest love. His mother, in his eyes, was everything a
man could wish for. She was apparently perfect. But Rachel had not liked
what she had seen of her at the wedding, and felt intuitively that she was not
approved of by Luke's mother. Luke was evidently her idol, and no-one could
be good enough for him. The few remarks she had exchanged with Mrs.
Greville had convinced Rachel that Luke's mother had hoped for another kind
of wife for her son; one who was used to Parish work, and capable of
managing people. Rachel had told her at once that Parish work would be a
new experience and had said a little wistfully that she wished she had done
more than she had for their home parish. "But I had mother to take care of,"
she had added.

"Yes," Mrs. Greville had answered, "it is rather a pity that you have had no
experience in that line. I am afraid you will find it difficult."

And Rachel had added almost against her will, "And unfortunate, I am afraid,
for Luke. However, I can always learn, I suppose."
Mrs. Greville had looked at her with cold critical eyes, saying, "We can learn
anything if we put our mind into it," and thought as she uttered the words, "I
only hope she will be useful as well as ornamental." The unspoken thought
was so evident in the glance that Mrs. Greville gave her, that for a moment,
even though Rachel had just been married to the man who was all the world
to her, and for whom she was forsaking her mother and her home, she turned
away feeling hurt, and vexed.

It was the thought of the mother-in-law who she would have to meet when she
arrived in her new home, that was the cause of the slight feeling of depression
and fear of which she was conscious as the train neared its destination. Then
she glanced across at her husband.

He was deep in the "Times" and apparently utterly unconscious at the moment
of her presence. But the expression of great content and interest on his face,
and the sudden laugh that escaped him as he handed the paper across to her
to enjoy with him something that had tickled his fancy, drove all depression
away. After all she had him—for ever—that is to say till death should part
them. What could she want more? And she had not promised to like, and
adopt, his mother as hers!

It rained during their railway journey, but as they reached the manufacturing
town in which was Luke's Parish, the sun shone out, and it was a happy pair
that at last drew up at the door of the little house that was to be henceforth
home.

"Here we are," exclaimed Luke as he handed out his wife. At the same
moment the door was opened by a minute person with a short frock and white
apron and with a little cap perched on her head. She looked at them with a
broad smile.

"Who is the child?" asked Rachel.

"Why it's Polly Green! My mother promised me that she would get us a really
nice little maid; and I know Polly well. She is a thoroughly nice girl. She then,
is to be our factotum."

"Well Polly and how are you?" he said heartily, as he gave the bundle of
umbrellas into her hands. "This is your Mistress, and you are a lucky girl to
have her. Now be sharp, my girl, and put the umbrellas in the hall and then
come back for another parcel."
Rachel laughed almost hysterically as she watched Polly running about with
her cap on one side and then opening the door of the sitting room with an
important air. She had never contemplated for a moment having such a small
factotum!

As she stepped into the little room, the door of which had been opened by
Polly, she laughed again. It was so very small! Luke had given her no idea at
all of its dimensions. He had merely said he could trust his mother to see after
the house and to make them comfortable. His joyous laugh as he followed her
into the room mingled with hers.

"I'm glad my mother has secured Polly for our maid," he said. "She is a first-
rate little woman and always answers the Scripture Questions better at school
than any other girl. She'll do well for us."

Rachel did not quite see how answering Scripture questions at school made
her fit to be a little maid of all work! But it was all so surprising that she looked
around merrily.

"It's almost like a fairy tale," she said, and the thought flashed across her
mind, "like a doll's house." Then it was that as Luke suddenly glanced at his
wife a feeling of apprehension seized him.

Rachel was standing looking at the pictures on the walls, and her radiant
beauty and lovely clothes struck a cold chill into his heart. She looked out of
place! And he felt his home must appear to be dull and uninteresting.

"I am afraid," he said, putting his hand on her shoulder, and his tone of voice
was tinged with regret, "I am afraid that it must strike you as very different
from what you have been used to. The house is so small."

"I like it small," she answered cheerfully, "for even when you write your
sermons you will not be able to get away from me. I like it to be different."

She had seen at a glance that the wall paper was ugly, the furniture badly
arranged, and was not surprised to hear that both had been his mother's
choice. It was exactly the kind of paper and furniture that she would expect
her to choose. All good, but nothing dainty. But what did it signify? She could
have the room papered by-and-bye, and get rid of some of the furniture, and
would soon be able to make it homelike and pretty. And after all it did not
matter having to live with hideous furniture and drab wall paper if by so doing
she had Luke to herself, and was able to help him in his work.
Somewhat assured by her answer and bright smile, Luke led her into the
drawing-room, a still smaller and duller room at the back of the house, looking
on what, by courtesy, we will call a garden, but was nothing more than a yard
containing a few sad looking bushes and a sickly flower or two. Polly
appeared asking with a broad grin when she might "serve tea."

"What have you got for tea?" enquired Luke, thinking of Rachel.

"Mrs. Greville brought round some eggs, Sir," answered Polly.

"Good, we'll have them. And I suppose there is jam?"

"There's a pot of plum jam, Sir."

"Bring that then and be as quick as you can Polly as I have to go out in half an
hour."

"Go out!" exclaimed Rachel.

"Yes, I'm sorry to have to leave you your first evening," he answered, "but it's
the Church Council and I must be there. I got it postponed till to-day as it
should have been last Thursday. I am sorry dear."

Rachel smiled. She would not let him see her keen disappointment, nor know
that the fear she had expressed to him the evening before gained ground by
his words.

"I suppose," she said laughing, "that this is what I must expect, having married
a clergyman."

"I am afraid it is! But we shall soon be working side by side and going about
together. I shall want you with me. My only fear is that you will work too hard."

The picture he had drawn of them working together had cheered her.

It was at tea that Rachel asked if his mother was on the Church Council.

"No," he answered, "but she is on everything else. She is as good as a

Curate. I can't tell you what she has done for me since I have been here. It
has made all the difference to me having her. You will get to love her I know."

"I shall never love her," thought Rachel, "but I must try, I must for his sake, and
he shall not find out if I can't."
Luke looked at his watch, and rose quickly. "I must be going," he said.

Left alone, Rachel tried to check a slight feeling of homesickness that

attacked her. The room was so small and rather dark and yet it was scarcely
time to light up. She flung the window open and stood by it looking out into the
little yard with the sad looking bushes. Should she ever get used to her
surroundings, she wondered, or would she always have the feeling, almost of
suffocation, that she was experiencing this evening? It was all so different to
her home in the country. From the drawing-room window at Heathland she
could see a wide expanse of country and could even feel the wind that blew
from the moors. It was not a large house but a thoroughly comfortable one,
standing in four or five acres of land. They had lived in a much larger place, in
Rachel's childhood, but her father dying, they had moved about ten years ago
into what was called Heathland cottage.

Rachel had lived a life of perfect freedom, her only definite duty being that of
taking care of her invalid mother. She knew nothing of housekeeping, her
elder sister was the housekeeper, and as for cooking! She scarcely knew how
to boil a potato.

She forgot that tea was still on the table, and was startled by Polly's voice
asking her if she might take the tea things away, as she thought Mrs. Greville
would be coming in by-and-bye, and would not be pleased to see them not
washed up. Might she take them?

Rachel gasped at the remark. Was she then to be under Mrs. Greville's eye,
or rather, was her mother-in-law to instruct Polly as to what to do?

Polly's words had the effect of arousing her from her dreams, and she set to
work to help the girl to clear away, leaving her to wash up while she began to
unpack. She earnestly hoped that her mother-in-law would not pay her a visit,
but determined that she should find her ready to receive her should she
appear.

It was rather late when Rachel made her way downstairs. The house was in
darkness. But she heard Polly moving about in the kitchen.

"Why Polly, you are in the dark! You had better light up. You can't see to do
your work."

Polly rather eagerly turned up the electric light.

"I didn't like to do it before Ma'am," she said, "as Mrs. Greville told me that I
must be very careful not to waste the light as it is so expensive, and I thought
if she came along and found it she might be angry."

"Well I'm your Mistress now," said Rachel, "and whenever it gets dark, I give
you leave to light up. I'm sure you will be careful."

Rachel turned away and recklessly lit the three lights in the tiny drawing-room.
She felt angry. Mrs. Greville should find that she had no authority whatever
over Polly from henceforth. But the anger soon subsided, and apprehension
took its place. Was her mother-in-law going to be a source of unhappiness in
their home? But no, it was unthinkable, she must learn to like her.

She must not give place to the feeling of resentment which already was
getting a hold on her. The day that Luke found out that she did not love his
mother would, Rachel felt sure, be the beginning of an altered feeling in him
about herself. It would disappoint him so terribly, and would be a continual
source of worry. And she determined that she would never worry him.

And after all was it not very small of her to be so angry about such a little
matter? It was much too small a matter for Luke to understand. She must try
and take a broader outlook on life and not let little things affect her.

While these thoughts were engrossing her, the front door opened and Rachel
heard a firm footstep which was not Luke's crossing the hall.

CHAPTER III.
LUKE'S MOTHER.
Mrs. Greville blinked as she opened the drawing-room door and faced the
bright light. Her economical soul saw at a glance that all three lights were
lighted, but she refrained from making a remark.

Loving her son as she did, she had come determined to make friends with his
probably incapable wife, and knew that to remark at the very beginning on the
reckless extravagance displayed, would not help her resolve. So she merely
blinked, and for a moment shaded her eyes with her hand, saying, "My eyes
are not used to such brilliance."

Rachel also had suddenly come to a determination on hearing her husband's

mother's footstep. She recognised the fact that the future might depend on her
present attitude towards Mrs. Greville, and was resolved for the sake of her
love for Luke to make the best of it. She there-fore met her mother-in-law with
a smile and outstretched hand. She was not quite prepared for the hearty kiss
that was given, but she was pleased, as it seemed to put her in the right
position of a daughter-in-law rather than as her son's unsatisfactory wife.

"How kind of you to come," she said.

"I promised Luke that I would do everything in my power to make his wife feel
at home," answered Mrs. Greville, taking Rachel's hand and drawing her on to
the sofa, "and when I found that he was going out to-night I was afraid you
might be feeling a little forlorn; so I made up my mind to run round. I think he
ought to have arranged better than to have a meeting the first evening."

The fact that Rachel had been conscious herself of a feeling of

disappointment and of surprise that he should leave her so soon, made her
wince at the words, and colour. Her pride was touched.

"But of course," she said, "he could not shirk his duty. He knew that I should
have objected to him doing so." And as she made this remark, she imagined
that she was saying the truth. So easy is it to deceive ourselves, particularly
when our enemy pride is to the front.

"I'm glad to hear you are so sensible," said Mrs. Greville, "or I am afraid you
would have to suffer continual disappointment. Luke's work is the first thing
with him, and always will be. Neither mother nor wife will be allowed to come
in its way. He is the hardest worker that I know. But just because of this he has
to be looked after well."

"How do you mean?"

"Creature comforts are nothing to him. If he lived by himself I really don't know
when he would think of food. If ever I went away for a week or two I found him
looking shockingly ill on my return and generally discovered that he had not
been punctual at his meals, and would have been quite happy to have gone
without them altogether. You will have to look after him Rachel. By-the-bye,
what did he have for his meal before going out?"

"You kindly sent round some eggs."

"Ah yes. Of course there was no time to cook anything else. But you will have
to be careful about the eggs. They are 4d each at present. And," she added
warily, "if I were you, my dear, I should not burn more than one light in this
small room. Three are quite unnecessary. Electric light is extremely expensive
unless you are careful. Of course you know that you ought to put it out every
time you leave the room, even though it may be only for a minute or two."

"No," said Rachel, "I don't know anything about electric light. We used lamps
at home. Is it really necessary to be so careful? I don't want to be always
thinking of money." She gave a little laugh, but happily Mrs. Greville did not
recognise the scorn in the tone of voice or in the laugh.

"Yes indeed, it is necessary, that is to say if you don't want to pay a big bill. My
son is not a rich man."

To Rachel who had never had to think of these matters, the restrictions that
were being laid down seemed absurd. She scarcely knew whether she felt
more inclined to be angry or to laugh. She turned the conversation by asking if
Polly could cook.

"No," said Mrs. Greville. "You will have to teach her. She is a very quick little
girl and will easily learn."

"I am afraid she will learn nothing from me," said Rachel, "Could we not have
had some older servant under the circumstances? I think I shall have to go to
a registry office to-morrow. Which is the best one?"

"Servants are very difficult to get and I don't suppose that you and Luke could
afford a really good one. No, your wisest plan is to keep on little Polly, and I
will come round and teach you both. I will bring a cookery book with me and
mark the most economical dishes for you."

"Thank you," said Rachel, faintly. The prospect was not exhilarating, but she
knew the proposal was made in kindness, and after all both she and Luke