Lecture 1

Refrigeration and
Air Conditioning
Simple Vapor
Compression Cycle
1
Pressure-Enthalpy (P-h) diagram
Critical point
Constant
entropy line
Pressure (P)
Mixture of
Subcooled liquid and Constant
liquid vapor volume line
Superheated
Constant Saturated vapor
Temperature line liquid line Saturated
vapor line
Enthalpy (h)
2
3
4
5
6
P-h diagram for R-134a
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8
9
10
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side ๐
Pกง- DC
condansor
โแP;<๋ euaporator
D Condenser
Liquid Satligtsatvapour
มา ป?อย
กาบ @อน
BC
B
Simple
line
A
= Compressor
B Evaporator
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Isentropic
A e-
suction
Expansion line Low-pressure
device
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A – B : Vaporizing Process แ+ น
B – C : Compression Process Heat
C – D : Condensing Process "น Exchanger .
D – A : Expansion Process (Throttling Process) 11

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13
จ ก ผนภม คว มดน นธลป ข ง รท คว ม ยน ล ร ม รถ ค่ นธลปข ง รท คว ม ยน ด้
นก รค นวณ ปร ทธภ พข ง คร งท คว ม ยน บบ ด พลงง นคว มร้ น ล พลงง นกลทถ่ ย ท
ร ว่ งร บบกบ ง วดล้ มภ ยน กจ ม รถค นวณ ด้ จ ก มก ร นรก ์ พลงง น
1
Q = W + m (h e h i ) + m (Ve2 Vi2 ) + m g ( Z e Zi )
2
Q = W + m (he hi )
14
Constant pressure heat addition in the evaporator,
A to B
๏_w๋x๋
pressure
.. .
evaporator ...
:& .
.
A
.
enthalpy
15
A B : Vaporizing Process
Vaporization takes place at a constant T and P thus this process is
both isothermal (dU = 0) and isobaric (dQ = dH).
At point B, the refrigerant is completely vaporized and is a
saturated vapor at the evaporating P and T.
Heat is absorbed from the refrigerated space.
The quantity of heat absorbed by the refrigerant in the evaporator
is called Refrigerating Effect (qe) . rimwumn เราไป H Retegerabr
กาก yอน a"อ เzาไป
TA = TB Q = W + m (he hi )
PA = PB
qe = h B h A = h B h D
16
Isentropic compression, B to C
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. Heat of
A compression,
evaporator B qw
enthalpy 17
B C : Compression Process
This process occurs in the compressor as the pressure of the vapor is
increased by compression from the evaporating pressure to the
condensing pressure.
The process is assumed to be isentropic (frictionless-reversible adiabatic
or constant-entropy compression).
The energy equivalent of the work done during the compression process
is called Heat of Compression (qw) .
As a result of absorbing qw, the refrigerant vapor discharged from the
compressor is in a superheated state at point C.
SB = SC
q w = hC h B
TD(cond ) Tsat or TB ( evap ) 18
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-
Constant pressure heat rejection in the condenser
, C to D
Total heat
rejected, qc
condenser D* C
D
pressure
compressor
A B
evaporator
enthalpy 19
C D : Condensing Process
Process C-D* occurs in the upper part of the condenser and in the hot-gas
line. It represents the cooling of the vapor from the discharge temperature to
the condensing temperature. During process C-D*, the pressure of the vapor
remains constant.
At point D*, the refrigerant is a saturated vapor at the condensing P and T.
Process D*-D is the condensation of the vapor taking place in the condenser.
The total heat rejected by the refrigerant to the condensing medium (qc) is
equal to the heat absorbed by the refrigerant at all other points in the cycle.
qc = Heat rejected
qc = (hC hD* ) + (hD* hD ) qc = qe + q w
qc = hC hD
20
Throttling in an expansion valve, D to A
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21
enthalpy
D A : Expansion or Throttling Process
Refrigerant Liquid leaves the condenser and enters the refrigerant control
(expansion valve) as a saturated liquid at the condensing P and T.
As the liquid passes through the refrigerant control, its P and T is reduced from
the condensing P and T to the evaporating P and T.
T of the liquid is reduced by the flashing into vapor phase of a portion of the
liquid; thus, the refrigerant is in the form of a liquid-vapor mixture at point B.
This process is a type of adiabatic expansion in which the enthalpy (h) of the
refrigerant liquid does not change during the process and it is assumed to take
place without the gain and loss of heat through the valves since the drop of
pressure occurs instantaneously and without the performance of work.
hD = hA
22
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P-h Diagram of Simple Saturated Cycle
Pcond , Tcond
Pevap ,
Tevapd
-
เ~ย
23
P-h Diagram VS T-s Diagram
T-s diagram
A 0 E D
D. D
B C ①
b ~าน ษ เ‰ก] ขา ปา
A
E
Compressor
P-h diagram C
C
เŒง B
Šใน ป•มาตร
24
System Capacity
The capacity of any refrigerating system is the rate at which it
<
will remove heat from the refrigerated space.

Qe : Refrigerating capacity O(kW)
Qc : Total heat rejected at the condenser (kW)
-
Qw: Heat or Work of compression (kW)-
m : Mass flow rate of the refrigerant (kg/s)

( !ตราการไหล เ*ง บอล
)
Mass of refrigerant per kW t
m=
1 kW
qe
25
Volume Flow
"
Rate of Vapor
.ะแบบอนาถ ของ
aompress04
Total volume of vapor (V) generated depends only on the vaporizing
temperature and increases as the vaporizing temperature and pressure
decreases.
V = mv
V : Total volume of vapor generated in the evaporator per unit time (m3/s)
m : Mass flow rate of the refrigerant (kg/s)
v : Specific volume of the vapor at the vaporizing temperature (m3/kg,
L/kg)
26
Coefficient of Performance (C.O.P)
The Coefficient of Performance (C.O.P) of a refrigerating
cycle is an expression of the cycle efficiency.
Heat absorbed from the refrigerated space

COP =
Heat energy equivalent of the energy sup plied to the compressor
Re frigerating effect (qe ) hB hD

COP = =
Heat of compression (qw ) hC hB
27
ง นข งค ม พร ซ ร = h2-h1
ค มดน
COP = (h1- h4)/(h2-h1)
P2,3 3 2
เ5น ไป กาบ
P1,4 ปพ ร ต ร
1 ใน Aid
4
h2 - h1
h3,4 h1 h2
นทลป
ตร ก รท ค ม ยน = h1- h4
28
A E D
B C
29
Saturation Properties of R-12
30
Superheated Vapor Properties of R-12
31
Effect of Suction Temperature on Cycle Efficiency
Increasing the suction or vaporizing
temperature will increase:
Refrigerating Effect (qe)
C.O.P
Increasing the suction or vaporizing
temperature will decrease:
Heat of Compression (qw)
Mass flow rate of refrigerant per
unit kW (m)
Heat rejected at the Condenser (qc)
Does the value of total volume of vapor (V) increase or decrease ?

Should the vaporizing temperature be increase or decrease?
32
Effect of Condensing Temperature on Cycle Efficiency
Increasing the discharge or
condensing temperature will increase:
Heat of Compression (qw)
Mass flow rate of refrigerant per unit
kW (m)
Heat rejected at the Condenser (qc)
Increasing the discharge or
condensing temperature will decrease:
_
Refrigerating Effect (qe)
C.O.P
Does the value of total volume of vapor (V) increase or decrease ?
Should the condensing temperature be increase or decrease ?
33
Exercise I
1. ร บบ คร งท คว ม ยนท งกลร บบ นง ช้ รท คว ม ยน R-12 มมตว่ ร บบนท ง น บบ
Simple saturated cycle ณ ภมท Evaporator ท่ กบ -15oC ล ท Condenser ท่ กบ 40oC
จงค นวณ
ก). ค่ Pressure (P), Temperature (T), Specific volume (v), Enthalpy (h) ล Entropy
(s) ทจด A,B,C,D, ล E
ข). จง ดงค่ ทจดต่ ง นข้ ก). ลงบน P-h Diagram ข ง R-12
ค). ค่ Refrigeration effect (qe), Heat rejected at the condenser (qc), ล Heat of
compression (qw)
ง). ตร ก ร ล ดยมวล ต่ kW
จ). ตร ก ร ล ดยปรม ตร ต่ kW
ฉ). คว มร้ น ดยรวม ทถ่ ย ทท Condenser (Qc) ล ท Evaporator (Qe) น น่ วย
kW / kW
ช). ค่ C.O.P ข งร บบท คว ม ยน
2. จ กข้ 1 ถ้ ปลยน รท คว ม ยน ปน R-134a จง ค่ ต่ ง นข้ ก) ช)
34
Exercise I (Solution)
35
Exercise I (Solution)
1 kW
m=
qe
V = mv
Re frigerating effect (qe ) hB hD
COP = =
Heat of compression (qw ) hC hB
36
ข ง ถม
37
Refrigeration and
Air Conditioning
Actual Vapor
Compression Cycle
38
Content
Deviations from the Simple Vapor
Compression Cycle
Effect of Superheating the Suction Vapor
Effect of Subcooling the Discharge Liquid
Liquid-Suction Heat Exchanger
Effect of Pressure Losses Resulting from
Friction
39
Deviations from the Simple Vapor
Compression Cycle
The drop in pressure occurring in the lines and across

vnvunurnunnrrnn
the evaporator, condenser, etc.

The effects of subcooling the liquid and of
superheating the suction vapor.
No true isentropic compression occurring in the
nnnnr
compressor due to friction.

เ8ด การ :ก
Compressor
40
Actual refrigeration cycle:
- Subcooling
- Superheating
- Losses in pressure.
expansionvaleve
กลาย simple Vapar 9 <
ttropio
41
42
Temp
43
hD hA hD hA
Temp
Total heat rejected at the condenser (qc) is greater than that for the saturated
cycle due to the additional heat absorbed by the vapor in becoming superheated.
Note that the additional heat rejected at the condenser in the superheated cycle is
all sensible heat. 44
E
Simple Saturated
Cycle: A-B-C-D-E
= simple Superheated Cycle:
>
ออก
satvapour
A-B-C -D -E
45
mmi
" sat <
Vsuperheat →
Gmpressor ?า8
v Superheate d v Saturated
For each kilogram of refrigerant circulated, the compressor
must compress a greater volume of vapor if the vapor is
superheated than if the vapor is saturated. Therefore, the mass
of refrigerant circulated (m ) b a compressor will alwa s be
less if the suction vapor is superheated than if the vapor is in a
saturated condition. @ ป Superheat @ไA หา
การ
.
mSuperheate d mSaturated
@ คง Cขาย แกน เ5น DอเEย ของ การ@ NS uperheated 46
.io?E.::
↳ .
. . .. . ..
.
.
ไปพบ
แนว degree superhat หา 4 Cop
The effect that superheating of the suction vapor has on the capacity of
the system and on the C.O.P depends entirely upon where and how the
superheating of the vapor occurs and upon whether the heat absorbed by
the vapor in becoming superheated produces any useful cooling.
Regardless of the effect on capacity, superheating the suction vapor is
usually desirable since it will eliminate the possibility of wet suction
vapor reaching the compressor inlet, avoiding the mechanical damage of
compressor.
47
E
Simple Saturated
Cycle: A-B-C-D-E
Superheated Cycle:
A-B-C -D -E
• In an actual cycle, the superheating of the suction vapor usually

produces either useful or no useful cooling.
• Superheating without useful cooling
mmnmn
• Superheating that produces useful cooling 48

Superheating the suction vapor may take
Eraporatr place in one or in combination of the
.
f Inlet
following places:
In the end of the evaporator inside the
refrigerated space.
Hatvap C) In the suction piping installed inside
IJ่ eaporator
the refrigerated space, known as
Superheatedwp
Drier Loop .
In the suction piping located outside
the refrigerated space.
In the liquid-suction heat exchanger.
Note that superheating of the vapor in the suction line outside the refrigerated
space should be eliminated by insulating the suction line. 49
When operating at low suction temperature, insulating of the
suction line is necessary to maintain the efficiency of the cycle at a
reasonable level.
Insulating the suction piping is also important to prevent frosting
or sweating the suction piping due to the condensation of the
surrounding air onto the surface of the pipe line.
Superheating the suction vapor in the evaporator is usually not
economical and should always be limited to the amount that is
necessary because the capacity of the evaporator is always reduced
in any portion of the evaporator where only vapor exists.
Often, a drier loop is installed inside the refrigerated space for the
purpose of superheating the suction vapor producing useful
cooling. 50
http://contractingbusiness.com/iaq-amp-ventilation/coolings-dynamic-duo 51
Superheating without Useful Cooling
The refrigerating effect (qe) is the same for both the superheated and
saturated cycles operating at the same vaporizing and condensing
temperatures. q e, Superheate d = q e, Saturated
The mass flow rate (m) of refrigerant required per unit refrigerating
capacity will also be the same for both cycles. mSuperheate d = mSaturated
The volume flow rate of vapor (V) that the compressor must handle
per unit of refrigerating capacity is greater for the superheated cycle
than for the saturated cycle. V Superheate d V Saturated
The C.O.P for the superheated cycle is less than that of the saturated
cycle. C.O.PSuperheate d C.O.PSaturated 52
Superheating that Produces Useful cooling
The refrigerating effect (qe) is greater for the superheated cycle than for the
saturated cycle. The amount of increased qe equals to the amount of heat
absorbed in the superheating. qe, Superheate d qe, Saturated
The mass flow rate (m) of refrigerant required per unit refrigerating capacity
is less for the superheated cycle than for the saturated cycle.
1 kW
mSuperheate d mSaturated m=
qe
The volume flow rate of vapor (V) that the compressor must handle per unit
of refrigerating capacity is less for the superheated cycle than for the
saturated cycle. VSuperheate d VSaturated C.O.PSuperheate d C.O.PSaturated
The C.O.P for the superheated cycle is higher than that of the saturated cycle
because the increase in qe is greater proportionally than that of qw . 53
Effect of Subcooling the Discharge Liquid
The refrigerating effect per unit
mass is increased.
satliq
subodedliq .
:X!มาณ
liq
มาก
Pน
มาก
,
เ5นไอ มาก
Mด ค .
→
Mด ค รอน Nอย
Qอน มาก Pน
.
hC hB hC hB
The mass flow rate (m) per unit
capacity is less for the
subcooled cycle than for the
saturated cycle. Then the
@e mttng
Lmn
volume of vapor that the

compressor must handle is less
for the subcooled than for the
Simple Saturated Cycle: A-B-C-D-E
saturated cycle.
Subcooled Cycle: A -B -C-D-E mSubcooled mSaturated
VSubcooled VSaturated
54
The heat of compression per unit
AE mass is the same for both cycles.
This means that increasing in
{ refrigerating effect resulting from
the subcooling is accomplished
without increasing the energy
Subcooling of the liquid can occur: input to the compressor.
While stored in the liquid receiver q w , Subcooled = q w , Saturated
tank.
The C.O.P for the subcooled cycle
While passing through the liquid
line. is higher than that for the
In the specially installed liquid saturated cycle.
subcooler. C.O.P Subcooled C.O.P Saturated
55
Liquid Suction Heat Exchanger
The cold suction vapor is piped
through the heat exchanger in
counterflow to the warm liquid
refrigerant flowing through the liquid
line to the refrigerant control.
The cold suction vapor absorbs heat
from the warm liquid so that the
liquid is subcooled as the vapor is
superheated.
The heat given up by the liquid in
becoming subcooled is exactly equal
to the heat absorbed by the suction
hB hB = hC hC
vapor in becoming superheated. 56
¢ 4
= 1 ⑥
2.ee
W
'
3
2
Liquid Suction Heat Exchanger
A
C
C
A
hB hB = hC hC
57
The maximum amount of heat exchange taking place between the
liquid and the vapor depends on the initial T of both liquid and
vapor and on the length of time they are in contact.
Since the specific heat of the vapor is less than that of the liquid,
the rise in the vapor T is always greater than the reduction in the
liquid T. TC TC TA TA
Simple Saturated Cycle:

A-B-C-D-E
Liquid-Suction Heat Exchanger
cycle:
A -B -C -D -E
58
A
C
C
A
59
A
C
C
A
60
A
C
C
A
The C.O.P of a heat exchanger cycle may be

greater than or less than or the same as that of
the saturated cycle depending upon the particular C.O.P =
hC hA
case. In many cases, the advantages of subcooling hD hC
the liquid are approximately offset by the

disadvantages of superheating the vapor. 61
Effect of Pressure Losses Resulting from Friction
The refrigerant experiences a
drop in pressure while flowing
through:
Evaporator (Good
evaporator design limits the
pressure drop across the
evaporator to 2 or 3 psi.)
Condenser
Piping (Suction line, liquid
line and hot gas line)
Valves and passages of the
Good design requires that the drop in compressor (Suction valves
pressure is kept to practical minimum. and discharge valves)
62
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Sol " 1. ลาก เWน โซน P
Zง ,
[ง
✓
✓
อ =
Niqe
✓ ✓
✓
M qe
-
=
VA s
4T
B - C represents the drop in pressure (and temperature) in the evaporator.
The qe and m are approximately the same for both cycles.
The specific volume is greater; thus, the volume flow rate of vapor handled
by the compressor is greater for the cycle experiencing the pressure drop.
63
64
65
66
67
68
A A represents the pressure drop resulting from the flow of the
refrigerant through the receiver tank and liquid line.
If the liquid is not subcooled by an external sink as its pressure
drops, a portion of the liquid must flash into a vapor in the
liquid line to provide the required cooling of the liquid.
The drop in pressure in the liquid line has no effect on cycle
efficiency.
Passage of vapor through the refrigerant control will eventually
cause damage to the refrigerant control by eroding the valve
needle and seat.
Flashing of the liquid in the liquid line usually will not take
place when the drop in the line does not exceed 5 psi.
69
Exercise
ร บบ คร งท คว ม ยนท งกลร บบ นง ช้ รท คว ม ยน ปน R-12 มมตว่
ร บบนท ง น บบ Simple Saturated Cycle ณ ภมท Evaporator ท่ กบ -5oC
ล ท Condenser ท่ กบ 40oC ล รท คว ม ยนท กจ ก Evaporator ปน
ร้ นยงยวด (Superheated Vapor) ม ณ ภม พมขน 5oC ก่ นทจ ข้ คร ง ด
(Compressor) จงค นวณ ค่ h ทจดต่ ง (A, B, C, C , D, D ล E)?
ร บบ คร งท คว ม ยนท งกลร บบ นง ช้ รท คว ม ยน ปน R-12 มมตว่

ร บบนท ง น บบ Simple Saturated Cycle ณ ภมท Evaporator ท่ กบ -5oC
ล ท Condenser ท่ กบ 40oC ถ้ รคว ม ยนท กจ ก คร งควบ น่ น
(Condenser) ม ณ ภมต กว่ ข ง ลว มตว 5oC (Subcooled liquid) ก่ นทจ ป
ท Expansion Valve จงค นวณ ค่ h ทจดต่ ง (A, A , B, B , C, D ล E)?
70
Exercise (Cont.)
ร บบ คร งท คว ม ยนท งกลร บบ นง ช้ รท คว ม ยน R-12 มมต
ว่ ร บบนท ง น บบ Simple Saturated Cycle ณ ภมท Evaporator
ท่ กบ -5oC ล ท Condenser ท่ กบ 40oC ถ้ รคว ม ยนท กจ ก
คร งควบ น่ น (Condenser) ผ่ น ข้ ป น Liquid Suction Heat
Exchanger ปนผลท ้ รคว ม ยนท กม ม ณ ภมต กว่ ข ง ลว
มตว (Saturated Liquid) 5oC มมตว่ ม่ มก ร ญ ยคว มร้ น จง
ค นวณ
ค่ คว มร้ นท รคว ม ยน (Refrigerant Vapor) ดด ว้ ท
Heat Exchanger (hC hC)?
ค่ ณ ภม TA ล TC ?
71
Exercise (Cont.)
คร งท คว ม ยนขน ด 15 kW ช้ล
R-12 ปน รท คว ม ยน ณ ภมท คร งควบ น่ น
(Condenser) ท่ กบ 35 C ล ณ ภมท Evaporator ท่ กบ 20oC รคว ม ยนท ก
o
จ ก Condenser ม ณ ภมต กว่ ข ง ลว มตว ( Subcooled Liquid) 5oC ก่ นทจ ข้

ว ล์วขย ยตว (Expansion Valve) ล รคว ม ยนท กจ ก Evaporator ปน ร้ น
ยวดยง (Superheated Vapor) 10oC ก่ นทจ ผ่ นลนด้ นดดข ง คร ง ด (Compressor)
ถ้ คว มดนด้ นดด (Suction) ลดลง 0.2 bar ล คว มดนด้ นท ง ก (Discharge) ลดลง
0.5 bar พ ้ รคว ม ยนท กจ กลนท ง ก (Discharge Valve) มคว มดน ท่ กบ
=
น คร งควบ น่ น (Condenser)
-
มมตว่ ก ร ด รคว ม ยน ปน บบ Isentropic ล
คว มดนลดลง ปน ปต มกร บวนก ร Throttling Process (Enthalpy คงท)
จง ขยนวงจรข งร บบ พร้ ม ดงจดต่ ง (A, B, C, D, E ล น ) ลงบน P-h
diagram ข ง R-12
จง ตร① ก ร ล ดยมวลทง มดข ง รท คว ม ยน (m)
(QC) น น่ วล
-
จง ปรม ณคว มร้ นทง มดทค ย กท Condenser

- ย kW
%
จง ตร ก ร ล ดยปรม ตรทง มด (V ) น น่ วย L/s
-
จง ค่ C.O.P
(
72
#Good
#Author:
#Al
&
Refrigeration and Air Conditioning
Refrigeration
Components
73
Content
Evaporators
Types of Evaporators
Chillers
Condensers
Types of Condensers
Cooling Towers
Expansion devices
Thermostatic Expansion Valve
74
Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Components
F E condenser D C
pressure
expansion
device compressor
A evaporator B
enthalpy
75
Evaporators
An evaporator is any heat transfer surface in which a volatile
liquid is vaporized for the purpose of removing heat from a
refrigerated space of product.
Evaporator may be classified in a number of different ways such
as: Type of construction
Method of liquid feed
Operating condition
Method of air (or liquid) circulation,
Type of refrigerant control
Applications
76
Types of construction
There are normally 3 types of evaporator construction:
- Bare-tube - Plate-surface - Finned
Both bare-tube and plate-surface evaporators are classified as prime-surface
evaporators in that the entire surface of these types is in contact with the
vaporizing refrigerant inside.
Bar-tube evaporators are usually constructed of either steel pipe or copper tubing.
Bare-tube: Flat zigzag coil Bare-tube: Oval trombone coil 77

For the finned evaporator, the fins are not filled with refrigerant and are only
secondary surface in that they pick up heat from the air and conduct it to the
refrigerant-carrying tubes. The fins have the effect of increasing the outside
surface area of the evaporator, thus improving its efficiency for cooling air.
Plate evaporator Finned evaporator, FCU 79

Finned-Tube Evaporator
A finned-tube evaporator includes rows of tubes passing through sheets
of formed fins.
Cool, liquid refrigerant flows through the tubes, cooling the tube and fin
surfaces.
As air passes through the coil and comes into contact with the cold fin
surfaces, heat is transferred from the air to the refrigerant, causing the
refrigerant to boil and leave the evaporator as vapor.
Liquid/vapor
refrigerant
Airflow
Refrigerant vapor 80
Evaporator Capacity
Evaporator capacity is the rate at which heat will pass through the
evaporator walls from the space or product to the vaporizing liquid
inside by conduction and is influenced by:
Temperature difference between refrigerant and air or water being cooled
Flow rate of air or water through evaporator
Flow rate of refrigerant through evaporator
Q = U x A x LMTD
Q : Quantity of heat transferred (evaporator capacity)
A : Outside surface area of the evaporator
U : Overall conductance factor
LMTD: Logarithmic mean temperature difference 82
Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference
Assuming that the drop in temperature
occurs at a constant rate as the air
passes through the coil, the
temperature reduction of the air is
represented by a straight line (dashed
line).
Practically, the drop in air temperature
is greatest across the first row of the
coil and reduce as the air passes across
each succeeding row. Thus the actual
drop in air temperature is shown by a
solid curved line.
83
Mean temperature difference of both lines may be calculated by:
(TE TR ) + (TL TR )
MD = TL TE
2 TR
Note that MD is slightly different from LMTD
(TE TR ) (TL TR )
LMTD =
(T TR )
ln E
(TL TR )
TE : Temperature of the air entering the coil

TL : Temperature of the air leaving the coil
TR : Temperature of the refrigerant in the tubes
MD : Arithmetic mean temperature difference
LMTD : Logarithmic mean temperature difference
or Mean effective temperature difference (METD) 84
Mean temperature difference of both lines may be calculated by:
Evaporator Circuiting
To avoid unnecessary losses in compressor capacity and efficiency, it is
desirable to design the evaporator so that the refrigerant experiences a
minimum drop in pressure. (2 or 3 psi.)
A certain amount of pressure drop is required, however, to flow the refrigerant
through the evaporator.
The drop in pressure must be sufficient to ensure refrigerant velocities high
enough to sweep the tube surface free of vapor bubbles.
Good design of the evaporator circuiting is required to provide the minimum
necessary pressure drop to produce sufficient refrigerant velocities.
The drop in pressure through any one evaporator circuit will generally depend
on :
The side of the tube
The length of the circuit
The circuit load (the time rate of heat flow through the tube walls of
the circuit). 86
The circuit load determines the quantity of refrigerant that must pass through
the circuit per unit time.
The greater the amount of refrigerant flowing through the circuit, the greater
will be the pressure drop.
For a given tube size, the greater the load on the circuit, the shorter the circuit
must be in order to avoid excessive pressure drop.
To reduce the pressure drop through the evaporator, the appropriate circuit
arrangement is required.
Refrigerant distributor and

Single series circuit Split refrigerant circuit suction header (widely used)87
Parallel Circuits
To provide uniform heat transfer throughout the coil, the liquid refrigerant is
distributed to the coil tubes in several parallel circuits.
A distributor is used to ensure uniform refrigerant distribution through these
multiple coil circuits.
The refrigerant vapor leaves the coil tubes and collects in a suction header.
Liquid/Vapor refrigerant
Airflow
Liquid
distributor
Suction header
Refrigerant vapor
88
Face-Split Arrangement
When an evaporator contains more than one liquid-refrigerant distributor, it
is split into independently-controlled sections, each being served by its own
expansion valve.
The three common arrangements for splitting finned-tube evaporator coils
include: Face-split
Intertwined
Row-split
The face-split coil configuration, also called horizontal-split or parallel-
flow, is split into parallel sections.
The intertwined coil configuration splits the coil sections by alternating
the tubes fed in each row between two distributors.
the row-split coil configuration, also called vertical-split or series-flow,
places the independently-controlled coil sections in series in the
airstream. 89
Coil Arrangements
Distributors
Face-split or Horizontal-split Intertwined
Row-split or Vertical-split 90
Methods of Refrigerant Feed
Based on the methods of liquid feed, the evaporators can be classified as:
- Dry-expansion - Liquid overfeed - Flooded
With the dry-expansion evaporator, the amount of liquid refrigerant fed into the
evaporator is limited to that which can be completely vaporized by the time it
reaches the end of the evaporator.
Dry-expansion
91
A liquid overfeed evaporator is one wherein the amount of liquid
refrigerant circulated through the evaporator is considerably in
excess of that which can be vaporized.
The excess liquid is separated from the vapor in a low-pressure
accumulator and recirculated to the evaporator while the vapor
is drawn off to the compressor suction.
Liquid overfeed
92
The full-flooded method is operated completely filled with liquid refrigerant,
thus, proving the greatest amount of interior wetted tube surface and the
highest possible heat transfer rate.
An accumulator serves as a reservoir from which the refrigerant is circulated
by gravity through the evaporator circuits.
A low-side or high-side float control maintains the liquid level in the
accumulator.
The vapor generated by the boiling action of the refrigerant in the tubes is
separated from the liquid in the upper part of the accumulator. Therefore, the
flash gas resulting from the reduction of pressure never enters the heat
transfer portion of the evaporator.
93
Liquid-Chilling Evaporators
There are 5 general types of liquid chillers that are commonly used:
Double-pipe cooler
Baudelot cooler
Tank-type cooler
Shell-and-coil cooler
Shell-and-tube chiller (the most widely used type)
Double-Pipe Cooler Shell-and-Tube Chiller

94
Direct Expansion Evaporator
For the direct expansion (DX) shell-and-tube evaporator, low-pressure liquid
refrigerant flows through the tubes and water fills the surrounding shell.
As heat is transferred from the water to the refrigerant, the refrigerant boils
inside the tubes and the resulting vapor is drawn to the compressor.
Chilled
water
supply Chilled
Baffles water
return
Refrigerant vapor
Liquid
refrigerant
Tube bundle
95
Flooded Shell-and-Tube Evaporator
Low-pressure liquid refrigerant enters the distribution system inside the shell and is
distributed uniformly over the tubes , absorbing heat from relatively warm water that
flows through the tubes.
This transfer of heat boils the film of liquid refrigerant on the tube surfaces and the
resulting vapor is drawn back to the compressor.
Refrigerant vapor Chilled
Liquid water
refrigerant supply
Tube bundle
Chilled
water
return Liquid level sensor
96
Packaged Chillers
Centrifugal Water-Cooled Water Chiller
Compressor Motor
Condenser
Starter
Control
panel
Evaporator
Air-Cooled Water Chiller
97
Coolers
Thermoelectric Cooler
CPU Refrigeration Cooler

98
Condensers
The condenser, like the evaporator, is a heat transfer surface.
Heat from the hot refrigerant vapor passes through the walls of the
condenser to the condensing medium.
The refrigerant vapor is first cooled to saturation and then condensed
into the liquid state.
The major condensing medium employed is either air or water, or a
combination of both.
Condensers are of three general types:
Air-cooled Condenser
Water-cooled Condenser
Evaporative (using both air and water)
99
Condenser Capacity
Condenser capacity is influenced by:
Temperature difference between refrigerant and cooling media
(air, water, or both)
Flow rate of cooling media through condenser
Flow rate of refrigerant through condenser
Q = U x A x LMTD
Q : Quantity of heat transferred (condenser capacity)

A : Outside surface area of the condenser
U : Overall conductance factor
LMTD: Logarithmic mean temperature difference
100
Quantity and Temperature Rise of Condensing Medium
In both air-cooled and water-cooled condensers, the heat given off by
the condensing refrigerant increases the temperature of the condensing
medium.
The temperature rise of the condensing medium (∆T) is computed by
Qc
T=
(m )(c)
Qc: Heat rejected at the condenser (kW)
m : Mass flow rate of air or water (kg/s)
c : Specific heat of the condensing medium (kJ/kg oK)
101
Temperature Rise of Condensing Medium
In practice, the quantities of air and water are expressed in m3/s or L/s.
The average specific heat values of air and water are:
c (air) = 1.02 kJ/ kg oK
c (water) = 4.19 kJ/ kg oK
The densities of air ( air) and water ( water) are:
= 1.19 kg/m 3
air
water = 1 k g/L
Qc Qc
Tair = Twater =
1.21 V 4.19 m
NOTE: The unit of V and m are in m3/s and L/s respectively.

102
Air-Cooled Condensers
A typical air-cooled condenser uses propeller-type fans to draw outdoor air over
a finned-tube heat transfer surface.
The temperature difference between the hot refrigerant vapor that is flowing
through the tubes and the cooler outdoor air induces heat transfer.
The resulting reduction in the heat content of the refrigerant vapor causes it to
condense into liquid.
Within the final few lengths of condenser tubing (the subcooler), the liquid
refrigerant is further cooled below the temperature at which it was condensed.
Propeller
fan
Outdoor
air
Condenser
coil 103
Subcooler
Condenser
coil
Centrifugal
fan
Centrifugal Fan Air-Cooled Condenser
104
Water-Cooled Condensers
The shell-and-tube is the most common type of water-cooled condenser. With
this design, water is pumped through the tubes while the refrigerant vapor fills
the shell space surrounding the tubes.
As heat is transferred from the refrigerant to the water, the refrigerant vapor
condenses on the tube surfaces.
The condensed liquid refrigerant then falls to the bottom of the shell, where it
flows through an enclosure that contains additional tubes (the subcooler).
More heat is transferred from the liquid refrigerant to the water inside these
tubes, subcooling the refrigerant.
Hot, refrigerant vapor
95ºF
[35ºC]
Cooling water
85ºF
[29ºC]
Subcooler
Subcooled, liquid refrigerant 105
Refrigerant vapor
Baffle
Cooling
Subcooler
tower
water Liquid
refrigerant
Tube bundle
106
Cooling Towers
Propeller Sprays
fan
Filler
Outdoor
air
Sump
85ºF to from 95ºF
[29ºC] condenser condenser [35ºC]
107
A cooling tower is a device commonly used to cool condensing water.
Warm water is sprayed over fill in the cooling tower while a propeller fan
draws outdoor air upward through the fill.
The movement of air through the spray causes some of the water to
evaporate, a process that cools the remaining water. This cooled water
then falls to the tower sump to be returned to the condenser.
The evaporation process uses up water to dissipate heat. As the water
evaporates, the dissolved minerals and water treatment chemicals become
concentrated in the sump.
To prevent this solution from becoming concentrated and possibly
corrosive, water is periodically bled from the sump and an equal amount
of fresh water is added.
108
The effectiveness of the cooling tower depends upon:
The web bulb temperature of the entering air
The amount of exposed water surface and the length of time of
exposure
The velocity of the air passing through the tower
The direction of the air flow with relation to the exposed water surface
- Parallel - Transverse - Counter
The temperature of the water leaving the tower will usually be 7-10 oC
above the web bulb temperature of the entering air.
The difference between the temperature of the water leaving the tower
and the wet bulb temperature of the entering air is called the Approach
of the tower
The temperature difference between the entering and leaving water is
called the Range of the tower.
109
Vary Condenser Water and Air Flow Rates
Cooling tower
Condenser Variable-
speed drive
Variable-speed
drive
Cooling tower
Condenser
110
Evaporative Condensers
Fan
Refrigerant vapor
Condenser coil
Pump
sump
Liquid refrigerant Subcooler
111
A modification of the air-cooled condenser is the evaporative condenser.
Within this device, the refrigerant flows through tubes and air is drawn or
blown over the tubes by a fan. And water is sprayed on the tube surfaces.
As the air passes over the coil, it causes a small portion of the water to
evaporate. This evaporation process absorbs heat from the coil, causing the
refrigerant vapor within the tubes to condense. The remaining water then
falls to the sump to be recirculated and used again.
Subcooling of the refrigerant can be accomplished by piping the condensed
liquid back through another few rows of coil tubing, located either in the
condenser air stream or in the water sump, where additional heat transfer
reduces the temperature of the liquid refrigerant.
112
Expansion Devices
An expansion device is used to maintain a pressure difference between
the high-pressure (condenser) and low-pressure (evaporator) sides of the
system established by the compressor.
This pressure difference allows the evaporator temperature to be low
enough to absorb heat from the air or water to be cooled, while also
allowing the refrigerant to be at a high enough temperature in the
condenser to reject heat to air or water at normally available
temperatures.
There are several types of expansion devices, including expansion valves
(thermostatic or electronic), capillary tubes, and orifices.
Thermostatic expansion valves (TXVs) are commonly used and perform
essentially the same function as other expansion devices. 113
Thermostatic Expansion Valve (TXV)
thermostatic
expansion valve
(TXV)
liquid
evaporator refrigerant
liquid/vapor
mixture
A
refrigerant
vapor
In addition to maintaining a pressure difference, the thermostatic expansion

valve controls the quantity of liquid refrigerant entering the evaporator.
It ensures that the refrigerant will be completely vaporized within the
evaporator (A) and maintains the proper amount of superheat in the system.
114
TXV Operation Diaphragm
Evaporator
Spring
Remote
bulb
Suction
line external equalizer Distributor
The outlet of the valve is connected to the distributor. A remote bulb is
attached to the suction line, where it senses the refrigerant vapor temperature
leaving the evaporator. This bulb is charged with refrigerant and as heat is
transferred from the suction line to the bulb, the refrigerant inside the bulb
vaporizes. The resulting refrigerant vapor pressure is transmitted through a
tube to the space above a diaphragm in the TXV.
The pressure of the refrigerant vapor leaving the evaporator is transmitted to
the space beneath the diaphragm through an external equalizing line that is
tapped into the suction line downstream of the bulb.
Finally, the valve contains an adjustable spring that applies a force to the
lower side of the diaphragm. 115
valve diaphragm
Assuming the 9.4°C 0.67 MPa
refrigerant vapor 94ºC spring

leaving the evaporator
boils the refrigerant in 0.54 MPa
0.54 MPa 0.13 MPa
the bulb, generating suction valve pin
0.67 MPa of pressure line
within the remote bulb.
This pressure is transmitted to the top side of the valve diaphragm, creating a
force that pushes down on the diaphragm.
The 0.54 MPa evaporating pressure, on the other hand, is transmitted to the
bottom side of the valve diaphragm, producing an opposing force.
Since the difference between the evaporator pressure and the pressure within
the remote bulb is due to superheat, the tension of the spring is adjusted to
provide the difference in order to balance the forces and produce the desired
amount of superheat. In this example, the spring tension is adjusted to produce
an 0.13 MPa pressure difference, which corresponds to 6.7°C of superheat.
Any variation in evaporator pressure causes these forces to vary from this 116
equilibrium and move the pin up or down, thus closing or opening the valve.
Performance of
Reciprocating
Compressors
117
Content
o Types of Compressors
o Compression Cycle of Reciprocating

Compressors
o Refrigerating Capacity
o Compressor Power
118
Types of Compressors
Four types of compressors used in the air-conditioning industry:
- Reciprocating - Scroll
- Helical-rotary (or Screw) - Centrifugal
The reciprocating compressor has been the one most frequently
used in the refrigeration industry.
The traditional reciprocating compressor contains cylinders,
pistons, rods, a crankshaft, and valves.
– Refrigerant is drawn into the cylinders on the downstroke of
the piston and compressed on the upstroke.
Reciprocating, scroll, and helical-rotary work on the principle of
trapping the refrigerant vapor and compressing it by gradually
shrinking the volume of the refrigerant.
Centrifugal compressors uses centrifugal force, generated by a
rotating impeller, to compress the refrigerant vapor.
Scroll Compressor
The scroll compressor uses two scroll Stationary
scroll
configurations, mated face-to-face, to
perform the compression process.
The upper scroll, called the stationary Discharge
scroll, contains a discharge port. The port
lower scroll, called the driven scroll, is
Driven
connected to a motor by a shaft and scroll
bearing assembly.
Discharge
The refrigerant vapor enters through
the outer edge of the scroll assembly
and discharges through the port at the Intake Intake
center of the stationary scroll. Motor
shaft 120
This orbiting motion causes the mated scrolls Intake
to form pockets of refrigerant vapor. Discharge
As the orbiting motion continues, the relative port
movement between the orbiting scroll and the
stationary scroll causes the pockets to move
toward the discharge port at the center of the
Intake
assembly, gradually decreasing the
refrigerant volume and increasing the
pressure. Dome
Refrigerant vapor enters through the suction Discharge
opening. The refrigerant then passes through Scrolls opening
a gap in the motor.
The refrigerant vapor is drawn into the
scroll assembly where it is compressed, Motor
discharged into the dome, and finally Suction
discharged out of the compressor through the opening
discharge opening. 121
Helical-Rotary (Screw)
Compressor
The helical-rotary compressor traps the refrigerant
vapor and compresses it by gradually shrinking the
volume of the refrigerant.
This helical-rotary compressor design uses two
mating screw-like rotors to perform the
compression process.
The rotors are meshed and fit, with very close
tolerances, within the compressor housing. Female rotor
Only the male rotor is driven by the Male rotor
compressor motor. The lobes of the male
Housing
rotor engage and drive the female rotor,
causing the two parts to counter-rotate.
122
Intake
port
Discharge
port
Pocket of
refrigerant vapor
Refrigerant vapor enters the compressor housing through the intake port and fills the
pockets formed by the lobes of the rotors.
After the pockets of refrigerant travel past the intake port area, the vapor, still at suction
pressure, is confined within the pockets by the compressor housing.
Continuing rotation of the meshed rotor lobes drives the trapped refrigerant vapor (to the
right), toward the discharge end of the compressor. This action progressively reduces the
volume of the pockets, compressing the refrigerant.
Finally, when the pockets of refrigerant reach the discharge port, the compressed vapor is
released and the rotors force the remaining refrigerant from the pockets. 123
Suction
opening
Slide valve
Motor
Rotors
Discharge
opening
In this example helical-rotary compressor, refrigerant vapor is

drawn into the compressor through the suction opening and
passes through the motor, cooling it.
The refrigerant vapor is drawn into the compressor rotors where
it is compressed and discharged out of the compressor. 124
Centrifugal Compressor
Volute
Impeller
Diffuser
passages
Radial
impeller passages
Blades Impeller
The centrifugal compressor uses the principle of dynamic compression, which
involves converting kinetic energy (velocity) to static energy (pressure),
increasing the pressure and temperature of the refrigerant.
The core component of a centrifugal compressor is the rotating impeller.
The center of the impeller is fitted with blades that draw refrigerant vapor into
radial passages that are internal to the impeller body.
The rotation of the impeller causes the refrigerant vapor to accelerate within
these passages, increasing its velocity and kinetic energy. 125
The accelerated refrigerant vapor leaves the impeller and enters the diffuser
passages. These passages start out small and become larger as the refrigerant
travels through them.
As the size of the diffuser passage increases, the kinetic energy of the refrigerant
decreases. Thus, the refrigerant s kinetic energy (velocity) is converted to static
energy (or static pressure).
Refrigerant, now at a higher pressure, collects in a larger space around the
perimeter of the compressor called the volute. The volute also becomes larger as
the refrigerant travels through it.
Motor
Inlet
vanes
Centrifugal compressor with multiple impellers

Suction Impeller
126
Reciprocating Compressor
Cylinder Headspace
Suction opening
Discharge opening
Piston
Rod
Motor Crankshaft
The refrigerant vapor from the suction line enters the compressor through the suction
opening. It is then compressed by a piston that is located inside a cylinder.
The piston is connected to the crankshaft by a rod. As the crankshaft rotates, it causes
the piston to travel back and forth inside the cylinder. This motion is used to draw
refrigerant vapor into the cylinder, compress it, and discharge it from the cylinder.
A pair of valves, the suction valve and the discharge valve, are used to trap the
refrigerant vapor within the cylinder during the compression process.
The compressed refrigerant travels through the headspace, and leaves the compressor
through the discharge opening.
Most reciprocating compressors have multiple piston cylinder pairs attached to a
single crankshaft. 127
Types of Reciprocating Compressors
Open compressor
Open compressor is driven by an
external power source, such as an
electric motor. The motor is
coupled to the compressor Housing
crankshaft by a flexible coupling. Compressor
crankshaft
Hermetic compressor Hermetic compressor seals the

motor within the compressor
Housing
housing. Hermetic compressors
Motor eliminate the need for the shaft
couplings and external shaft seals
Compressor
piston that are associated with open
motors. 128
The motor for a semi-hermetic compressor is also contained within
he c e h i g. The e e i-he e ic ea ha he
sealed housing is designed to be opened to repair or overhaul the
compressor or motor.
Semi-hermetic compressor
Piston
Compressor
Motor crankshaft
Housing
129
Compression Cycle of
Reciprocating Compressor
(a) Piston at top dead center (b) Suction stroke
(c) Piston at bottom dead center (d) Discharge stroke 130

Typical Compression Cycle
Suction stroke
Compression stroke
Theoretical time - pressure (T-p) diagram
131
At point A, the piston is at the top of its stroke (top dead center (a)).
At this position, a small volume of clearance between the top of the piston and the
valve plate is called the clearance volume.
Both the suction and discharge valves are closed at this position.
The high pressure of the vapor trapped in the clearance space, known as the
clearance vapor, acts upward on the suction valves and holds them closed against the
pressure of the suction vapor in the suction line.
Because the pressure of the vapor in the head of the compressor is approximately the
same as that of the vapor in the clearance volume, the discharge valves are held
closed either by their own weight or by light spring-loading.
Discharge
valve
Suction
valve
132
The piston moves downward on the suction stroke (b).
The high-pressure vapor trapped in the clearance space is allowed to expand.
The expansion takes place along line A-B so that the pressure in the cylinder decreases
as the volume of the clearance vapor increases.
When the pressure of the reexpanded clearance vapor in the cylinder becomes slightly
less than the pressure of vapor in the suction line, the suction valves are forced open by
the higher pressure in the suction line.
The refrigerant vapor from the suction line flows into the cylinder.
Discharge
valve
Suction
valve
Refrigerant Piston
vapor
Rod
Cylinder 133
The flow of suction vapor into the cylinder begins when the
suction valves open at point B and continues until the piston
reaches the bottom of its stroke (bottom dead center (c)) at
point C.
During the time that the piston is moving from B to C, the
cylinder is filled with suction vapor and the pressure in the
cylinder remains constant at the suction pressure.
At point C, the suction valves close, usually by spring action.
134
The pressure of the vapor in the cylinder increases along line C-D as the piston moves
upward on the compression stroke.
By the time the piston reaches point D, the pressure of the vapor in the cylinder has
been increased until it is higher than the pressure of the vapor in the head of the
compressor and the discharge valves are forced open.
The high-pressure vapor passes from the cylinder into the hot-gas line through the
discharge valves.
The flow of the vapor through the discharge valves continues as the piston moves from
D to A while the pressure in the cylinder remains constant at the discharge pressure.
When the piston returns to point A, the compression cycle is completed and the
crankshaft of the compressor has rotated one complete revolution.
Headspace
Discharge
valve
Suction
valve
Discharge
opening
135
Piston Displacement (Vp)
The Piston Displacement (Vp) of a reciprocating compressor is the total
cylinder volume swept through by the piston in any certain time interval,
usually expressed in L/s.
For any single-acting of a reciprocating compressor, the piston
displacement is computed by:
Vp = /4 x D2 xL 0.7854 * D2* L * N * n
Vp =
1,000
where Vp: Piston displacement (L/s)

D: Diameter of the cylinder (cm)
L: Length of stroke (cm)
N: Revolution of the crankshaft (rps) 136
Theoretical Refrigerating Capacity of
Compressor
Theoretical refrigerating capacity of the compressor = m q e
m : Mass of refrigerant circulated per unit time (kg/s)

q e : Refrigerating effect per unit mass circulated (kJ/kg)
Assume that the compressor is 100% efficiency and that the
cylinder of the compressor fills completely with suction vapor from
the suction line with each downstroke of the piston:
The volume of vapor drawn into the cylinder and compressed per
unit time will be exactly equal to the piston displacement (Vp).
137
The mass of refrigerant circulated by the compressor per unit time is
calculated by:
m = Vp * OR m = Vp /
where Vp : Piston displacement (L/s)

: Density of the suction vapor at the compressor inlet (kg/L)
: Specific volume of the suction vapor at the compressor
inlet (L/kg)
138
Actual Refrigerating Capacity
The actual refrigerating capacity of a compressor is always less than
that of the theoretical refrigerating capacity due to:
The compressibility of the refrigerant vapor and the mechanical
clearance between the piston and the valve plate of the compressor
(clearance volume) that cause the volume of suction vapor filling the
cylinder during the suction stroke to be less than the piston displacement
of the compressor (VP).
The density (ρ) of the vapor filling the cylinder is lower than the density
of the vapor in the suction line.
Actual Refrigerating Capacity = Theoretical Refrigerating Capacity * (Ev / 100)
where Ev : Total volumetric efficiency of the compressor (%)
139
Total Volumetric Efficiency of the Compressor
Total volumetric efficiency of the compressor (Ev) is calculated

by:
Va
Ev = * 100
Vp
where E v : Total volumetric efficiency of the compressor (%)

Va : Actual volume of suction vapor compressed per unit
time (L/s)
Vp : Piston displacement (L/s)
140
Compression Ratio (R)
The compression ratio (R) is calculated by:
Absolute disch arg e pressure
R=
Absolute suction pressure
For a compressor of any given clearance, the volumetric efficiency

varies inversely with the compression ratio (i.e., when the
compression ratio is increased, the volumetric efficiency of the
compressor decreases).
141
Factors Influencing Total Volumetric Efficiency
The factors that tend to limit the volume of

suction vapor compressed per working stroke,
thereby determining the volumetric efficiency of
the compressor, are the following:
Compressor clearance
Wiredrawing
Cylinder heating
Valve and piston leakage
142
Effect of Clearance on Volumetric Efficiency
Theoretical Pressure -
Volume (p-V) Diagram
Since the vapor left in the clearance space has been compressed to the discharge
pressure and it must be reexpanded to the suction pressure before the vapor in
the suction line can flow into the cylinder, the suction vapor will fill only that part
of the cylinder volume that is not already filled with the reexpanded clearance
vapor, which is the difference between Vc and Vb.
143
Effect of Clearance on Volumetric Efficiency (Cont.)
If the clearance volume of the compressor is increased, the percentage of
the high-pressure vapor remaining in the cylinder at the end of each stroke
will be increased; therefore, the volume of suction vapor taken in per
stroke will be less than that of smaller clearance volume.
To obtain maximum volumetric efficiency, the clearance volume of a vapor
compressor should be kept as small as possible.
If the discharge pressure is increased, the vapor in the clearance will be
compressed to a higher pressure and a greater amount of reexpansion will
be required, thus reducing the volumetric efficiency of the compressor.
If the suction pressure is lowered, the clearance vapor must experience a
greater reexpansion in expanding to the lower pressure before the suction
valves will open, thus decreasing the volumetric efficiency of the
144
Effects of Wiredrawing
Wi ed a i g i defi ed a a restriction of area for a flowing fluid that
causes a loss in pressure by (internal and external) friction without the loss of
heat or performance of work; throttling .
Wiredrawing is generally a function of the velocity of the refrigerant vapor
flowing through the valves and passages of the compressor. As the velocity
of the vapor through the valves is increased, the effect of wiredrawing
increases.
Since the suction vapor experiences a mild drop in pressure as it flows
through the suction valves, the pressure of the suction vapor filling the
cylinder is always less than the pressure of the vapor in the suction line.
The volume of suction vapor taken in from the suction line each stroke is
less than if the vapor filling the cylinder was at the suction line pressure,
reducing the volumetric efficiency of the compressor.
145
Since a pressure differential is required across the discharge valves to
cause the discharge valve to open, the vapor in the cylinder must be
compressed to a pressure higher than the actual condensing pressure. As
a result, the clearance vapor must suffer a greater reexpansion than if it
had been compressed only to the condensing pressure, decreasing the
volumetric efficiency of the compressor.
Theoretical Pressure - Volume

(p-V) Diagram
From the p-V diagram, the areas above line p2 and below line p1
represent the increased work of the cycle due to wiredrawing.
146
Effects of Cylinder Heating
The suction vapor entering the compressor cylinder is heated by heat
conducted from the hot cylinder walls and by friction resulting partly from
the turbulence of the vapor in the cylinder.
The heating of the suction vapor in the compressor cylinder tends to
reduce the volumetric efficiency of the compressor.
The heating causes the vapor to expand after entering the cylinder so that
a smaller mass of vapor will fill the cylinder and thereby still further
reduce the volume of vapor taken in from the suction line.
Cylinder heating increases as the compression ratio increases.
At high compression ratios, the work of compression is greater and the
discharge temperature is higher, causing the rise in the temperature of the
cylinder walls and other compressor parts. 147
Effects of Piston and Valve Leakage
Any back leakage of gas through either the suction or discharge valves
or around the piston will decrease the volume of vapor pumped by the
compressor, reducing the volumetric efficiency of the compressor.
As the pressure in the cylinder is lowered at the beginning of the
suction stroke, a small amount of high-pressure vapor in the head of
the compressor will leak back into the cylinder before the discharge
valves can close tightly.
At the start of the compression stroke, some of the vapor in the
cylinder will flow back through the suction valves into the suction line
before the suction valves can close.
The amount of back leakage through the valves is a function of the
compression ratio and the speed of the compressor (i.e., the higher the
compression ratio, the greater the amount of the valve leakage). 148
Determination of the Total Volumetric Efficiency
Relationship between
the compression ratio
and the volumetric
efficiency of halocarbon
compressor 5-25 hp
The total volumetric efficiency of a compressor can be determined with

accuracy only by actual testing of the compressor in the laboratory.
The volumetric efficiency of any one compressor is primarily a function of
the compression ratio and remains practically constant regardless of the
operating range. 149
Theoretical Compressor Power
Theoretical power (PT) is the theoretical power required to drive the
compressor.
It is only an indication of the power that would be required by a 100%
efficient compressor operating on an ideal compression cycle.
It does not represent the total power that must be delivered to the shaft
of the compressor.
Theoretical power (PT) = Actual refrigerating capacity of the compressor *
Theoretical power required per unit capacity or per kW
~
PT = (m qe ) * (E v / 100) *C
mq w<
1
1kW
m = Vp /· m=
qe
150
Actual Compressor Power Requirements
The total power that must be supplied to the shaft of the compressor is called
the shaft power (PS).
PT
Eo = * 100
Ps
where Eo = Overall efficiency ( %)

PT = Theoretical power
PS = Shaft power
The overall efficiency (Eo) is sometimes broken down into two components:
the compression efficiency (Ec) and the mechanical efficiency (Em)
Eo = Ec * Em
151
The compression efficiency of the compressor is a measure of the losses
resulting from the deviation of the actual compression cycle from the ideal
compression cycle.
The mechanical efficiency of the compressor is a measure of the losses
resulting from the mechanical friction in the compressor.
For any one compressor, the compression efficiency is roughly the same as
the volumetric efficiency.
The shaft power (Ps) required per unit of refrigerating capacity can be
approximately by dividing the theoretical power per unit capacity by the
volumetric efficiency of the compressor (Ev) and
> then adding about 10% to
offset the power loss due to the mechanical friction in the compressor.
-
mq w * 1.1
Ps =
Ev
152
Exercise
-ameter #
คร ง ด บบลก บ (Reciprocating Compressor) จ นวน 3 บ มนทคว ม รวร บ
1,500 ร บ/น ท ถ้ ้ นผ่ น นย์ กล งข งลก บ ท่ กบ 5 cm ล ร ย ชก ท่ กบ 5 cm
ถ้ คร ง ดน ช้ กบ รท คว ม ยน R-12 ณ ภมท Evaporator ล Condenser
ท่ กบ 10oC ล 40oC ต มล ดบ จงค นวณ
ตร ก ร ล ดยมวลข ง รท คว ม ยนทผ่ น คร ง ด (kg/s)
คว ม ม รถข งก รท คว ม ยนท งทฤ ฎข ง คร ง ด& (Theoretical refrigerating
capacity of the compressor,
- kW) = >
คว ม ม รถข งก รท คว ม ยนท ปนจรงข ง คร ง ด (Actual refrigerating capacity

of the compressor, kW)
=พลงง นต มทฤ ฎท ช้ นก รขบ คร ง ด (Theoretical Power, PT)
↳
พลงง นท ช้ นก ร มน พล ข ง คร ง ด (Shaft Power, Ps) ถ้ ค่ ปร ทธภ พ ดยรวม

ข ง คร ง ด (Eo) ท่ กบ 75%
หม ย หต: มมตว่ ร บบก รท คว ม ยนน ปน บบ ด ย่ งง่ ย (Simple Saturated

Vapor-Compression Cycle)
153
&ร 0.0983hg.
/
DO5CM
no 0.000
milleg. @ Gin 01.45 3k
Ho3,
IDYLEN = #
up:
'
# 100
(55101024)
comp Upo =(5 +
c
Up ธ
7.363x10 m↓/ ↳ 7.363
#pring
0.09817
7.363 / /5
#" - P
Lig #
↳
leg
1ธ (0,078 103)
<
>
-
Cors-supatter#res
#
#womChanelcoloans
->> Evo #Vs 5 :3554
/-Pre -
1.032
mil-
+ 10
The lo
vp 7,363
tvo War (
<
U #US)+355 7.363
Er ธ Evo 1,0321 + 10 <100

5 0.1032f
พๆ: 2.532110 - N
Can · EV/
100) - (#0321 =( 2.4543)
is
of(hige) = ( Er
1100) 8 miaw? 37B 3 4
Pyo Co. 0943) ( 347- 240)

x ( 0 1 - 431- - (
ke
ood / -
Pet 2.53x10* Hom 34
24
3.3736< 10 "
1to
of tr #
2.53 x 10 5 0.75 & Pos
ewp
7.363
Events.
%
ค่
R12 xxL=#
①Up. #
2 - (5
#- mio ( kin * (5 +1024)
Up . #
+ 10 -
Pe
4,54124011Jllg
9ม
<
# & -
2
· >
! ⑨ 9n
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# !
31
!
373
⑧
925 373- 345
ล
- 28//er
#ร
·
uper.
# / 925 344 -192.
& 900 w
Er w Va 1 100%
=
Er ธ
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&
·
P
update
try 1500 =3
60 2 1000)
cm
5
EvoU
<
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Upoo"
ทาง toms
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ส 9. 2 x 10-
5
s
tag Is
overpris
Er ส
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②
Promise ) * ( Ev/
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Uso ( 0.08)
> 9.2220-
-
Pyo 19.2 x10- 3) ( 152 hN

US 5
9.2210- < 6,08
ธ 7.36 - 105 MP/S ,
Evo 7.363110 - - 7.36 10
UIPpr -
7.36 +10- 6
Er ร 4.07 6
< 10-
lesen)
Per (9220- 3) ( 192
hn) ( +During Case
10 -
Pr 1,8546 x
kWe
อ (2000W
-
awresleylleg -
%
of
·
IID. 0.8
& %
&
:
ต่
=
Multiple Evaporator
and Compressor
Systems
154
Content
Multiple Evaporator Systems
Multiple Compressor Systems
Compound Compression
155
Multipressure Systems
A multipressure system is a refrigeration system that has two or more low side pressures.
A multipressure system may be found in:
A dairy where one evaporator operates at -35oC to harden ice cream while another
evaporator operates at 2oC to cool milk.
A process industry where a two- or three-stage compression arrangement serves an
evaporator operating at a low temperature of -20oC or lower.
There are two methods employed to increase the refrigerating capacity and to reduce the
power consumption for multipressure system:
Flash gas removal
Intercooling
156
สามารถ พมค่า C.O.P ของระบบการทาความ ยน ดย
1. พมประสทธผลการทาความ ยน (Refrigerating effect), RE, ซงจะสามารถ
ทา ด้ ดยการ ห้สารทาความ ยนมสถานะ ปนของ หลว ห้ ด้มากทสด
-
ก่อนจะส่ ง ข้าตัวอวา ป ร ตอร์ ดังนันต้องทาการซับคลลง ละกาจัด อสาร

ทาความ ยนก่อน
2. ลดงานของการอัดทคอม พรส ซอร์(Compression work), W, ซง นระบบ
อัดหลายขันตอนจะอาศัยหลักการอันน ซงจะ ปนการอัดสารทาความ ยน
ห้มค่า กล้สถานะอมตัว ห้ ด้มากทสด
157
Flash Gas Removal
Refrigerant vapor to
compressor
Vap.li
g.
? liq เออ%
liq
.
+
vap
From expansion Liquid refrigerant
device to evaporator
Here the liquid refrigerant settles to the bottom of the chamber and the fraction of vapor
(flash gas) is drawn off the top and routed directly to the suction side of the compressor.
The remaining liquid refrigerant is then routed to the evaporator.
By removing the vapor portion of the mixture before it gets to the evaporator the separator
enhances the effectiveness of the evaporation process.
158
Flash Gas Removal |
Sat
vap
.
Condenser
ns.ISatliq .
1
Pressure (P)
ฅูlashyas 4
% & max
3 6 m 3 = m4 + m6
Satliq Satvap
|
.
&4
L
m4 = mf
5 7
• •
าrrt1
1- RE
1- RE Tnt
m6 = mg
Enthalpy (h) 159
Flash Gas Removal (Cont.)
The expansion process (1-3) takes place through a float valve,
which serves the further purpose of maintaining a constant level in
the flash tank.
The liquid and vapor phases (4 and 6) are separated.
The expansion could then continue by expanding the liquid at 4 to
the final pressure at 5.
Another compressor could be used to recompress the vapor at 6.
160
Intercooling
Satvap .
เสมอ
superheated
vap .
m 5 = m6 + m7
4
5
Pressure (P)
m3 = m6 + m2
6 3
2 barlane at Interc
7 1 m3 = mg
mass
*า i =
ie
&เ + & = &3
2
Enthalpy (h)
Energybalance & เhเ + & 2h
2
= *า 3h
}
161
Intercooling
Water or some part of liquid refrigerant from In Out
condenser
6 5 3
m4 ต้องมสถานะอย่ระหว่าง ตา หน่งท 2 ( อร้อนยอด
4
Pressure (P)
ยง) ละ ออมตัว ( ส้น ออมตัวส ดง)

2
1
Enthalpy (h) 162

Intercooling in a refrigeration system can be accomplished with a water-cooled heat exchanger
or by using liquid refrigerant from the condenser.
Intercooling between two stages of compression reduces the work of compression by working
on isentropics closer to the saturation curve.
Processes 1-2-3 and 4-5 are on lines of constant entropy, but process 2-3 falls on a flatter curve
than process 4-5.
The compressed vapors from the low-stage compressor (2) bubbles through the liquid in the
intercooler and the vapors are cooled to the saturation temperature (4) at the pressure of the
intercooler.
A further benefit of intercooling is that the discharge temperature from the high-stage
compressor at 5 will be lower than that of at 3.
The lower discharge temperature permits better lubrication and results in longer life of the
compressor.
163
There is an optimum pressure at which the intercooling should take place.
In the compression of air, where the intercooling is achieved by rejecting heat to the
ambient or to cooling water, the intermediate pressure is computed by:
=
In refrigeration systems, complete intercooling is not possible as it is done by water or air.
Thus, the recommended expression in refrigeration
p = p systems
i p
d s
is estimated by:
*
p i = p d ps (Td / Ts )
where pi = Intercooler pressure
pd and Td = Discharge pressure and temperature (oK) of high-stage compressor
ps and Ts = Suction pressure and temperature (oK) of low-stage compressor
164
Pressure (P)-Enthalpy (h) Chart : Flash Gas Removal
h 6 = h5
h8 = h 7
kpa
↳ ง
000
Qe ,&
เhเ
/
*า 3h mihfhf เออ kk
C.O.P =
.
= +
}
Qw
& s
=
& เ
&เ = &7 + &3
mi &8 &
4
= =
5 2 Qe
Pressure (P)
&} &
*า 4 &เ
m1 =
max.it
= +
h1 h8
7 6 3
Qc = m1 (h 2 h 5 ) + m3 (h 4 h 5 )
8 1 Q w = m1 (h 2 h1 ) + m 3 (h 4 h 3 )
CR E) -11- w , -1
tnnqe
-
m 7 = m1 165
Enthalpy (h)
Heat and Mass Balances : Flash Gas Removal
3
Heat balance: h 6 m 6 = h 7 m 7 + h 3m 3
Mass balance: m6 = m7 + m3
h 6 (m1 + m 3 ) = h 7m1 + h 3m 3
h6 h7 x6 h6 h7
m 3 = m1 ( ) m 3 = m1 x gas = x6 =
h3 h6 1 x6 h3 h7
166
IA.tt
& s
= &เ + &7
, ระ, = &
เ 2
&เ + &ะ = &3
, เhเ + mih = / 3h 3
.
&3 =
&4 = &s
0
Pressure (P)-Enthalpy (h) Chart : Intercooling
h5 = h6 = h7
Qe
C.O.P =
Qw
5 4 m1 =
Qe
Pressure (P)
h1 h 7
3 2
6
Q w = m1 (h 2 h 1 ) + m 3 (h 4 h3 )
Q w = m1 (h 2 h1 ) + m 3 (h 4 h 3 )
7 1 Q c = m 3 (h 4 h5 )
Enthalpy (h) 167

Heat and Mass Balances : Intercooling
Heat balance: h 6 m 6 + h 2 m1 = h 3 m 3
Mass balance: m 3 = m 6 + m1
h 6 (m 3 m1 ) + h 2 m1 = h 3 m 3
h2 h6 h2 h3
m 3 = m1 ( ) m 6 = m1 ( )
h3 h6 h3 h6
168
Exercise I
จ กรปข งร บบท คว ม ยนท ดง ว้ข้ งล่ ง ช้ R-134a ปน รท คว ม ยน

จง ขยน p-h diagram ข งร บบท คว ม ยนนลงบน p-h diagram พร้ มร บต น่ งข งจด 1 ถง 8 ลงบน
วงจรท คว ม ยนนด้ วย
จง ค่ enthalpy ทจด 2 (h2) ล 4 (h4)
ม ย ต: รคว ม ยนท กจ ก condenser ม ถ น ปนข ง ลว มตว (saturated liquid) ล รคว ม ยนท

ท งด้ นดด (suction) ข ง compressor ปน มตว (saturated vapor)
169
1. หา P
lt.tt
ของ Intercoder
เ3ยน
2.
diagram
Exercise II
จ กรปข งร บบท คว ม ยนท ดง ว้ข้ งล่ ง ช้ R-12 ปน รท คว ม ยน
จง ขยน p-h diagram ข งร บบท คว ม ยนนลงบน p-h diagram ข ง R-12 พร้ มร บต น่ งข งจด 1
ถง 8 ลงบนวงจรท คว ม ยนนด้ วย
จง ค่ ตร ก ร ล ดยมวลข ง รคว ม ยนทจด 1 ล จด 3
ม ย ต: รคว ม ยนท กจ ก condenser ม ถ น ปนข ง ลว มตว (saturated liquid) ล รคว ม
ยนทท งด้ นดด (suction) ข ง compressor ปน มตว (saturated vapor)
5 Condenser 4
45oC
25oC
Flash High-stage
intercooler
Compressor
and flash
tank
6 2
7 8 Evaporator 1
60 kW
-10oC
Low-stage 170
Compressor
Exercise I & II
3
2
m 3 = m 3 + m 3 + m1
Flash gas removal (6-7-3 )

7 h 3m 3
Intercooling (6-2-3 )
h 6m 6
h 3 (m 3 + m 1 )
h 6m 3 h 2 m1 h 7 m1
x6
h2 h3 m 3 = m1 ( )
m 3 = m1 ( ) 1 x6
h3 h6 171
Multiple Evaporator Systems
1. Two or more evaporators operate at the same temperature

using one compressor and one expansion valve.
2. Two or more evaporators operate with different temperatures
using one compressor and individual expansion valves along
with pressure
nmni reducing valves. อาจ 7์
ลด ความ =น

using one compressor and multiple expansion valves along
with pressure reducing valves.
172
1: Multiple evaporators - Single temperature, Compressor, and
>Eใ
Expansion Valve Outdoor
fa
3 Condenser
40oC
M, M3
MA MB
= = +
+
Mc
m
: 4
÷÷
:/ "
Evaporator I
35 kW; -10oC
2
MB
@ A๊ MB
=
=
Evaporator II
70 kW; -10oC
mc =
% %=
ma
1
Evaporator III Compressor
105 kW; -10oC
173
Expansion Valve (Cont.)
3 40oC 2
Pressure (P)
-10oC
4 1
Enthalpy (h) 174

Expansion Valve
m1 = m I + m II + m III
Q w = m1 (h 2 h1 )
35 kW 70 kW 105 kW Q c = m1 (h 2 h3 )
m1 = + +
h1 h 4 h1 h 4 h1 h 4
Qe
C.O.P =
Qw
(35 kW + 70 kW + 105 kw ) Qe
m1 = =
h1 h 4 h1 h 4
175
2: Multiple Evaporators and Temperatures Single Compressor
with Individual Expansion Valves mg m, =
Mเ + + mแ
mh mh maha mnh แ
3
= + +
, เ
Condenser
40oC M
า
* i
fte-ttfftf.TL
Pc
|itnteu
D๋
¥ %
F๋
Pressorereducingvalve
4
m→
h คง G*
๓ 11
Satvap
→ enen
วาจา
สบ
.
f5
J่
4 Evaporator I 6 2
c 35 kW; 10oC
Satvap . Pmin
7 Evaporator II L8 9 t
B 70 kW; 5oC
1
Pmin
10 Evaporator III f 11 Compressor
A 105 kW; -10oC
\ satvap .
176
with Individual Expansion Valves (Cont.)
3 40oC 2
Pressure (P)
4 10oC 5
7 5oC 8
10 -10oC 11
1 6
9
Enthalpy (h) 177

with Individual Expansion Valves (Cont.)
105 kW
m III =
h11 h10 Q w = m1 (h 2 h1 )
70 kW
m II = Q c = m1 (h 2 h3 )
h8 h 7
35 kW + 70 kW + 105 kW
35 kW C.O.P =
mI = Qw
h5 h 4
mI
5
Mass balance:
8 1 m1 = m I + m II + m III
m II m1
11 Heat balance:
m III
h1m1 = h 5m I + h8m II + h11m III
178
with Multiple Expansion Valves
3
Condenser
40oC
$อน
f!
Pc
.tn/n,
w re
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4 Evaporator I 5 6
0
hmixture
35 kW; 10oC 2
7 ←
satdiq .
8 mixture
Evaporator II 9 10
70 kW; 5oC
11 ←
satliq .
1
12 Evaporator III 13 Compressor
105 kW; -10oC
179
with Multiple Expansion Valves (Cont.)
3 40oC 2
Pressure (P)
7 4 10oC 5
11 8 5oC 9
-10oC 13
12 1 106
Enthalpy (h) 180

Evaporator III Evaporator II Evaporator I
105 kW
m III = m II =
70 kW 35 kW
h13 h12 mI =
h 9 h8 h5 h 4
m 13 = m III m 9 = m II + m II m5 = mI + mI
x x4
m II = m III ( 8 ) m I = (m 9 + m 13 ) ( )
1 x8 1 x4
h8 h11 h4 h7
x8 = x4 =
h9 h11 h5 h7
181
5 Mass balance:
m5
m 1 = m 5 + m 9 + m 13
9 1
m9 m1 m1 = (mI + mI ) + (mII + mII ) + mIII
13
m 13
Heat balance:
h 1m 1 = h 5 m 5 + h 9 m 9 + h 13 m 13
h 1m 1 = h 5 (m I + m I ) + h 9 (m II + m II ) + h 13 m III
Q w = m1 (h 2 h1 ) Q c = m1 (h 2 h3 )
35 kW + 70 kW + 105 kW
C.O.P =
Qw
182
Multiple Compressor Systems

using two or more compressors and individual expansion
valves.

using two or more compressors and multiple expansion
valves.
183
1: Multiple evaporators, Temperatures, and Compressors with
Individual Expansion Valves
M, mา+m
Ms
=
+
7 Condenser
3
40oC
6 Pcond
8 Evaporator I Le
ms
35 kW; 10oC
5 Compressor I 4
9 Evaporator II M 3
hn Pcond
70 kW; 5oC
3 Compressor II 2
Pccnd
10 Evaporator III M
ng
105 kW; -10oC

1
1 Compressor III 184

Individual Expansion Valves (Cont.)
7 40oC 6 42
Pressure (P)
10oC 5
8 5oC
9 3
-10oC 1
10
Enthalpy (h) 185

Individual Expansion Valves (Cont.)
105 kW 70 kW 35 kW
m III = m II = mI =
h 1 h 10 h 3 h9 h5 h8
Q w ,III = m III (h 2 h1 ) Q w ,II = m II (h 4 h3 ) Q w ,I = m I (h 6 h5 )
Q c = m I (h 6 h 7 ) + m II (h 4 h 7 ) + m III (h 2 h7 )
35 kW + 70 kW + 105 kW
C.O.P =
Q w ,I + Q w ,II + Q w ,III
186
2: Multiple evaporators, Temperatures, and Compressors
with Multiple Expansion Valves
7 Condenser
40oC
C
6
8 Evaporator I
35 kW; 10oC C
9 5
B Compressor I 4
10 Evaporator II
70 kW; 5oC B
11 3
A
Compressor II 2
12 Evaporator III
105 kW; -10oC A
2: Multiple evaporators, Temperatures, and Compressors
7 40oC 6 42
Pressure (P)
9 8 10oC 5
11 10 5oC 3
-10oC 1
12
Enthalpy (h) 188

Multiple Expansion Valves (Cont.)

105 kW
m III = 70 kW 35 kW
h 1 h 12 m II = mI =
h 3 h 10 h5 h8
m1 = m III m 3 = m II + m II m5 = mI + mI
Q w ,III = m 1 (h 2 h1 ) x
m II = m III ( 10 ) m I = (m 3 + m 1 ) (
x8
)
1 x10 1 x8
h 10 h 11 h8 h9
x 10 = x8 =
h 3 h 11 h5 h9
Q w ,II = m 3 (h 4 h3 ) Q w , I = m 5 (h 6 h5 )
189
Multiple Expansion Valves (Cont.)
Q c = m 5 (h 6 h 7 ) + m 3 (h 4 h 7 ) + m 1 (h 2 h7 )
35 kW + 70 kW + 105 kW
C.O.P =
190
Compound Compression
1. Two or more evaporators operate with different
temperatures using two or more compressors and
individual expansion valves along with flash
intercooling.
_
2. Two or more evaporators operate with different

temperatures using two or more compressors and
multiple expansion valves along with flash
intercooling.
191
Individual Expansion Valves and Flash Intercooling
7
Condenser
40oC
6
8 Evaporator I
Mcgsat
my
35 kW; 10oC
mixtcre v.
c f
Sat v.
my
5Compressor I
i_fey4M45uperhe.at
, Miz
→
mixture miz iz Intercooler
4
ed
9 mixture
Evaporator II MB Sat v.
70 kW; 5oC , B
mixture
mx , Sat V.
3Compressor II Mx Sat
,
9
v.
mi i Intercooler mzsuperheated
10 Evaporator III 2 m"µ÷ fiadetfmy
105 kW; -10oC A superheat

Individual Expansion Valves and Flash Intercooling (Cont.)
7 40oC 6
เ$น mixtvre รวม )บ 4
Pressure (P)
กาโร
+ Intercoder 2
8 10oC .
5 4 .
5oC
. . . . .
3 2
. . . . . . .
. . . . .
9
-10oC
g.
. . . .
1
. . . . . . . . .
10
เ$นของ mixture + ไป รวม
)บ 2 + Intercooler 1
Enthalpy (h) 193

Evaporator III Evaporator II
105 kW 70 kW
m III = m II =
h 1 h 10 h3 h9
m1 = m III Q w ,II = m 3 (h 4 h3 )
Q w ,III = m 1 (h 2 h1 )
Mass balance:
m 3 = m II + m II + m 1
Heat balance:
(m1 + mII )
h 2 m 1 + m II h 9 = h 3 (m 1 + m II )
3
m II 9 Intercooler 2 (h 2 h3 )
m1 m II = m 1
(h 3 h9 )
194
(m 4 + m I ) Mass balance:
5 m5 = mI + mI + m4
8 Intercooler 4
mI m4 m3 = m4
Evaporator I Heat balance:

35 kW h 8 m I + h 4 m 3 = h 5 (m I + m 3 )
mI =
h5 h8
(h 4 h5 )
mI = m3
Q w , I = m 5 (h 6 h5 ) (h 5 h8 )
35 kW + 70 kW + 105 kW
Q c = m 5 (h 6 h7 ) C.O.P =
195
Multiple Expansion Valves and Flash Intercooling
7 Condenser
40oC
6
iii.
8
Evaporator I
35 kW; 10oC
5Compressor I
9 Intercooler
Evaporator II 4
10 B
70 kW; 5oC
3Compressor II
11 Intercooler
12 Evaporator III 2
105 kW; -10oC 1 Compressor III
A
196
Multiple Expansion Valves and Flash Intercooling (Cont.)
7 40oC 6
Pressure (P)
9 8 e- -2 TT zrn
10oCe- e- czn TTI mr n Ty f- -
5 4
e- Tn
10 3 2
c- e- g-
11 5oC -
1
- - os e- e- vnnn e. - -
- nn nn nn _
-10oC
12
Enthalpy (h)
197
Evaporator III Evaporator II
105 kW 70 kW
m III = m II =
h 1 h 12 h 3 h 10
m1 = m III Q w ,II = m 3 (h 4 h3 )
Q w ,III = m 1 (h 2 h1 )
Mass balance:
m 3 = m II + m II + m II + m 1
(m1 + mII ) Heat balance:

3 h 2 m 1 + m II h 10 = h 3 (m 1 + m II )
m II 10 Intercooler 2
m1 (h 2 h3 )
m II = m 1
(h 3 h 10 )
198
(m 4 + m I )
Evaporator II (Cont.)
5
8 Intercooler 4 x 10
mI m4 m II = m1
1 x 10
h 10 h 11
x 10 =
Mass balance: h 3 h 11
m5 = mI + mI + mI + m4
Evaporator I
m3 = m4
Heat balance: 35 kW
mI =
h5 h8
h 8 m I + h 4 m 3 = h 5 (m I + m 3 )
Q w , I = m 5 (h 6 h5 )
(h 4 h5 )
mI = m3
(h 5 h8 )
199
Evaporator I (Cont.)
x8
mI = m3
1 x8
h8 h9
x8 =
h5 h9
35 kW + 70 kW + 105 kW
Q c = m 5 (h 6 h7 ) C.O.P =
200
Exercise
จ กรปข้ งล่ งน จง ขยนวงจรนลงบน P-h diagram ข ง R-12
ล จงค นวณ ค่ m ล h ทจด 3 ?
5
Condenser
40oC
4
11 12
Flash Tank
6 30oC
7
Evaporator I 13
8 70 kW; 10oC
3
Compressor I
9 Intercooler
2
10 Evaporator II
105 kW; -10oC
1
Compressor II
201
Satvi
iimtintt
!๋ _
15
I.tnn.fm
satliq 3
sat v.
mxh ×
= mnoh เอ
Pinter =
Pevap ± +
mแhแ
hx
Sat ย
=
_
.
g.
Superpeated v.
M = Mx + M เ3
µ
Mา 4h14 = Mnoh เอ + M แhแ + mเ 3h13

h 4
=
เฉ)ย h เ *บ hx
3
Psychrometric
Properties of Air
Content
o Physical Properties of Air

o Psychrometric Chart
o Psychrometric Processes
o Psychrometric Analysis of the
A/C system
Psychrometry
Psychrometry is the science dealing with the physical laws
of air water mixtures.
Psychrometrics is the science involving thermodynamic
properties of moist air and the effect of atmospheric
moisture on materials and human comfort.
When designing an air conditioning system, the
temperature and moisture content of the air to be
conditioned, and the same properties of the air needed to
produce the desired air conditioning effect, must be
known.
Knowing the relationship of these air properties aids the
task of air conditioning system design and analysis.
This analysis can be performed using the psychrometric
chart.
Determining Air Properties
Air is a mechanical mixture of gases and water vapor.
Dry air (air without water vapor) is composed chiefly
of 78% N2, 21%O2 and 1% other gases.
Dry air (a) and water vapor (w) mixture properties:
Temperature: T = Ta = Tw- Volume: V = Va = Vw
Weight: m = m a + m
- w Enthalpy: H = H a + H w
Atmospheric Pressure: Dalton s Law

P = Pa + Pw
Ideal Gas Laws
paV = ma RaT = 0.287maT pwV = mw RwT = 0.461mwT
mw 0.2871 pw p
= = 0.622 w
ma 0.461 pa pa
pa = Partial pressure of dry air in the mixture; kPa

pw = Partial pressure of water vapor in the mixture; kPa
m a= Weight of dry air, lb
mw= Weight of water vapor; lb
Ra, Rw = Gas constant for air and water vapor; 0.287 and 0.461 kJ/kg K
V = Volume of mixture; m3
T = Temperature of mixture; K
Physical Properties of Air
Dry-bulb temperature (DB) is the
temperature of the air as sensed by
Sling psychrometer an ordinary thermometer.
Wet-bulb temperature (WB) is the
temperature of the air that sensed by
a thermometer whose bulb is covered
by a wet wick, in rapidly moving air.
The air velocity around the wick
should be maintained between
1000 and 2000 fpm. This velocity
can be simulated in still air by
whirling the thermometer rapidly
about 1 minute.
The difference between WB and DB temperature is
caused by the cooling effect produced by the
evaporation of moisture from the wick.
This evaporation effect reduces the temperature of the
bulb and, therefore, the thermometer reading.
Consequently, the difference between DB and WB
temperature readings is a measure of the dryness of air.
The drier the air, the greater the difference between DB
and WB readings.
Dew-point temperature (DP) is the temperature at
which the water vapor in the air is saturated and
begins to condense.
The DP temperature of the air is always the
saturation temperature corresponding to the partial
pressure exerted by the water vapor.
Increasing the amount of water vapor in the air will
increase the pressure exerted by the water vapor
and raise the DP temperature.
When the DB, WB, and DP temperatures are the same,
the air is saturated. It can hold no more moisture.
Relative humidity( RH) is the ratio of the actual water
vapor pressure in the air to the vapor pressure if the air
were saturated at that DB temperature.
Relative humidity is expressed as a percentage. For
example, if the relative humidity of the air is 50%, it
contains one-half the amount of moisture possible at
the existing DB temperature.
Saturated air describes the condition when air contains
the maximum amount of water vapor that it can hold.
Relative Actual vapor pressure

Humidity = X 100
Vapor pressure at saturation
Humidity ratio (w) describes the actual weight of water
vapor in an air water vapor mixture.
Humidity ratio or moisture content can be expressed
as pounds of moisture per pound (lb/lb) of dry air OR
as grains of moisture per pound (gr/lb) of dry air.
7,000 grains of water = 1 pound (lb)
m w 0.622 p w
w= =
ma pa
w = Humidity ratio; lb water vapor / lb of dry air
pa = Partial pressure of dry air in the mixture; psi
p = pa + pw : p = Barometric pressure; psi (14.696 psi)
pw = Partial pressure of water vapor in the mixture; psi
ma = Weight of dry air; lb
mw = Weight of water vapor; lb
Specific volume (v) is defined as the volume of air per unit
weight of dry air at a specific temperature and pressure.
As one pound of air is heated it occupies more space
the specific volume increases.
Specific enthalpy (h) is the heat content of air per unit
weight of dry air (Btu/lb dry air).
The specific enthalpy of air is the enthalpy of the dry air
and the water vapor taken above an arbitrary reference
temperature at which the enthalpy is given a value of
zero, for example, 0oF for the dry air and 32oF for the
water vapor portion of air.
Enthalpy (Heat Content) of Air
The enthalpy of air is the sum of the individual enthalpies of
the dry air and water vapor.
This includes the sensible heat of the dry air and the
sensible and latent heat of the water vapor.
The total heat of the air at any condition is the sum of the
sensible heat and latent heat.
The sensible heat of the air is a function of the DB
temperature.
The latent heat of air is a function of the DP temperature.
The total heat of the air is a function of the WB
temperature.
h = 0.24 DB + w (1061 + 0.45 DP )
Dry air Water vapor

h = 1.022 DB + w (LH +2.3 DP)
h = Enthalpy of moist air; Btu / lb of dry air

DB = Dry-bulb temperature; oF
w = Humidity ratio; lb of water / lb of dry air
0.24 = Average specific heat of air at constant
pressure; Btu/lb oF
0.45 = Average specific heat of water vapor; Btu/lb oF
1061= Latent heat of water vapor; Btu/ lb
Psychrometric Chart
Sensible heat factor (SHF) is the
ratio of sensible heat to latent heat.
Sensible heat factor

Alignment circle is located at 80 oF
DB and 50% RH.
Enthalpy deviation is the actual
Humidity ratio, lbw/lba

Humidity ratio gr/lb
enthalpy of the air minus the
enthalpy of saturated air.
Dry bulb temperature

Humidity ratio
Dry bulb temperature

Example I
The summer design conditions are 95°F dry bulb (DB) and 78°F wet bulb
(WB). What is the relative humidity (RH) , humidity ratio (w), and dew
point (DP)?
Only one point on the psychrometric chart represents air with both of
these conditions. This point is located where the vertical 95°F DB and
diagonal 78°F WB temperature lines intersect.
Humidity ratio (w)

= 118 gr/lb of dry air 78°F
DP = 72°F.
Relative humidity (RH) = 72°F
47%.
95°F
Psychrometric Processes
1. Sensible Heat Change Process (heating and cooling): Heat is
added or removed from the air and the DB temperature changes
as a result, but there is no change in water vapor content.
Merely heating the air does not change its moisture content.
Therefore, as the air is heated, its condition will move
horizontally along a constant humidity-ratio line to the right.
Conversely, if sensible heat is removed from air, the air
condition moves horizontally to the left. As long as the
moisture content of the air remains unchanged, the humidity
ratio remains the same.
Therefore, this movement follows the horizontal humidity-
ratio lines.
Sensible Heat Change Process
(P)
pewpoin
·
P A ( Wron
Cooling
2. Latent Heat Change Process (Humidification and
Dehumidification):
If moisture is added to air without changing the DB
temperature, the air condition moves upward along a DB
temperature line (Humidification).
If moisture is removed from the air without changing its DB
temperature, the air condition moves downward along a DB
temperature line (Dehumidification).
Humidification results in an increase in humidity ratio and
enthalpy. The enthalpy of the air increases due to the
enthalpy of the water vapor added.
Dehumidification results in a decrease in humidity ratio and
enthalpy.
Latent Heat Change Process
Dehumidifying
3. Combination Sensible and Latent Heat Change Process:
In actual practice, both the DB temperature and moisture
content of the air generally change simultaneously. When
this happens, the resulting air conditions move from A at
some angle.
The exact angle and direction depend upon the
proportions of sensible and latent heat added or
removed. Sensible heat causes a change in the air s DB
temperature with no change in moisture content. Latent
heat causes a change in the air s moisture content with
no change in DB temperature.
For example, to provide summer comfort, air is cooled
and dehumidified, moving the air condition downward
and to the left, resulting in a lower DB temperature and a
lower moisture content (Cooling and Dehumidifying).
Combination Sensible and Latent Heat Change Process
Humidifying
Cooling A Heating
Dehumidifying
Calculations
Sensible Heating and Cooling
Q s = 0.24 * m a * TC + 0.45 * m w * TC
Dry air Water vapor

The second term is often small enough to be
neglected and the equation is:
Q s = 0.24 * m a * TC
This problem can also be solved using the enthalpy
values as:
Q s = m a * (h 2 h 1 )
The flow rate of air is usually expressed in ft3/min
(CFM) rather than lb/hr; thus, it can be estimated by:
Q s = 1.1 * CFM * TC
where
Qs = Sensible heat added to or removed from air, Btu/hr
TC = (t2 t1) = DB Temperature change; oF
ma = Weight of air; lb/hr
mw = Weight of water vapor; lb/hr
0.24 = Average specific heat of air; Btu/lb oF
0.45 = Average specific heat of water vapor; Btu/lb oF
h2 h1= Specific enthalpy change; Btu/ lb of dry air
Example II
A cooling coil with a rated sensible cooling capacity of 50,000
Btu/hr while handling 2,000 CFM of air entering at 80oF must
be checked to see that it is performing properly.
Thermometers at the air entrance and exit of the unit read
80oF and 62oF , and the air flow rate of the measured and
found to be 2,000 CFM. Is the unit performing satisfactorily?
Solving for the temperature change:
Q s = 1.1 * CFM * TC
TC = t2 t1 = 23 oF
80 oF t1 = 23 oF
t1 = 57 oF
Latent Heat Change (Humidifying and Dehumidifying)
Amount of water vapor added to or removed from air in a
humidifying or dehumidifying process is:
m w = m a * (w 2 w1 )
If the flow rate is expressed in CFM:
m w = 4.5 * CFM * ( w 2 w1 )
If the humidity ratio is given in gr w./lb dry air:
CFM * ( w '2 w 1' )

mw =
1556
Latent heat change:
Q l = 0.68 * CFM * ( w '2 w 1' ) Q l = 4.5 * CFM * (h 2 h1 )

where
Ql = Latent heat change, Btu/hr
ma = Weight of air; lb/hr
mw = Weight of water vapor added or removed; lb w./hr
h2 h1= Specific enthalpy change; Btu/ lb of dry air
w2 w1 = Change in humidity ratio; lb w. / lb dry air
w2 w 1 = Change in humidity ratio; gr w. / lb dry air
Example III
A water humidifier in a warm air heating duct handling 3,000 CFM
increase the moisture content of the air form 30 to 60 gr. w./lb
dry air. Find the amount of water to be supplied? And the amount
of heat required for the humidifier if the air is at 90oF?
Solving for water to be supplied:
CFM * ( w '2 w 1' )

mw =
1556
mw = 58 lb w./hr
Solving for the latent heat required:
Q l = 0.68 * CFM * ( w '2 w 1' ) Q l = 4.5 * CFM * (h 2 h1 )
Ql = 61,200 Btu/hr Ql = 62,100 Btu/hr
Combined sensible and latent heat change:
Air conditioning for human comfort usually requires
a process where both sensible and latent heat are
removed from air-that is, the air is cooled and
dehumidified.
Total heat removed or added to the process is:
Q t = Qs + Ql
Example IV
An air conditioning unit has a cooling coil that cools and
dehumidifies 20,000 CFM of air from 82oF DB and 50% RH to
64oF WB. Find the sensible, latent, and total capacity of the
cooling coil and the amount of moisture condensed?
Solving for Qs, Ql, Qt and mw :
Cooling coil
2 1
20,000 CFM
82 F DB 64 oF DB
50% RH 61oF WB
Solving for Qs: Q s = 1.1 * CFM * TC Q s = 4.5 * CFM * (h X hA )
Solving for Ql: Q l = 0.68 * CFM * ( w '2 w 1' ) Q l = 4.5 * CFM * (h R hX )
Solving for Qt: Q t = Q s + Q l
Solving for mw:

CFM * ( w '2 w 1' )
mw =
1556
Qs = 396,000 Btu/hr Ql = 95,000 Btu/hr Qt = 491,000 Btu/hr mw = 90 lb/hr

Evaporative Cooling Process
Water is sprayed into the
airstream.
Some of the water evaporates,
increasing the water vapor
content of the air.
The unevaporated water is
recirculated continuously.
No external heat is added to
the process (adiabatic process).
The sensible heat of the air
decreases and the latent heat
increases by the same amount.
It is a constant enthalpy and a constant WB temperature processes.
The process line on the psychrometric chart for the evaporative cooling
process is a line of constant enthalpy content, which is the same as a
constant WB temperature s line.
The evaporative cooling process is practical for A/C only in very dry
climate (i.e., high DB but low RH).
Air Mixing Process
supply outdoor
mixture
fan C air (OA)
B
Cooling coil
Recirculated air (RA) A
The air mixing process occurs frequently in air conditioning

system, particularly in mixing outside air with return air from
rooms.
If the conditions of the two airstream to be mixed are known,
the conditions after mixing can be found.
mC = mA + mB
CFM C = CFM A + CFM B
Conservation of Energy Principle:
CFM A * DBA + CFM B * DBB

m C * DB C = m A * DB A + m B * DB B DBC =
CFM c
CFM C * DB C = CFM A * DB A + CFM B * DB B
CFM A * w A + CFM B * w B
wC =
CFM C * w C = CFM A * w A + CFM B * w B CFM c
70 F B
C
95 F
A
83.75 F
80 F
Example V
Return Air, RA
2,000 CFM
2 75o F DB, 50% RH
1,000 CFM
90oF DB, 72oF WB 1 3
Outside Air, OA DB =?;WB =?
Outside air (OA) and return air (RA) are mixed. Find the mixed air DB
and WB and write a process line on the psychrometric chart ?
CFM 3 = CFM 1 + CFM 2
DB3 = 80oF w 3 = 72 gr w./lb d.a. WB3 = 66oF
CFM1 * w '1 +CFM 2 * w '2 CFM1 * DB1 + CFM2 * DB2

w '3 = DB3 =
CFM3 CFM3
Psychrometric Analysis of the A/C System
Room Sensible Heat Factor (RSHF) or Room Sensible Heat Ratio
(RSHR) or Sensible Heat Factor (SHF) or Sensible Heat Ratio (SHR)
The line drawn through the room conditions with the room sensible
heat ratio (RSHR) slope.
SHF = Qs / Qt SHF = RSCL /RTCL
Qs : Sensible heat gain, Btu/hr Qs = 1.1 * CFM * ( t 2 t1 )

Ql : Latent heat gain, Btu/hr Q l = 0.68 * CFM * ( w '2 w 1' )
Qt : Total heat gain, Btu/hr = Qs + Ql
RSCL: Room Sensible Cooling Load, Btu/hr
RTCL: Room Total Cooling Load, Btu/hr
Sensible Heat Ratio (SHR) OR Sensible Heat Factor (SHF)
80°F DB
50% RH
Guide point
Drawing an SHF Line
Assuming SHF = 0.80
80°F DB
Guide point 50% RH
SHF Dictates Room Supply Air Condition
Supply air with any combination of DB and WB temperatures that falls
on an SHF line will be able to absorb the room's sensible and latent
heat in the correct proportions needed to maintain the desired room
conditions (A).
Each of these combinations, however, requires a different quantity of
air to do the task. If the supply air is warm, a higher quantity of air is
required than if the supply air is cold.
A
Drawing an SHF Line for Room Supply Air
Assume that room design conditions are 80°F DB and 60%
RH, and that the SHF is calculated as 0.60.
First, line up the guide point with the 0.60 marking on the
SHF scale and draw a line.
Next, draw a second line, parallel to the first, through the
point (B) that represents the design room conditions. This
is the 0.60 SHF line for a room at 80°F DB and 60% RH.
Supply air at C (60°F DB and 58°F WB) will maintain the
desired room conditions, as will supply air at D (70°F DB
and 64°F WB).
To do so, each of these combinations will require a
different quantity of air (CFM).
Drawing an SHF Line for Room Supply Air
B
D
C
Guide point 80°F
Coil Process Line: The straight line drawn between the air conditions entering
and leaving the coil.
This line depends on the coil configuration, air velocity, and refrigerant
temperature.
It is actually a curved line but it is possible to locate a straight line on the
chart to select a coil or to check the performance of a coil.
The capacity of a coil is defined as the sensible, latent and total heat that
it removes from the air it is conditioning ( Cooling Coli Capacity ).
Example VI
A cooling coil handles 24,000 CFM of air entering at 86oF DB and 73oF WB.
The air leaves the coil at 59oF DB and 56oF WB. Determine the coil capacity
using the psychrometric chart?
Solving for Qs, Ql, and Qt
Qs = 4.5 * CFM * (h X h2 )
Q l = 4.5 * CFM * (h1 h X )
Q t = 4.5 * CFM * (h1 h 2 ) x
Qt = Qs + Ql
Qt = 1,404,000 Btu/hr
Psychrometric Analysis of the A/C System (Cont.)
The temperature of the outside surface of a cooling coil is not the same at all
places along the coil tubing. It will vary due to a number of factors; e.g., tube
size spacing, and number of row, etc.
Effective Surface Temperature (EST) or Apparatus Dew Point (ADP): An
average coil surface temperature.
If all the air passing over the coil contacted the surface (CF = 1), the air would
leave at a temperature equal to the EST.
Psychrometric Analysis of the A/C System (Cont.)
When air passes across the outside
surface of a cooling coil, only part of the
air actually contacts the surface and is
cooled.
Contact Factor (CF) : the proportion of
air passing through the coil that touches
the cooling surface and is thus cooled.
Bypass Factor (BF): the proportion of air
that does not touch the surface, and is
thus not cooled.
CF + BF = 1
CF = b/a
BF = (a-b)/a
Example VII
The following design data has been established for the high life insurance company
office building:
RSCL = 740,000 Btu/hr; RLCL = 150,000 Btu/hr
Outside design conditions: 94oF DB, 75oF WB
Inside design conditions: 78oF DB, 50% RH
Outside air required is 6,730 CFM; Supply air temperature difference is 20oF
Determine 1) supply air CFM 2) Supply air condition 3) conditions entering
cooling coil 4) Cooling coil sensible, latent, and total load 5) ADP
Example VII (Cont.)
Solving for supply air CFM:
Qs = RSCL = 1.1 * CFM 3 * ( t 4 t3 )
Solving for supply air condition:

Find supply air temperature (t3 )
t4 t3 = 20oF
t3 = 78-20 = 58 oF DB
Plot the RSHF line with slope
RSHF = 740,000/(150,000+740,000) = 0.83
Draw the RSHF line and the line that is parallel to it
The intersection of the RSHF line and 58 FDB line determines the
remaining supply air condition
WB3= 56.3 oF
Example VII (Cont.)
Solving for conditions entering cooling coil: This is the mixed air condition of
outside air (OA) and return air (RA)
CFM1 * DB1 + CFM7 * DB7
DB2 =
CFM 2 = CFM 1 + CFM 7 CFM2
DB7 = DB 5= 78 oFCFM7 = 33,640 6,730 = 26,910 CFM

Draw the mixing line 1-7 on the chart.
The intersection of this line with DB2= 81.2 oF line will locate point 2, the
condition entering the coil. WB2 = 67.2 oF
Solving for coil sensible, latent and total load:
Draw the coil process line 2-3 and calculate using equations:
Qs = 4.5 * CFM * (h X h3 )
Q l = 4.5 * CFM * (h 2 hX )
Qt = Qs + Ql
Example VII (Cont.)
Solving for apparatus dew point (ADP)

Extend the coil process line to intersect with the saturation line
(100% RH)
Read the coil EST = ?
Exercise
1. ก จ นวน 5,000 CFM ท ภ ว 80oF DB ล 70% RH ลผ่ นค ยล์ ยน
(Cooling coil) ท ้ ม ณ ภม ปลยน ป ปน 58oF DB ล 56.5oF WB จง
ค นวณ ค่ ลดข งคว มร้ น มผ (Sensible load), คว มร้ น ฝง (Latent
load), คว มร้ นทง มด (Total load) ข ง ก ทผ่ นค ยล์ ยน ล ปรม ณ
คว มชนทลดลง (gr w./hr)?
2. ้ งท ช้ กบรก ด ก ม้ พ ก ร ่ ง ก ่ ง นง ถก ก บบ ้ ม ลกก ร ล
ภ ว ก รท ง นดงรป 2.1 ก ก่ น ข้ ้ ง กบด ก ม้ ถกท ้ มตว ดยก รพ่น
น ปนล ง ข้ ป น ้ งพ่นล งน ก่ นทจ ล ข้ ป น ้ ง กบด ก ม้
ก นด ้ ตร ก ร ลข งมวล ก ลงผ ม (จด C) ท่ กบ 3,500 CFM ล
มวล ก ลกลบ (Return air, จด B) ท่ กบ 60% ข ง ก ทง มด จง ค่
ต่ ปน
1. ดงผลข งกร บวนก รท กดขนลง น Psychrometric chart
2. ณ ภม DB ล WB ข ง ก ผ ม (จด C) ก่ นผ่ น ้ งพ่นล งน
3. ปรม ณ น ท พมขน น น่ วย lb w./hr
Exercise (Cont.)
A, 85oF DB D, 100% RH ้ ง กบ
50% RH C ้ งพ่น
ด ก ม้
ล งน E
B, 50oF DB, 80% RH

รบย
รปท 2.1 น ทง
1 2 3 SA
OA
RA Conditioned
7 6 FCU 5 Room
EA 4
รปท 3.1
Exercise (Cont.)
จ กรปท 3.1 ดงร บบปรบ ก ภ ย น ้ ง จง ค่ ต่ ปน ดย ช้ ข้ มลท ดง ว้
ด้ นล่ ง
ลดคว มร้ น มผ ข ง ้ ง (Room sensible cooling load, RSCL) = 812,000
Btu/hr
ลดคว มร้ น ฝงข ง ้ ง (Room latent cooling load, RLCL) = 235,000
Btu/hr
ปรม ณข ง ก ภ ยน กทน ข้ ม น ้ ง (Outside air, OA) = 6,000 CFM
ณ ภมข ง ก ท กจ กค ยล์ ยน (Supply air) = 59oF DB
ภ ว ข ง ก ภ ย น ้ ง (Inside design conditions) = 77oF DB, 50 % RH
ภ ว ข ง ก ภ ยน ก (Outside design conditions) = 91oF DB, 75oF WB
1. ปรม ณข ง ก ทจ่ ย กจ ก Fan Coil Unit (FCU) น น่ วย CFM ล ณ ภม
กร ป ปยก (WB) ข ง ก
2. ณ ภมกร ป ้ ง (DB), ณ ภมกร ป ปยก (WB), คว มชน มพทธ์ (RH) ล
คว มชนจ พ (w) ข ง ก ผ ม (จด 2)
Exercise (Cont.)
3. ลดคว มร้ น มผ (Sensible load), ลดคว มร้ น ฝง (Latent load), ล ลด
คว มร้ นทง มด (Total load) ข ง ก ภ ยน ก (Outside air)
4. ลดคว มร้ น มผ (Coil sensible load), ลดคว มร้ น ฝง (Coil latent load), ล
ลดคว มร้ นทง มด (Coil total load) ข ง Coil
5. ณ ภมจดน ค้ งข ง ปกรณ์ (Apparatus dew point temperature), ตวปร ก บ ม่
มผ (Bypass factor) ล ปรม ณข ง ก ท มผ Coil น น่ วย CFM
6. ดงจดต่ ง นกร บวนก รนลงบน Psychrometric chart
Cooling Load Estimations

in Air - Conditioning
257
Human Comfort
Air conditioning systems use the principles of heat
transfer to maintain comfortable indoor conditions for
people.
Heat energy is transferred from one substance to
another by one of three basic processes: conduction,
convection, or radiation.
convection
warm air
radiation
hot conduction cool air

water
Conduction is the process of transferring heat through a solid.
Convection is the process of transferring heat as the result of
the movement of a fluid. Convection often occurs as the result
of the natural movement of air caused by temperature
(density) differences.
Radiation is the process of transferring heat by means of
electromagnetic waves, emitted due to the temperature
difference between two objects. The radiated heat does not
heat the air between the source and the object it contacts but
it only heats the object itself.
259
Human Comfort
260
Human Comfort
The average adult, seated and working, generates excess
heat at the rate of approximately 450 Btu/hr [132 W]. About
60% of this heat is transferred to the surrounding environment
by convection and radiation, and 40% is released by
perspiration and respiration.
As the level of physical activity increases, the body generates
more heat in proportion to the energy expended. When
engaged in heavy labor, as in a factory for example, the body
generates 1,450 Btu/hr [425 W]. At this level of activity, the
proportions reverse and about 40% of this heat is transferred
by convection and radiation and 60% is released by
perspiration and respiration.
In order for the body to feel comfortable, the surrounding
environment must be of suitable temperature and humidity to
transfer this excess heat.
261
Human Comfort
If the temperature of the air surrounding the body is
too high, the body feels uncomfortably warm. The
body responds by increasing the rate of perspiration
in order to increase the heat loss through
evaporation of body moisture.
Additionally, if the surrounding air is too humid, the
air is nearly saturated and it is more difficult to
evaporate body moisture.
If the temperature of the air surrounding the body is
too low, however, the body loses more heat than it
can produce. The body responds by constricting the
blood vessels of the skin to reduce heat loss.
In summary, the factors that affect human comfort
are the DB temperature, humidity, air movement,
fresh air, clean air, noise level, adequate lighting,
and proper furniture and work surfaces.
262
Comfort Zone
Research studies have been conducted to show that, with a
specific amount of air movement, thermal comfort can be
produced with certain combinations of DB temperature and
relative humidity (RH).
When plotted on a psychrometric chart, these combinations
form a range of conditions for delivering acceptable thermal
comfort to 80% of the people in a space. This “comfort zone”
and the associated assumptions are defined by ASHRAE
Standard 55, Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human
Occupancy.
Determining the desired condition of the space is the first step
in estimating the cooling and heating loads for the space.
At 78ºF [25.6ºC] DB and 50% relative humidity (A) is usually
the desired indoor condition during the cooling season.
263
Comfort Zone
humidity ratio
A
comfort zone
70°F 80°F
[21.2°C] [26.7°C]
dry-bulb temperature 264
265
Cooling Load Components
The space cooling load is the rate at which heat must
be removed from a space in order to maintain the
desired conditions in the space, generally a DB
temperature and relative humidity
roof (RH).
lights partition
people wall
infiltration
glass solar
equipment
glass
conduction
exterior
wall
floor 266
The cooling load for a space can be made up of many components,
including:
Conduction heat gain from outdoors through the roof, exterior walls,
skylights, and windows. (This includes the effects of the sun shining
on these exterior surfaces.)
Solar radiation heat gain through skylights and windows.
Conduction heat gain from adjoining spaces through the ceiling,
interior partition walls, and floor.
Internal heat gains due to people, lights, appliances, and equipment
in the space.
Heat gain due to hot, humid air infiltrating into the space from
outdoors through doors, windows, and small cracks in the building
envelope. 267
In addition, the cooling coil in the building Heating and
Ventilating Air-Conditioning (HVAC) system has to
handle other components of the total building cooling
load, including:
Heat gain due to outdoor air deliberately brought into
the building for ventilation purposes.
Heat generated by the fans in the system and possibly
other heat gains in the system.
Throughout this period, we will assume that all of the
heat gain due to the roof and lighting affects the space
directly. 268
These load components contribute sensible and/or latent heat to the space.
Conduction through the roof, exterior walls, windows, skylights, ceiling,
interior walls, and floor, as well as the solar radiation through the windows
and skylights, all contribute only sensible heat to the space.
The people inside the space contribute both sensible and latent heat.
Lighting contributes only sensible heat to the space, while equipment in the
space may contribute only sensible heat (as is the case for a computer) or
both sensible and latent heat (as is the case for a coffee maker).
Infiltration generally contributes both sensible and latent heat to the space.
The cooling coil has to handle the additional components of ventilation and
system heat gains. Ventilation contributes both sensible and latent heat to
the coil load.
Other heat gains that occur in the HVAC system (e.g., from the fan)
generally contribute only sensible heat. 269
Cooling load components Sensible Latent Space Coil
load load load load
Conduction through roof, walls, windows,
and skylights
Solar radiation through windows, skylights
Conduction through ceiling, interior
partition walls, and floor
People
Lights
Equipment/Appliances
Infiltration
Ventilation
System heat gains
270
Heat Storage and Time Lag Effects
Radiation Heat stored in Convection
furnishings, structure
(delayed in time)
Heat Gain Cooling Load
Convection
The amount of heat that must be removed is not always equal to the amount of heat
received at a given time.
This difference is a result of the heat storage and time lag effects.
Of the total amount of heat entering the building at any instant, only a portion of it heats
the room air immediately; the other part heats the building mass (e.g., roof, walls, floors,
and furnishings) Heat storage effect .
At a later time, the stored heat portion contribute to heating the room air Time lag
effect . 271
Heat storage and time lag effects cause the cooling load to often be different in value
from the entering heat (called instantaneous heat gain).
In the afternoon, the instantaneous heat gain is the highest but the cooling load is
less than that of the instantaneous heat gain.
Later in the day, the stored heat plus some of the new entering heat is released to the
room air, so the cooling load becomes greater than the instantaneous heat gain.
272
Time of Peak Cooling Load
One of the more difficult aspects of estimating the maximum cooling
load for a space is determining the time at which this maximum load
will occur. This is because the individual components that make up the
space cooling load often peak at different times of the day, or even
different months of the year.
For example, the heat gain through the roof will be highest in the late
afternoon, when it is warm outside and the sun has been shining on it
all day.
Conversely, the heat gain due to the sun shining through an east-facing
window will be highest in the early morning when the sun is rising in
the east and shining directly into the window. 273
Time of Peak Cooling Load
East-facing
window Roof
Heat gain
12 6 12 6 12
mid a.m. noon p.m. mid
274
Design Conditions
The cooling load calculations are usually based on inside and outside design conditions
of temperature and humidity. Suggested inside design conditions listed above.
275
Design Conditions (Cont.)
Obviously, A/C systems would be greatly oversized if cooling load calculations
were based on the most extreme outdoor temperature ever recorded for the
location. Instead, outdoor design temperatures are based on their frequency of
occurrence.
The outdoor summer design conditions are based on reasonable maximums,
using weather records.
The 2.5% values will provide a reasonable compromise between comfort and
cost for most applications.
2.5% means that the temperature equal or exceed 2.5% of the hours in the
summertime hours.
Table A.9 (page 497) lists these conditions for some cities.
Use the DB and coincident WB temperature as the corresponding outdoor
design values.
For Bangkok, Thailand, DB, WB temperature and Daily DB temperature
range are approximately 35oC, 28oC and 10oC, respectively.
276
Conduction through Exterior Structure
Conduction is the process of transferring heat through a solid, such as a wall,
roof, floor, ceiling, glass window, or skylight.
Heat naturally flows by conduction from a higher temperature to a lower
temperature.
The most common conduction heat gains to a space are: through the roof,
external walls, and glasses.
Q=U A T Q = U A CLTDc
Q = Heat gain by conduction; Btu/hr
U = Overall heat-transfer coefficient of roof, wall, or glass; Btu/hr ft2 oF
A = Area of roof, wall, or glass; ft2
T = DB temperature difference across the surface; ºF
CLTDc = Corrected cooling load temperature difference; ºF 277
Conduction through Exterior Structure (Cont.)
The cooling load temperature difference (CLTD) is not the actual temperature
difference between the outdoor and indoor air.
It is a modified value that accounts for the heat storage and time lag effects.
Table 6.1 and 6.2 (page 122-124) list CLTD values for some roof and wall
constructions. The listed hour is Solar time which is approximately equal to
Standard time. Add one hour for Daylight Savings time.
These values are based on the following conditions:
Indoor temperature is 78oF DB.
Outdoor average temperature on the design day is 85oF DB.
Date is July 21st.
Location is 40o N latitude.
If the actual condition differs from any of the above, the CLTD must be
corrected as following:
278
Conduction through Exterior Structure (Cont.)
CLTDc = CLTD + LM + (78 tR) + (ta - 85)
ta = to (DR/2)
CLTDc = Corrected value of CLTD; oF

CLTD = Temperature from Table 6.1, 6.2, or 6.5; oF
LM = Correction for latitude and month from Table 6.4 (page 126)
tR = Room temperature, ºF
ta = Average outside temperature on a design day; ºF
to = Outside design DB temperature from Table A.9; ºF
DR = Daily temperature range from Table A.9; ºF
Note that there is no LM correction for glass. 279

U-factor
The overall heat transfer coefficient is also called
wood studs
the U-factor. The U-factor describes the rate at
which heat will be transferred through the insulation
structure. concrete block
Walls and roofs are typically made up of layers of gypsum
board
several materials. The U-factor for a specific wall aluminum
or roof is calculated by summing the thermal siding
resistances (R-values) of each of these layers and
then taking the inverse.
1
Table 6.1 and 6.3 (page 122-123 and 125) include
U-factor for the roofs and walls described.
U=
Rtotal
Rtotal is the overall (total) thermal resistance of the
combination of the individual R of each Rtotal = R1 + R2 +R3 +
component, including air films.
280
U-factor (Cont.)
Table A.4 lists the R values for various building materials.
Table A.5 lists the R values for air films both indoor and outdoor surfaces.
Table A.6 and A.7 list U-factors for roofs, walls, floors, partitions, and doors.
Table A.8 lists U-factor for glass windows and glass doors.
If the U-factor do not included in the tables, it can be calculated by adding the
individual resistances and taking the reciprocal of the Rtotal.
Note that the thermal resistance value can also be found from the thermal
conductivity (k) and the thermal conductance (C) of a material as:
R = 1/ C C=k/L
R = Thermal resistance, hr-ft 2-oF /Btu
C = Thermal conductance of a material; Btu/hr-ft2-oF
k = Thermal conductivity of a material; Btu/hr-ft2-oF per inch of thickness
281
Examples
1. A 30 ft x 40 ft roof of a building in Washington D.C., is constructed of 4 in.
heavy weight concrete with 1 in. insulation and a suspended ceiling. The
inside temperature is 76oF. Find the roof cooling load at 2 PM Solar time
on July 21?
CLTD = 29oF; LM = 1oF (HOR) ; to = 91oF; DR = 18oF; tR = 76oF; ta =
82oF; CLTDc = 29oF; U = 0.128 Btu/hr-ft2-oF; A = 1,200 ft2; Qroof = 4,455
Btu/hr
2. A south-facing wall of a building in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, has a net
opaque area of 5,600 ft2. The wall is constructed of 4 in. face brick+ 2 in.
insulation + 4 in. heavy weight concrete. The inside air temperature is
77oF. Find the wall cooling load at 4 PM Solar time on June 21?
Group B wall; CLTD = 15oF; LM = -1oF (S); to= 88oF; DR = 19oF;
tR=77oF; ta = 78oF; CLTDc = 8oF; U = 0.116 Btu/hr-ft2-oF; A = 5,600 ft2;
Qwall = 5,200 Btu/hr
282
Examples (Cont.)
3. A room has 130 ft of single glass windows with vinyl frames. Inside
air temperature is 75oF and outdoor average temperature on a
design day is 88 oF. Calculate the cooling load due to conduction
heat gain through the windows at 2 PM Daylight Saving time
(DST)?
From Table 6.5 (2 PM DST = 1 PM , ST = 13 hrs), CLTD = 12oF;
No LM correction; tR = 75oF; ta= 88oF; CLTDc = 18oF; Table A.8,
U = 0.9 Btu/hr-ft2-oF; A = 130 ft2; Q = 2,110 Btu/hr
283
Conduction through an Interior Structure
The heat flowing from interior unconditioned spaces to the conditioned space
through partitions, floors, and ceilings can be found from:
Q = U x A x TD
where Q = Heat gain by conduction through partition, floor, or ceiling; Btu/hr
U = Overall heat-transfer coefficient for partition, floor, or ceiling;
Btu/hr ft2 oF
A = Area of partition, floor, or ceiling; ft2
TD = Temperature difference between unconditioned and conditioned
space; ºF
If the temperature of the unconditioned space is not known, an approximation
often used is to assume that it is at 5oF less than outdoor temperature, except for
a room with heat sources, such as a boiler room or a mechanical room.
284
Solar Radiation through Glass
A large part of the solar heat energy that
shines on a window or skylight is radiated sun rays
through the glass and transmitted directly into
the space.
The amount of solar heat radiated through the transmitted
reflected energy
glass depends primarily on the reflective energy glass
characteristics of the glass and the angle at window
which the sun s rays strike the surface of the
glass.
Its value varies with time, orientation, shading, and storage effect.
To limit the amount of solar radiation entering the space, heat-absorbing glass,
reflective glass, or internal or external shading devices can be used.
285
Sunlit Surfaces
sun solar angle changes throughout the day

rays
286
Solar Radiation through Glass (Cont.)
The equation used to estimate the solar heat gain (cooling load) through
glass is:
Q = SHGF A SC CLF
where, Q = Heat gain by solar radiation through glass; Btu/hr

SHGF = Maximum solar heat gain factor (Table 6.6); Btu/hr-ft2
A = Total surface area of the glass; ft2
SC = Shading coefficient of the window (Table 6.7)
CLF = Cooling load factor for glass (Table 6.8 - 6.10)
287
Solar Radiation through Glass (Cont.)
The SHGF gives maximum heat gain values only for the type of glass
noted and without any shading devices.
The SC is used to account for heat gains with different fenestration
arrangements.
The CLF accounts for the storage of part of the solar heat gain.
Table 6.8-6.10 give the value of CLF. Table 6.8 is used without interior
shading devices and with carpeting, Table 6.9 is used without interior
shading devices and no carpeting, and Table 6.10 is used with interior
shading devices but the carpeting has no storage effect.
288
Shading Devices
Installing internal shading devices, such as venetian blinds, curtains, or drapes, can
reduce the amount of solar heat energy passing through a window.
The effectiveness of these shading devices depends on their ability to reflect the
incoming solar radiation back through the window, before it is converted into heat
inside the space.
Light-colored blinds or drapes lined with light-colored materials, therefore, are more
effective than dark-colored shading devices.
The type of internal shading device used affects the shading coefficient of the window-
and-shading-device combination.
External shading devices, such as overhangs, vertical fins, or awnings, can also reduce
the amount of solar heat energy passing through a window. They can be used to
reduce the area of the glass surface that is actually impacted by the sun s rays.
289
External Shading Effect
The values for the SHGF shown in Table 6.6 are for direct solar radiation
when the sun shines on the glass.
External shading from building projections (or other objects) may shade
all or part of the glass. Only an indirect radiation reaches the glass from
the sky and ground.
The SHGF values for any shaded glass is the same as the North side of the
building, which also receives only indirect radiation.
Table 6.11 (page 134) can be used to find the shading from overhead
horizontal projections. The values in this table are the vertical feet of
shade for each foot of horizontal projection.
290
Examples
1. A building wall facing southwest has a window area of 240 ft2. The glass is ¼ in. single
clear glass with light-colored interior venetian blinds. The building is of medium
construction, and is located at 40oN latitude. Find the solar cooling load in August at
3PM Solar time?
SHGF =196 Btu/hr-ft2; SC= 0.67 ;CLF= 0.83; A = 240 ft2;Qsolar=26,160
Btu/hr
2. A building at 32oN latitude has a wall facing west with a 4 ft
overhang, and a 5 ft wide by 6 ft high window whose top is 1 ft
4 ft
below the overhang. How much of the glass receives direct solar
1 ft
radiation at 3 PM?
2.9 ft
Vertical proportion of shade = 0.97; Total vertical
3.1 ft
distance the shade extends down = 0.97*4 = 3.9 ft; The
height of shade on the window = 3.9 - 1 = 2.9 ft; The
unshaded height = 6 - 2.9 = 3.1 ft; The unshaded area of
window = 5*3.1 = 15.5 ft2 291
Examples (Cont.)
3. A room with no carpeting and a wall facing east at 40N latitude has a
total window glass area of 80 ft2. The building is of heavy weight (H)
construction. The glass is ¼ in. single heat-absorbing glass with no
interior shading device. At 10 AM ST in June, and adjacent building
shades 30 ft2 of the window. What is the solar cooling load?
SHGF = 216 Btu/hr-ft2; SC = 0.69 ; CLF = 0.50; A = 50 ft2 (direct
radiation); Qdirect solar= 3,730 Btu/hr
SHGF (North orientation) = 48 Btu/hr-ft2; SC = 0.69 ; CLF= 0.50;
A = 30 ft2 (diffuse radiation); Qindirect solar= 500 Btu/hr
Total solar cooling load (Qtotal solar ) = 3,730 + 500 = 4,230 Btu/hr
292
Internal Heat Gains
The next component of the space cooling load is the heat that originates
within the space.
Typical sources of internal heat gain are people, lights, cooking
processes, and other heat-generating equipment, such as motors,
appliances, and office equipment.
While all of these sources contribute sensible heat to the space, people,
cooking processes, and some appliances (such as a coffee maker) also
contribute latent heat to the space.
293
Heat Gain from Lighting
Heat generated by lights in the space is a significant contribution to the
cooling load. For example, a 120-watt light fixture generates 410 Btu/hr of
heat approximately the same amount of heat gain from an average office
worker.
Additionally, when estimating the heat gain generated by fluorescent
lights, approximately 20% is added to the lighting heat gain to account
for the additional heat generated by the ballast.
Similar to the sensible heat gain from people, a cooling load factor (CLF)
can be used to account for the capacity of the space to absorb and store
the heat generated by the lights.
294
Heat Gain from Lighting (Cont.)
The storage effect depends on how long the lights and cooling system are
operating, and the building construction, type of lighting fixture, and
ventilation rate.
No storage effect can be allowed for any of the following conditions:
Cooling system operates only during occupied hours
Cooling system operates more than 16 hr.
Temperature of the space is allowed to rise during nonoccupied hours
(temperature swing)
The CLF tables for lighting are not presented, use CLF = 1.0.
If the lights are left on 24 hours a day, or if the air-conditioning system is
shut off or set back at night, the CLF is assumed to be equal to 1.0.
295
Heat Gain from Lighting (Cont.)
The equation used to estimate the heat gain from lighting is:
Q = 3.41 x W x BF x CLF
where Q = Sensible heat gain from lighting, Btu/hr

W = Lighting capacity, watts (w)
3.41 = Conversion factor from watts to Btu/hr
BF = Ballast factor
= 1.25 for fluorescent lights
= 1.0 for incandescent light (no extra heat loss)
CLF = Cooling load factor for lighting, dimensionless
296
Heat Generated by People
The heat gain from people is composed of two parts, sensible heat and the latent
heat resulting from perspiration.
Some of the sensible heat may be absorbed by the heat storage effect, but not the
latent heat.
The equations for cooling loads from sensible and latent heat gains from people
are:
Qs = qs x n x CLF
Ql = ql x n
where Qs, Ql = Sensible and latent heat gains (loads)

qs, ql = Sensible and latent heat gains per person (Table 6.13)
n = Number of people
CLF = Cooling load factor for people (Table 6.14)
297
Heat Generated by People (Cont.)
Table 6.13 lists values for some typical activities. The rates are suitable for
a 75oF DB room temperature. For 80oF DB, the total heat remains the
same but the sensible heat should be decreased by approximately 20%, and
the latent heat values increased accordingly.
Table 6.14 lists values of CLF for people.
If the A/C system is shut down at night no storage should be included
and CLF = 1.0 .
If there are high occupant densities such as in theaters and
auditoriums, CLF = 1.0.
298
Heat Generated by Equipment
The heat gain from equipment may sometimes be found directly from the
manufacturer or the nameplate data, with allowance for intermittent use.
Some equipment produces both sensible and latent heat.
Some values of heat output for typical appliances are shown in Table 6.15.
The heat output from motors and the equipment driven by them results
from the conversion of the electrical energy to heat.
The proportion of heat generated that is gained by the A/C space depends
on whether the motor and driven load are both in the space or only one of
them is. Table 6.16 lists heat outputs for each condition.
299
Examples
1. A room has eight 40 W fluorescent lighting fixtures in use. The cooling
system operates only during occupied hours. What is the solar cooling load
from the lighting?
BF = 1.25; CLF = 1.0; W = 40 watts; Qlighting = 1,360 Btu/hr
2. What is the heat gain from 240 people at night in a movie theater at 75 oF
DB?
n = 240; qs = 245 Btu/hr; ql = 105 Btu/hr; CLF = 1.0; Qtotal = 84,000
Btu/hr
300
Examples (Cont.)
3. Diane s Deli Diner has the following equipment operating in the A/C area,
without hoods: 1 coffee burner (2 burners); 1 coffee heater (1 burner); 1
toaster (large). What are the sensible, latent, and total heat gains from
equipment?
Qs, burner= 3,750 Btu/hr; Ql, burner= 1,910 Btu/hr; Qs, heater= 230 Btu/hr;
Ql, heater= 110 Btu/hr; Qs, toaster= 9,590 Btu/hr; Ql, toaster= 8,500 Btu/hr
;Qtotal = 24,090 Btu/hr
4. A hotel with 150 rooms has a fan-coil air conditioning unit in each room, with
a 0.16 HP motor. What is the heat gain to the building from the units?
Both motor and fan are in the conditioned spaces.
Qequipment = 1,160 Btu/hr x 150 = 174,000 Btu/hr
301
Infiltration
In a typical building, air leaks into or out of a
space through doors, windows, and small
cracks in the building envelope.
Air leaking into a space is called infiltration.
During the cooling season, when air leaks into
a conditioned space from outdoors, it can
contribute to both the sensible and latent heat
gain in the space because the outdoor air is
typically warmer and more humid than the
indoor air.
302
Infiltration (Cont.)
The amount of heat required to offset the sensible and latent heat loss from
infiltration air can be determined by:
Qs = 1.1 x CFM x TC
Ql = 0.68 x CFM x (Wi Wo )
Where Q = Sensible heat loss from infiltration or ventilation air; Btu/hr
Q = Latent heat required for infiltration or ventilation air; Btu/hr
CFM = Air infiltration or ventilation flow rate; ft/min
TC = Temperature change between indoor and outdoor air; F
Wi , Wo = Higher (indoor) and lower (outdoor) humidity ratio in
grains water / lb dry air (from psychrometric chart)
303
Methods of Estimating Infiltration
There are two methods used to estimate infiltration airflow (CFM): crack method and
air change method.
The crack method is based upon the average quantity of air known to enter through
cracks around windows and doors when the wind velocity is constant.
Table 3.4 (page 55) lists typical allowable infiltration rates, based on a 25 MPH wind.
The crack lengths and areas are determined from architectural plans or field
measurements.
Poorly fitted windows may have up to five times the sash leakage shown in Table 3.4
Table 3.4 Typical allowable design air infiltration rates through exterior windows and doors
Component Infiltration Rate
Windows 0.37 CFM per ft or sash crack
Residential doors 0.50 CFM per ft2 of door area
Nonresidential doors 1.00 CFM per ft2 of door area
304
Methods of Estimating Infiltration (Cont.)
For a corner room with door or window openings on both sides, we assume
that infiltration air comes through cracks on one side only.
For building that have frequent door usage such as department stores, the
infiltration resulting from door opening should be included. Table 3.5 (page
56) shows some average infiltration rates for frequent door usage.
Table 3.5 Infiltration rates for frequent door usage

Type ft3 per person
Swinging door, no vestibule 900
Swinging door, vestibule 550
Revolving door 60
305
The air change method is the easiest, but may be the least accurate of these
methods.
It involves estimating the number of air changes per hour that can be expected in
spaces of a certain construction quality.
Using this method, the quantity of infiltration air is estimated using the equation:
CFM = (ACH x V) 60
where, CFM = Quantity of air infiltrating into the room, cfm
V = Room volume, ft3
ACH (Air Change per Hour) = Number of air changes per hour
One ACH (Air Change per Hour) is defined as being equal to the room air volume.
Determination of the expected number of air changes is based on experience and
testing.
Suggested values range from 0.5 ACH to 1.5 ACH for buildings ranging from
tight to loose construction.
306
The air change method is used primarily in residential construction heating
load estimates, but there is no reason why the crack method cannot be used if
reliable data are available.
The crack method is generally used in nonresidential construction. Reliable
data from window manufacturers and quality control of installation and
maintenance may provide good estimates using this method.
For a building that is not mechanically ventilated and that has reasonably
free interior passages for air movement, the following rule is suggested:
The building air infiltration CFM is equal to one-half the sum of the
infiltration CFM of every opening on all sides of the building.
307
Most summer A/C systems have mechanical ventilation using some
outside air, which reduces or eliminates infiltration by creating a
positive air pressure the building.
Ventilation air is not a load on the room, but is a load on the central
cooling equipment.
Many modern buildings have fixed (sealed) windows and therefore
have no infiltration loss, except for entrances.
308
Room Cooling Load
The room cooling load is the sum of each of the cooling load components
(roof, walls, glass, solar, people, equipment, and infiltration) in the room.
A commercial cooling load calculation form is shown in Appendix (page
504). This form can be used for individual rooms or for a small building.
The following abbreviations will be used for convenience:
TCL, SCL, LCL = Component total, sensible, latent cooling loads
RTCL, RSCL, RLCL = Room total, sensible, latent cooling loads
BTCL, BSCL, BLCL = Building total, sensible, latent cooling loads
CTCL, CSCL, CLCL = Coil total, sensible, latent cooling loads
309
Room Peak Cooling Load
The A/C system must be sized to handle peak (maximum) load, the peak cooling
load must be determined.
The external heat gain components vary in intensity with time of day and time of
year because of changing solar radiation as the orientation of the sun changes and
because of outdoor temperature changes.
Some general guidelines can be offered to simplify this task.
From the CLTD, SHGF, and CLF tables, we can note the following:
Facing Glass Maximum solar load Times
West Mid-summer Afternoon
East Early or mid-summer Morning
South Fall or winter Early afternoon
Southwest Fall Afternoon
Roofs Summer Afternoon or evening
Walls Summer Afternoon or evening 310
Room Peak Cooling Load (Cont.)
These generalizations can be used to localize approximate times of room
peak loads.
For example, we might expect a south-facing room with a very large
window area to have a peak load in early afternoon in the fall not in the
summer.
However, if the room had a small glass area, the wall and glass heat
conduction might dominate and the peak load time would be a summer
afternoon.
311
Example
A room facing east, in the Shelton Motel in St. Louis, Missouri, has a 60 ft2
window with an aluminum frame with a thermal break. The window is ¼ in.
single heat-absorbing glass. Light colored interior venetian blinds are used.
The wall is a metal curtain wall with a U-value of 0.14. Building construction
is lightweight. Find the time and value of room peak cooling load. The room is
at 78 oF DB.
8 AM in August (page 143)
312
Building Peak Cooling Load
The building cooling load is the rate at which heat is removed from all air-
conditioned rooms in the building at the time the building cooling load is at its
peak value.
Since the peak cooling loads for each room in the building do not occur at the
same time, the time of year and time of day at which the building cooling load is
at a peak should be determined.
The following guidelines can be used to find the building peak cooling load:
For a square-shaped buildings with similar construction on all four walls,
the peak load is usually in late afternoon in summer.
For a long south or southwest exposure building having large glass areas,
the peak load may occur in the fall, around mid-day.
For one-story buildings with very large roof areas, the peak load usually
occurs in the afternoon in summer. 313
Building Peak Cooling Load (Cont.)
These suggestions must be verified in each case because there are so many variations
in building orientation and construction.
Once the peak load time is determined, the total building heat gains can be
calculated.
Note that the search for the time and value of peak room and building cooling loads is
greatly simplified by using computer software programs.
In some buildings, the actual building peak load may be less than the calculated value
due to load diversity or usage practice. In these cases, a diversity factor or usage
factor is sometimes estimated and applied to reduce the calculated building peak
load. For example, if it is estimated that only 90% of the lighting is actually on at
peak load time, the calculated lighting load would be multiplied by a factor of 0.90.
Choosing a proper diversity factor requires both experience and judgment about
building use practices.
314
Cooling Coil Load
The cooling coil load is the rate at which heat must be removed by the air
conditioning equipment cooling coil.
The cooling coil load will be greater than the building load because there
are heat gains to the A/C system itself. These gains may include:
Ventilation (outside air)
Heat gains to ducts
Heat produced by the A/C system fans and pumps
Air leakage from ducts
315
Ventilation
outdoor-air
supply duct
intake
diffuser
air handler
with fan and
cooling coil
Outdoor air is often used to dilute or remove contaminants from the indoor
(room) air for health and comfort.
The sensible and latent heat of this air is usually greater than that of the
room air, so it becomes part of the cooling load.
Since it usually removed in the cooling equipment, it is part of the cooling coil
load, not the building load.
316
Ventilation (Cont.)
It is common to introduce outdoor air through the A/C system, not only to
meet the ventilation needs, but also to maintain a positive pressure (relative
to the outdoors) within the building. This positive pressure reduces, or may
even eliminate, the infiltration of unconditioned air from outdoors.
To pressurize the building, the amount of outdoor air brought in for
ventilation must be greater than the amount of air exhausted through central
and local exhaust fans.
The equations for determining the sensible and latent cooling loads from
ventilation air are described previously as:
Qs = 1.1 x CFM x TC
Ql = 0.68 x CFM x (Wo Wi )
Qt = Qs + Ql
317
Ventilation (Cont.)
Recommended outdoor air ventilation rates for some applications are listed
in Table 6.17 (page 145).
Note that the values shown in this table do not make special allowance for
the amount of indoor air pollutants being generated.
If the peak load does not occur at the time of the day that the outdoor
temperature is at a maximum, a correction must be made to the outdoor
temperature used for calculating ventilation and infiltration loads.
Table 6.18 (page 146) lists this correction to reduce the peak design outdoor
dry-bulb temperature.
318
Heat Gain to Ducts
Another source of heat gain in the system
may be heat that is transferred to the
conditioned air through the walls of the
supply and return air ducts.
For example, if the supply ductwork is
routed through an unconditioned space,
such as a ceiling plenum or an attic, heat can
be transferred from the air surrounding the
duct to the supply air.
Supply ductwork is generally insulated to
prevent this heat gain and the associated
increase in temperature of the supply air
319
Heat Gain to Ducts (Cont.)
Return ductwork, on the other hand, is generally not insulated unless it passes
through a very warm space.
The heat gain can be calculated from the heat transfer equation as:
Q = U x A x TD
Where Q = Duct heat gain, Btu/hr

U = Overall coefficient of heat transfer, Btu/hr-ft2-oF
A = Duct surface area, ft
TD = Temperature difference between air in duct and surrounding air, oF
It is recommended that cold air ducts passing through unconditioned areas be
insulated to at least an overall coefficient value of U = 0.25 Btu/hr-ft2-oF.
320
Heat Gain to Ducts (Cont.)
If there is a long run of duct with a number of outlets, it might be useful to
insulate the duct even though it is in the conditioned area since the heat
gains to duct might significantly increase the air temperature at the last
outlets.
Some designers find it reasonably accurate to add a percentage to the
supply duct heat gain, rather than going though elaborate calculations.
For insulated supply duct, 1-3% of the building sensible heat load (BSCL)
is suggested, depending on the extent of ductwork.
321
System Heat Gains
air handler
fan motor
Some of the energy from the system fans and pumps is converted into heat
through friction and other effects, and becomes part of the sensible heat gain
that should be added to the load.
It is important to know where the fan heat gain occurs with respect to the
cooling coil.
For a draw-through fan arrangement (fan downstream from the cooling coil),
the heat is added to the BSCL.
For a blow-through arrangement (fan upstream from the coil), the heat gets
added to the CSCL load. 322
System Heat Gains (Cont.)
blow-through
configuration
draw-through
configuration
An approximate allowance for fan heat can be made as follows:

For 1 in. w.g. pressure, add 2.5% to BSCL
For 2 in. w.g. pressure, add 5% to BSCL
For 4 in. w.g. pressure, add 10% to BSCL
323
System Heat Gains (Cont.)
Heat from the chilled water pump on small systems is generally small and
may be neglected, but for large systems it may range from 1-2% of
sensible load.
For central systems with remote chilled water cooling coils, the pump heat
is a load on the refrigeration chiller, but not the cooling coil.
Thus, for a chilled water system, the refrigeration load (RL) is the cooling
coil load plus the chilled water pump heat.
324
Duct Air Leakage
Duct systems will leak air at joints.
A careful duct installation should limit duct leakage to 5% or less of the
total CFM.
If ducts are outside the conditioned space, the effect of leakage must be
added to the BSCL and BLCL.
If the air leaks into the conditioned space, then it does useful cooling,
but care should be taken that it is not distributed to the wrong location.
325
Summary of Commercial Cooling Load Calculation
Procedures
1. Select indoor and outdoor design conditions from Table 1.1 and A.9.
2. Use architectural plans to measure dimensions of all surfaces through
which there will be external heat gains, for each room.
3. Calculate areas of all these surfaces.
4. Select heat transfer coefficient U-values for each element from appropriate
tables, or calculate from individual R-values
5. Determine time of day and month of peak load for each room by
calculating external heat gains at times that they are expected to be a
maximum. Search Tables 6.1, 6.2, 6.6 and 6.8 to find maximum values.
Often calculations at a few different times will be required, but the
suggestions described previously should be helpful.
326
Summary of Commercial Cooling Load Calculation
Procedures (Cont.)
6. Calculate each room peak load (RSCL, RLCL, and RTCL).
7. Find the time of building peak load using a similar search process as in
item 5.
8. Calculate the building load at peak time, adding all external and internal
heat gains and infiltration, if any. Add supply duct heat gain, duct heat
leakage and draw-through supply fan heat gain, if significant.
9. Find the cooling coil and refrigeration load by adding the ventilation load
to the building heat gains; adding blow-through fan, return air fan, and
pump heat gains, if significant.
10. Calculate required supply air conditions using the psychrometric chart.
327
328
Example
The Superb Supermarket, shown below, is located in Indianapolis, Indiana. It is
a one-story building with a basement used for storage. Construction and
conditions are as follows:
329
Example (Cont.)
Roof is 4 in. h.w.concrete slab, 2 in. insulation, gypsum board ceiling, U=0.09
Btu/hr-ft2-oF
Floor is 4 in. concrete slab, U = 0.35 Btu/hr-ft2-oF
Walls are 4 in. face brick, 4 in. common brick, 2 in. insulation, ½ in. gypsum
wallboard, U = 0.11 Btu/hr-ft2-oF
Front window is ¼ in. single heat absorbing glass, 10 ft high, aluminum frame,
not shaded.
Doors are ¼ in. single clear glass, aluminum frame.
Receiving door is 1½ in. steel with urethane core.
Occupancy is 60 people.
Construction is medium (M) weight.
Lighting is 3 watts per square foot of floor area, fluorescent fixtures.
Outdoor ventilation rate as per Table 6.17.
Store is open from 10 AM to 8 PM (9 AM to 7 PM Standard time)
Determine the required cooling load? 330
331
Piping and Ducts

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Hydronic Piping Systems and Terminal Units
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Hydronic piping system is the piping used to circulate chilled water for
A/C system.
The heat exchangers that transfer the heat between the water and the
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spaces to be cooled is called Terminal Units .

The connections between the piping and the terminal units may be made
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in any of these four basic ways:

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The entire water supply flows through each terminal unit and then returns to the
generator and pump. -
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There are several disadvantages:
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The maintenance or repair of any unit requires shutdown of the entire system.
Separate capacity control of each unit is not possible.
The number of units is limited since the water temperature in later units may be
too high for adequate cooling.
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Series Loop (Cont.)
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By arranging the piping in two or more split series loops, as shown above,
some disadvantages of the series loop can be partially remedied.
The series loop arrangement is simple and inexpensive.
-
It is limited to small, low-budget applications such as residences.

One-Pipe Main
Each terminal unit is connected by a supply and a return branch pipe to the
main.
By locating valves in the branch lines, each unit can be separately controlled
and service.
If there are too many units, the water going to the later units may be too hot to
cool the rooms adequately.
A special diverting tees are used at each supply branch takeoff to direct some of
the water to the branch.
Two-Pipe Direct Return
There are two main lines, one for supply water and one for return.
Each terminal unit is fed by an individual supply branch.
A return branch carries the water back to the return main.
In this manner, all units receive water directly from the source.
The supply water temperature to each unit is the same.
The total system flow rate is split up among the terminal units, according to
the design.
Each terminal unit can be separately controlled and serviced.
Two-Pipe Direct Return (Cont.)
The return main is routed to bring the water back to the source by the
shortest path.
This creates a problem since the path the water takes from the pump to the
first units and back is shorter than the units further away.
Thus, there will be too much water going to the units nearest the pump and
too little to the units furthest from the pump.
Balancing valves can be installed in every branch, but the balancing process
is difficult and requires considerable expense.
All larger systems use two-pipe arrangements.
Two-Pipe Reverse Return
The return main is arranged in a reverse return arrangement as shown above.

The path length for the water is about the same regardless of which unit it
passes through.
With this arrangement, it is a relatively simple process to balance the flow
rates.
Note that two-pipe arrangements both direct and reverse return are almost
always used for chilled water distribution to terminal cooling units.
Terminal Units
Terminal units are heat exchangers that
transfer the heat between the room air
and the circulating water.
Fan-coil unit (FCU) is suitable for both
cooling and heating.
It consists of a cabinet enclosing one or
two serpentine-shaped finned-tube coils,
small centrifugal fans with motors, and
an air filter.
Fan-coil Unit (FCU) An FCU can be mounted in various
horizontal and vertical arrangement.
Terminal Units (Cont.)
Fan-coil units include a drain pan under the coil
to collect the condensate created from
dehumidifying the air. FCU
These drains must be piped to a central building
drain.
The filter is basically suitable for cleaning only
recirculated room air, not the often quite dirty
outside air.
Capacity variation of a fan-coil unit can be AHU
achieved through room thermostat control of
either fan speed or coil water flow rate.
System Water Temperature and Flow Rate
Hydronic cooling systems using chilled water (CHW) do not have
temperature categories. The supply temperature required in CHW systems
depends on the dehumidification needed and usually ranges from 40-50 oF.
The system temperature rise usually ranges from 5-15 oF.
The relation between water temperature, flow rate, and heat gain or loss was
shown by:
Q = m x c x TC
Where Q = Heat gain or loss of water, Btu/hr

m = Flow rate of water, lb/hr
c = Specific heat (c=1.0 Btu/lb -oF for water)
TC= Temperature change of water, oF
System Water Temperature and Flow Rate (Cont.)
A more convenient form of the equation is to express the flow rate in GPM.
Q = 500 x GPM x TC
Where Q = Heat gain or loss of water, Btu/hr

GPM= Flow rate of water, gal/min
1 GPM = 500 lb/hr of water
TC= Temperature change of water, oF
Example
Determine the chilled water temperatures and flow rates for the two-pip
reverse return system. The terminal units are FCUs. Capacities are listed in
Table 5.4 (page 116). The building is a small group of medical offices, with a
cooling load of 220,000 Btu/hr.
Example (Cont.)
Solution:
Try a system temperature rise of 12 oF
Assume a CHW supply temperature of 44 oF
GPM = 220,000 / (500 x 12) = 36.7 GPM
Assume that the flow rate is distributed equally among all five units, giving
each unit of 36.7/5 = 7.3 GPM.
For the first unit: TC = 52,000 / (500x7.3) = 14 oF ;
Thus, Tout = TC + Tin = 44+14 = 58 oF
The same procedure is carried out for each unit.
Flow Energy Equation
The energy of the fluid at any point in a pipe or duct consists of pressure,
velocity (kinetic energy), and elevation (potential energy).
The added energy may be that of a pump or fan whereas the energy lost is due
to friction.
Other energy changes such as temperature change are usually small and may
be neglected.
Energy balance is expressed as:
Flow Energy Equation (Cont.)
(V22 V12 )
H p = (H s 2 H s1 ) + + (H e2 H e1 ) + H f
2g
Where Hs = Static pressure of fluid , ft

V = Velocity, ft/sec
g = Gravitational constant, 32.2 ft/sec
V2/2g = Velocity pressure (Hv), ft
He = Elevation, ft
Hp = Pressure added by pump or fan, ft
Hf = Pressure lost in piping or duct from friction, ft
Pressure Loss in Closed and Open Systems
An open piping or duct system is one that is open to the atmosphere at some
point.
A condenser-cooling tower water system is also open.
A closed system is one where the water is recirculated continuously and
there is no gap or opening in the piping.
A hydronic system is a closed system.
Air duct systems are almost always open systems.
If the duct layout is horizontal, the change in pressure due to elevation
change (He2 He1) is either zero or is usually small enough to be negligible.
Air pressure values in ducts are usually measured in inches of water gage
(in. w.g.).
Example
The duct shown below has 8,000 CFM flowing through it. The friction loss
from point 1 to 2 is 0.43 in. w. If the static pressure at 1 is 1.10 in. w.g., what is
the static pressure at 2?
Solution H s 2 = H s1 + H p Hf +(
V12 V22
) + ( H e1 H e 2 )
2g
Hp = 0 and (He1 He2) = 0

Q = VA
V12 V22
H s 2 = H s1 Hf +( ) A
2g V2 = ( 1 )V1
A2
Example (Cont.)
V1= 2,000 ft/min; V2 = 500 ft/min
V2
H v = Velocity Pr essure =
2g
2
V
Hv =
4,000
where V = Air velocity, ft/min

Hv =Velocity pressure, in. w.
V1 2 V
H s 2 = 1.10 0.43 + ( ) ( 2 )2
4000 4000
Hs2 = 0.90 in. w.g.

Conversion of Velocity Pressure to Static Pressure
(Static Regain)
If the velocity decreases in the direction of flow (because the pipe or duct size
has increased) then the static pressure increases.
A conversion of velocity energy to static energy is called static pressure regain.
If there is no friction loss, no pump or fan pressure, and no change in
elevation, the flow energy equation will be written as:
2 2
V1 V2
H s2 H s1 = H v1 H v2 =
4000 4000
However, there is always some friction loss; thus, the actual static pressure
regain is never as high as that shown above.
The proportion of static regain that can be recovered, called the recovery
factor R, depends upon the shape of the transition that changes velocity.
Conversion of Velocity Pressure to Static Pressure
(Static Regain) (Cont.)
The actual static pressure regain (SPR) is therefore:
2 2
V1 V2
SPR = R( H v1 Hv2 ) = R
4000 4000
Recovery factors (R) of 0.7 to 0.9 can be achieved with reasonably gradual
transitions, thereby keeping friction losses low.
The opposite event to a static pressure regain will occur in a converging
transition, resulting in a decrease in static pressure (such as in a nozzle).
Diverging transition Converging transition

Pressure Loss from Friction in Piping and Ducts
Friction is a resistance to flow resulting from fluid viscosity and from the walls
of the pipe or duct.
For the type of flow usually existing in A/C systems, called turbulent flow, the
pressure loss or drop due to friction can be found from the following equation
(called the Darcy-Weisbach relation):
L V2
Hf = f
D 2g
Where
Hf = Pressure loss (drop) from friction in straight pipe or duct
f = Friction factor
L = Length of pipe or duct
D = Diameter of pipe or duct
V = Velocity of fluid
Pressure Loss from Friction in Piping and Ducts (Cont.)
The friction factor (f) depends on the roughness of the pipe or duct wall.
Rougher surfaces will cause increased frictional resistance.
By maintaining smooth surfaces, friction decreases and less energy is used.
Lower velocities and larger diameters reduce Hf and therefore result in lower
energy consumption, although the pipe or duct cost then increases.
Charts are much easier and are commonly used to find pressure loss in water
flow and airflow.
Fig. 8.13 and 8.14 (pages 207-208) are the charts used to find the pressure
loss for water at 60 oF flowing in straight steel Schedule 40 pipe (a widely
used pipe for A/C installations).
Fig. 8.13 is suitable when the pipe wall is in a clean condition (e.g., a closed
hydronic heating and cooling system).
Pressure Loss from Friction in Piping and Ducts (Cont.)
Fig. 8.14 is suitable for open piping systems. In such systems, the pipe wall is
usually rougher than in closed systems, resulting in a higher friction loss.
Fig. 8.15 (page 209) is suitable for water at 60 oF flowing in copper tubing for
both closed and open systems since copper tube wall will usually not roughen
significantly with age in open systems.
Type K, L, and M lines on the chart refer to different tube wall thicknesses.
Type K or L copper tubing is widely used for water under pressure in A/C
installations.
For chilled water temperature ranges (40-50 oF) and condensing water
temperature ranges (80-100 oF), Fig. 8.13-8.15 may be used without correction.
For hot water systems with temperatures in the vicinity of 200 oF, the pressure
loss due to friction is about 10% less than shown and should be corrected.
This is a result of the change in viscosity and density of water with temperature.
Figure 8.13. Friction Loss for Water in Schedule 40 Steel Pipe- Closed System
Figure 8.15. Friction Loss for Water in Copper Tubing
Specification of Steel Pipe
Examples
1. What is the pressure loss due to friction and the velocity in 500 ft of 2 in.
Schedule 40 steel piping through which 40 GPM of water at 60oF is flowing in
a closed system?
From Fig. 8.13

Hf = (3.2 ft w. / 100 ft ) x 500 ft = 16.0 ft w.
2. A copper tubing system is to be used to circulated 30 GPM of water at 60oF.

The system is to be designed to have a friction pressure drop no greater than
3 ft w. per 100 ft pipe. What is the smallest size tubing that can be used?
From Fig. 8.15

D = 2 in. ; Hf = 2.0 ft w. / 100 ft
Pressure Loss in Pipe Fittings
In addition to the pressure loss in straight pipe, there will be pressure losses from
turbulence and change of direction through fittings and valves.
The pressure losses in Table 8.1 is called the equivalent length (E.L) of straight pipe
that would have the same pressure drop as that fitting.
After finding the E.L., the appropriate friction loss chart is used to find the actual
pressure drop through the fitting.
Note that pressure drops in Table 8.1 are valid only for fully open valves.
The loss coefficient (C-values) method can be used to find pressure drop for duct
fittings.
Piping System Pressure Drop
The system pressure drop is simply the sum of the losses through each item
in one of the paths or circuits from pump discharge to pump suction,
including piping, fitting, valves, and equipment.
The pressure losses through only one circuit are considered. This is because
the pressure losses are the same through every circuit.
To find the total system pressure drop in a multi-circuited system, proceed
as follows:
Examine the piping layout to determine which of the parallel connected circuits has
the longest total equivalent length (TEL), usually this is the circuit that has the
longest straight pipe length or it is a shorter circuit that has such an exceptionally
large number of fittings, valves, and equipment.
Calculate the pressure drop through only this circuit, ignoring all other circuits.
Example
For the steel piping systems shown below determine the required pump head?
The longest circuit is ABCC DEF, and circuits ABEF and ACDF are ignored.
System Pipe Sizing
The most common procedure to determine the appropriate size of each section
of pipe is the Equal friction method .
The steps in this procedure are as follows:
Prepare a diagrammatic sketch of the piping system, including each
terminal unit.
Determine the flow rate (GPM) through each unit.
Find the flow rate through each section of pipe by starting from the last
terminal unit supplied and progressively add the flow rates to each
preceding section of the supply main.
Choose a value of friction loss rate to be used for the system piping, based
on all of the following recommendations:
The friction loss rate should be between approximately 1 to 5 ft w./100 ft pipe.
Within these limits, values in the higher end (5 ft w.) are usually used for larger
systems, since this reduces pipe sizes and costs.
System Pipe Sizing (Cont.)
Values from 1.5-3.5 ft w./100 ft are commonly used in most applications.
The velocity in the largest mains should not exceed 4-6 fps in small systems, or 8-10
fps in large systems.
The velocity in any pipe passing through occupied areas should not exceed 4 fps,
regardless of system size, since excessive noise may result.
The velocity in any pipe section should not be below about 1.5 fps since dirt or air
may be trapped in the line, blocking water flow.
Based on the friction loss guidelines, select a pipe size for the supply main
leaving the pump, based on its flow rate.
Often the friction loss rate chosen will result in a selection between two
standard sizes. In this case, choose the one that is closet to the originally
designed friction loss rate.
Check the velocity limit guidelines before selecting the desired friction loss
rate.
System Pipe Sizing (Cont.)
The value of the new friction loss rate chosen is then used as a desired
standard to select the pipe sizes for the rest of the system.
Continue selecting the size of each section of supply main pipe, based on its
flow rate, each with a friction loss rate as close as possible to the desired
standard value. Note that not every successive pipe section will change
size, until the flow rate change becomes great enough.
Branch piping runout sizes to units may also be selected using the equal
friction method, but there are some exceptions:
The minimum velocity requirement may determine the pipe size.
The branch pipe size is sometimes chosen to equal the fitting connection size at the
terminal unit to reduce installation costs.
In two-pipe direct return systems, the branch piping in those circuits with short
total lengths is sometimes deliberately undersized to reduce the tendency to excess
flow in those circuits.
Example
Select the pipe sizes for the chilled water piping system shown below?
Type L copper tubing is used. Each terminal unit takes 10 GPM. The
branches to each unit are a total of 10 ft long. Lengths of the mains are
shown on the sketch.
Example (Cont.)
Note that the piping system shown is a direct return arrangement, which in this
case will have some circuits much shorter than others. The water flow will tend
to short-circuit through ABIJ and other short loops, starving the last units.
The pipe size selected for branches is 1 in. rather than 1 ¼ in. in order to
increase the pressure drop in the branches.
Friction Loss from Airflow in Ducts
Fig. 8.21 (page 217) shows the pressure loss from friction for airflow in straight
round ducts in similar manner to water flow in piping.
This chart is suitable for clean galvanized steel round ducts with about 40 joints
per 100 ft, and with air at standard conditions.
Fig. 8.23 (page 218) shows the equivalent round duct sizes of the rectangular
ducts.
Fig. 8.21 Fig. 8.23

Friction Loss for Airflow in Galvanized Steel Round Ducts
Equivalent Round Duct Sizes
Aspect Ratio
The aspect ratio is the ratio of the dimensions of the two adjacent sides of a
rectangular duct (long side / short side).
With the same friction loss, a rectangular duct will have a greater area than a
round duct since the rectangular shape has a greater ratio of surface to cross
section, which causes more friction.
This problem becomes worse as the aspect ratio increases.
As a general rule, the aspect ratios of rectangular ducts should be as low as
possible to keep friction losses reasonably low.
A high aspect ratio will also mean more sheet metal and therefore a more
expensive system.
The height available for horizontal ducts is often limited by the clearance
above hung ceilings, resulting in high aspect ratio.
Example
A 20 in. by 11 in. duct is supposed to be handling 3000 CFM. The engineer
from Top Testing Co. is assigned to check the performance. The engineer
takes pressure readings on manometers 50 ft. apart in the duct and reads 1.75
in. w. and 1.63 in. w. Is the system handling the proper airflow? If not, what is
the flow?
Solution
From Fig. 8.23, the equivalent round duct diameter of 20 x11 in. is 16 in.
From Fig. 8.21, the friction loss for this duct at 3000 CFM is 0.37 in. w. per 100 ft.
For 50 ft, the friction loss is 0.0037 x 50 = 0.185 in. w.
The actual friction loss is 1.75 1.63 = 0.12 in. w. per 50 ft
Therefore, the duct is supplying less than 3000 CFM
The actual flow is calculated by finding the friction loss per 100 ft and then uses Fig.
8.21 to determine the actual CFM with the same duct size of 16 in.
Thus, the actual flow is 2400 CFM.
Pressure Loss in Duct Fittings
In addition to the pressure loss in straight lengths of duct, there is a pressure
loss when the air flows through duct fittings (e.g., elbows, tees, transitions).
These pressure losses, called dynamic losses, are due to the turbulence and
change in direction.
The ced e called L C efficie Me h d ill be ed f de e i i g
the pressure loss through a duct fitting.
It is expressed as:
2
V
H f = CxHv = C
4000
Where
Hf = Total pressure loss through fitting; in. w
C = Loss coefficient (Table 8.4-8.8 on pages 220-228)
Hv = Velocity pressure at fitting; in. w.
V = Velocity; ft/min
Note that the downstream velocity is used with converging transitions while the upstream
velocity is used for diverging transitions.
Pressure Loss in Duct Fittings (Cont.)
Where there is a combined transition and branch in a duct system, the pressure loss
in the straight main run and in the branch are separate, and the value of each
depends on the shape.
If it is important to minimize losses, the shape should be as shown in Fig. 8.28 on
page 230. In this case, the pressure loss through the straight run can usually be
neglected, and the branch pressure loss can be calculated as an elbow.
Fig. 8.29 on page 230 is often fabricated to reduce the cost of fittings but the
pressure loss through the branch may be considerable, particularly at high
velocities.
Example
The diverging transition piece shown below is handling 12,000 CFM (upstream). The total
pressure (Ht) at point 1 is 2.35 in. w.g. Find the static pressure (Hs) at point 1 and the total
and static pressure at point 2? (Note that Ht = Hs + Hv at any point)
A1 = 8 ft2 A2 = 16 ft2
30o
Find the pressure loss through the fitting: from Table 8.5b, with A2/A1 = 2.0, read C = 0.25
V1 = Q/A = 12000/8 = 1500 ft/min
V2 = 12000/16 = 750 ft/min
Hf = 0.25*(1500/4000)2 = 0.035 in. w.
Find Hv1 and Hs1: Hv1 = (1500/4000)2 = 0.14 in. w. ; Hs1 = Ht1 Hv1 = 2.21 in. w.
Find Ht2, Hv2 and Hs2 : Ht2 = Ht1 Hf= 2.315 in. w. ; Hv2 = (750/4000)2 = 0.035 in. w.
Hs2 = Ht2 Hv2 = 2.28 in. w.g.
Find the static pressure regain (SPR) = Hs2 Hs1 = 0.07 in. w.
Pressure Loss at Fan Inlet and Outlet
There will also be a pressure loss at the fan inlet and outlet, the value of which
depends on the shape of the fan-duct connection, called the system effect.
Table 8.9 (page 230) shows some values of the resulting loss coefficient C.
No straight inlet duct (poor connection) Long straight inlet duct (good connection)
Duct System Pressure Loss
The system total pressure loss is defined as the total pressure loss through
the duct path that has the largest pressure losses.
This path is often the longest one, but it may be a shorter path that contains
an unusual number of fittings or devices with large pressure loses.
To find the system total pressure loss, the losses are summed up for each
section of straight duct and each fitting in the path chosen.
Pressure losses through any equipment (coils, filters, diffusers) must be
included. The manufacture will finish this data.
Example
For the duct system shown below, determine the system total pressure loss
and fan requirements. The fan inlet and outlet connections are not shown,
but it has been found that the system effect inlet loss is 0.20 in. w. and the
outlet loss is 0.08 in. w. The total pressure required at each air outlet for
proper distribution is 0.1 in. w.g.?
Example (Cont.)
Solution
Path XABCDEF is the longest. It is also the path with the greatest pressure loss,
because none of the shorter paths have unusual pressure losses.
Note that the diverging transitions have a negligible pressure loss due to the
gradual transformation and relatively low velocities.
Duct Design Methods
Two methods of sizing ducts will be explained: the equal friction method and
the static regain method.
Example
Where
500 500 400 500

50 50 40
C D E F
60
A 70
Fan B
80 G 60 H 60 J
400 300 500

Where
Example
Where
A B C D E
50 40 30 35
Fan
4 diffusers
2000 CFM each
Where

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Refrigeration and

D – A : Expansion Process (Throttling Process) 11

cooiingaif Tatms 35ย

MIq.mn/condensorTfeneVaP_l +า Pefrigeratr aงานiอนกjบ

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lokPaftylokta.co ปาง {าย P คงa

will remove heat from the refrigerated space.

Qw: Heat or Work of compression (kW)-

m : Mass flow rate of the refrigerant (kg/s)

Heat absorbed from the refrigerated space

Re frigerating effect (qe ) hB hD

COP = (h1- h4)/(h2-h1)

Does the value of total volume of vapor (V) increase or decrease ?

The drop in pressure occurring in the lines and across

the evaporator, condenser, etc.

compressor due to friction.

• In an actual cycle, the superheating of the suction vapor usually

• Superheating that produces useful cooling 48

volume of vapor that the

Simple Saturated Cycle:

The C.O.P of a heat exchanger cycle may be

the liquid are approximately offset by the

→ valve & fitting → h คง > ③

ร บบ คร งท คว ม ยนท งกลร บบ นง ช้ รท คว ม ยน ปน R-12 มมตว่

จ ก Condenser ม ณ ภมต กว่ ข ง ลว มตว ( Subcooled Liquid) 5oC ก่ นทจ ข้

จง ปรม ณคว มร้ นทง มดทค ย กท Condenser

Bare-tube: Flat zigzag coil Bare-tube: Oval trombone coil 77

Plate evaporator Finned evaporator, FCU 79

TE : Temperature of the air entering the coil

Refrigerant distributor and

Face-split or Horizontal-split Intertwined

Double-Pipe Cooler Shell-and-Tube Chiller

CPU Refrigeration Cooler

Q : Quantity of heat transferred (condenser capacity)

NOTE: The unit of V and m are in m3/s and L/s respectively.

In addition to maintaining a pressure difference, the thermostatic expansion

refrigerant vapor 94ºC spring

o Compression Cycle of Reciprocating

In this example helical-rotary compressor, refrigerant vapor is

Centrifugal compressor with multiple impellers

Hermetic compressor Hermetic compressor seals the

(a) Piston at top dead center (b) Suction stroke

(c) Piston at bottom dead center (d) Discharge stroke 130

where Vp: Piston displacement (L/s)

Theoretical refrigerating capacity of the compressor = m q e

m : Mass of refrigerant circulated per unit time (kg/s)

where Vp : Piston displacement (L/s)

Total volumetric efficiency of the compressor (Ev) is calculated

where E v : Total volumetric efficiency of the compressor (%)

For a compressor of any given clearance, the volumetric efficiency

The factors that tend to limit the volume of

Theoretical Pressure - Volume

The total volumetric efficiency of a compressor can be determined with

where Eo = Overall efficiency ( %)

คว ม ม รถข งก รท คว ม ยนท ปนจรงข ง คร ง ด (Actual refrigerating capacity

พลงง นท ช้ นก ร มน พล ข ง คร ง ด (Shaft Power, Ps) ถ้ ค่ ปร ทธภ พ ดยรวม

หม ย หต: มมตว่ ร บบก รท คว ม ยนน ปน บบ ด ย่ งง่ ย (Simple Saturated

Er ธ Evo 1,0321 + 10 <100

Pyo Co. 0943) ( 347- 240)

Pyo 19.2 x10- 3) ( 152 hN

ก่อนจะส่ ง ข้าตัวอวา ป ร ตอร์ ดังนันต้องทาการซับคลลง ละกาจัด อสาร

ยง) ละ ออมตัว ( ส้น ออมตัวส ดง)

Enthalpy (h) 162