MOTIVATION

MANAGEMENT AND ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR

LECTURER: SHARON @ TOH PEI SUNG, PH.D

 Learning Objectives
1. Compare the major differences between the four content
approaches of motivation.
2. Give examples of how the three process approaches affect
employee motivation.
3. Examine how the exchange theory relates to the motivation and
psychological contract.
4. Summarize the action steps that managers can take to motivate
employees.
Determinants of Job Performance
 Determinants of Job Performance
Motivation Components
• Direction (what an individual chooses to do when
presented with a number of alternatives)
• Persistence (how long a person will continue to
devote effort)
• Intensity (Effort)
Motivation Theories
 Content & Process Approaches
• Process theories describe,
explain, and analyze how
behavior is:
• Energized.
Content theories focus on: • Directed.
Factors within the person. • Sustained.
The needs that motivate people. • Stopped.
 Content Approaches

Maslow’s need hierarchy

Alderfer’s ERG theory

Herzberg’s two-factor theory

McClelland’s learned needs

theory
Maslow’s Needs Hierarchy Related to the Job
 Alderfer’s ERG Theory
• Alderfer’s ERG needs correspond to Maslow’s
hierarchy
• Existence = physiological and safety
• Relatedness = belongingness, social, love
• Growth = esteem and self-actualization
 Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
◼ A content theory with two motivation factors
■ Dissatisfiers-satisfiers (hygiene factors)
– Salary, job security, working conditions, status, company
procedures, interpersonal relations
■ Satisfiers-motivators (intrinsic conditions)
– The job content, achievement, recognition, responsibility,
advancement, possibility of growth
 Traditional versus Herzberg View of Job
No job dissatisfaction, high job
satisfaction
Satisfaction No job dissatisfaction, no job
satisfaction
An employee who is paid well, has job
security, has good relationships with An employee who is paid well,
co-workers and the supervisor has job security, has good
(hygiene factors are present = no job relationships with co-workers
dissatisfaction), and is given
challenging duties for which he is
and the supervisor (hygiene
accountable will be motivated. factors are present = no job
dissatisfaction), but is not given
High job dissatisfaction, no job any challenging assignments
satisfaction
and is very bored with her job
An employee who is not paid well, has (motivators are absent = no job
little job security, has poor relationships satisfaction) will not be
with co-workers and the supervisor motivated.
(hygiene factors are not present = high
job dissatisfaction), is not given any
challenging assignments and is very
bored with her job (motivators are
absent = no job satisfaction) will not be
motivated.
 McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory

◼ McClelland believes needs are acquired from

culture
■ Need for achievement (n Ach)
■ Need for affiliation (n Aff)

■ Need for power (n Pow)

McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory

• Factors reflecting a high n Ach

• Likes to take responsibility for solving problems
• Sets moderate achievement goals and takes
calculated risks
• Desires feedback on performance
McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory

• Factors reflecting a high n Pow

• Concentrates on obtaining and exercising
power and authority
• Concerned with influencing others and
winning arguments
• Power can be negative or positive
McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory

• Factors reflecting a high n Aff

• Desires social interaction
• Concerned about the quality of personal
relationships
• Social relationships take precedence over
task accomplishment
Four Content Approaches to Motivation
 Process Theories of Motivation
◼ Content theories focus primarily on the needs and
incentives that cause behavior
■ They try to explain how behavior is energized, directed, maintained,
and stopped

◼ The process theories of motivation are concerned with

answering the questions of how individual behavior is
energized, directed, maintained, and stopped.
■ Expectancy theory
■ Equity theory
■ Goal-setting
 Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
• Employees are more likely to be motivated when they perceive that
effort = successful performance + desired rewards and outcomes
◼ Instrumentality
■ The perception that first-level outcomes (performance) are tied to second-level
outcomes (rewards or punishment)
◼ Valence
■ An individual’s preferences for outcomes

◼ Expectancy
■ Belief that a particular behavior will be followed by a particular outcome
Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
 Equity Theory

• One’s perception of being treated fairly

in social exchanges can influence
motivation

• Equity exists when one perceives that

the ratio of their inputs (efforts) to their
outcomes (rewards) equals the ratios of
other employees
Important Equity Theory Terms
The Equity Theory of Motivation
 Change Procedures to Restore Equity
• You and your co-worker are both working as sales executives for a
company.
• You put in longer hours and have more sales than your colleague.
• You have just found out that your colleague received a RM 5000 raise
(compared to your RM 1000).
• You feel angry, frustrated and also feel unfairly treated.
 Change Procedures to Restore Equity
1. Changing inputs – You may decide to put less time or effort into the job.
2. Changing outcomes – You may decide to negotiate for a much larger pay raise
(e.g., to get a least RM5000 total).
3. Changing attitudes – Convince yourself that the money is less important than
other outcomes (e.g., nice place to work, job security and others).
4. Changing the reference person – Change the reference person to someone
who received a raise that was similar to the one you received.
5. Changing the inputs or outcomes of the reference person – Encourage the
individual to work longer hours and work harder to justify the larger pay
increase.
6. Leaving the field – You may decide to quit your job.
 Organizational Justice

◼ The degree to which individuals feel fairly

treated at the workplace
Four Dimensions of Organizational Justice
 Goal Setting
◼ A goal is a result that a person or group is trying to
accomplish through behavior and actions
◼ Locke’s view…
■ An individual’s conscious goals and intentions are the
primary determinants of behavior
■ Once a person starts something, he/she
pushes on until a goal is achieved
■ Harder goals result in higher levels of performance if the
goals are accepted by the individual
 Goal Setting Applied to Organizations
It is important for
any goal to be
clear, meaningful As goals are
and challenging. accomplished and
this performance is
evaluated, rewards
Relationship
are distributed. If
between goals
the rewards are
and performance
preferred as
is moderated by
discussed in
ability,
expectancy theory,
commitment and Lack of ability, no accomplishment employees are
feedback.
Drive, intensity and persistence likely to be
satisfied and
Improvement in effort need to be made motivated.
 Motivation and the Psychological Contract
◼ Exchange theory
■ Organizational members engage in reasonably predictable give-and-
take relationships An employee gives time and effort in exchange for pay;
management provides pleasant working conditions in exchange for
employee loyalty
◼ Per Schein, the degree to which employees exert effort, commit to
goals, and derive satisfaction from work depends on
■ The extent to which employee expectations of what the organization
will give them and in return matches the organization’s expectations of
what it will give and receive.
■ The specific nature of what is exchanged (effort for pay)
 The Psychological Contract
◼ Mutual expectations constitute part
of the psychological contract
■ An unwritten agreement between the individual and the
organization
■ Specifies what each expects to give and receive from the
other
■ Can change over time
■ These implicit agreements may take precedence over
written agreements
Managers…
• Can influence the motivation
state of employees.
• Must intervene and help create
an atmosphere that encourages,
supports, and sustains
improvement.
• Should be sensitive to variations
in employees’ needs, abilities, and
goals.
• Must consider differences
valences for rewards.
• Should continually monitor the needs,
abilities, goals, and preferences of
employees and not just depend on HR
to do so.
• Need to provide employees with jobs
that offer task challenge, diversity, and
a variety of opportunities for need
satisfaction.
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Thank you