Theory Construction and Model

Building Skills A Practical Guide for

Social Scientists 2nd Edition James
Jaccard
Visit to download the full and correct content document:
https://textbookfull.com/product/theory-construction-and-model-building-skills-a-practi
cal-guide-for-social-scientists-2nd-edition-james-jaccard/
More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

Social Skills Handbook Practical Activities for Social

Communication 2nd Edition Sue Hutchings

https://textbookfull.com/product/social-skills-handbook-
practical-activities-for-social-communication-2nd-edition-sue-
hutchings/

Model Predictive Control: Theory, Computation, and

Design, 2nd Edition Rawlings James B.

https://textbookfull.com/product/model-predictive-control-theory-
computation-and-design-2nd-edition-rawlings-james-b/

Building a Roll-Off Roof or Dome Observatory: A

Complete Guide for Design and Construction 2nd Edition
John Stephen Hicks (Auth.)

https://textbookfull.com/product/building-a-roll-off-roof-or-
dome-observatory-a-complete-guide-for-design-and-
construction-2nd-edition-john-stephen-hicks-auth/

Practical Statistics for Data Scientists 2nd Edition

Peter Bruce

https://textbookfull.com/product/practical-statistics-for-data-
scientists-2nd-edition-peter-bruce/
Successful Academic Writing A Complete Guide for Social
and Behavioral Scientists 1st Edition Anneliese A.
Singh

https://textbookfull.com/product/successful-academic-writing-a-
complete-guide-for-social-and-behavioral-scientists-1st-edition-
anneliese-a-singh/

A Practical Guide to Construction Adjudication 1st

Edition Pickavance

https://textbookfull.com/product/a-practical-guide-to-
construction-adjudication-1st-edition-pickavance/

Improvised Theatre and the Autism Spectrum A Practical

Guide to Teaching Social Connection and Communication
Skills 1st Edition Kramer

https://textbookfull.com/product/improvised-theatre-and-the-
autism-spectrum-a-practical-guide-to-teaching-social-connection-
and-communication-skills-1st-edition-kramer/

The Naked Consultation A Practical Guide to Primary

Care Consultation Skills 2nd Edition Liz Moulton

https://textbookfull.com/product/the-naked-consultation-a-
practical-guide-to-primary-care-consultation-skills-2nd-edition-
liz-moulton/

Rotor and Structural Dynamics of Turbomachinery A

Practical Guide for Engineers and Scientists 1st
Edition Raj Subbiah

https://textbookfull.com/product/rotor-and-structural-dynamics-
of-turbomachinery-a-practical-guide-for-engineers-and-
scientists-1st-edition-raj-subbiah/
Theory Construction and Model-Building Skills
Methodology in the Social Sciences
David A. Kenny, Founding Editor
Todd D. Little, Series Editor
www.guilford.com/MSS

This series provides applied researchers and students with analysis and research design books that
emphasize the use of methods to answer research questions. Rather than emphasizing statistical
theory, each volume in the series illustrates when a technique should (and should not) be used and
how the output from available software programs should (and should not) be interpreted. Common
pitfalls as well as areas of further development are clearly articulated.

REC ENT VOL UME S

PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF STRUCTURAL EQUATION MODELING, FOURTH EDITION

Rex B. Kline

HYPOTHESIS TESTING AND MODEL SELECTION IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES

David L. Weakliem

REGRESSION ANALYSIS AND LINEAR MODELS: CONCEPTS, APPLICATIONS,

AND IMPLEMENTATION
Richard B. Darlington and Andrew F. Hayes

GROWTH MODELING: STRUCTURAL EQUATION

AND MULTILEVEL MODELING APPROACHES
Kevin J. Grimm, Nilam Ram, and Ryne Estabrook

PSYCHOMETRIC METHODS: THEORY INTO PRACTICE

Larry R. Price

INTRODUCTION TO MEDIATION, MODERATION, AND CONDITIONAL

PROCESS ANALYSIS: A REGRESSION-BASED APPROACH, SECOND EDITION
Andrew F. Hayes

MEASUREMENT THEORY AND APPLICATIONS FOR THE SOCIAL SCIENCES

Deborah L. Bandalos

CONDUCTING PERSONAL NETWORK RESEARCH: A PRACTICAL GUIDE

Christopher McCarty, Miranda J. Lubbers, Raffaele Vacca, and José Luis Molina

QUASI-EXPERIMENTATION: A GUIDE TO DESIGN AND ANALYSIS

Charles S. Reichardt

THEORY CONSTRUCTION AND MODEL-BUILDING SKILLS:

A PRACTICAL GUIDE FOR SOCIAL SCIENTISTS, SECOND EDITION
James Jaccard and Jacob Jacoby
Theory Construction
and Model-Building Skills
A Practical Guide for Social Scientists
SECOND EDITION

James Jaccard
Jacob Jacoby

Series Editor’s Note by Todd D. Little

THE GUILFORD PRESS

New York  London
Copyright © 2020 The Guilford Press
A Division of Guilford Publications, Inc.
370 Seventh Avenue, Suite 1200, New York, NY 10001
www.guilford.com

All rights reserved

No part of this book may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system,

or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, microfilming, recording, or otherwise, without written permission
from the publisher.

Printed in the United States of America

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

Last digit is print number: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Jaccard, James, author. | Jacoby, Jacob, author.
Title: Theory construction and model-building skills : a practical guide
for social scientists / James Jaccard, Jacob Jacoby.
Description: Second edition. | New York : The Guilford Press, [2020] |
Series: Methodology in the social sciences | Includes bibliographical
references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2019030892 | ISBN 9781462542437 (paperback) |
ISBN 9781462542444 (hardcover)
Subjects: LCSH: Social sciences—Research—Methodology. | Theory
(Philosophy)
Classification: LCC H62 .J29 2020 | DDC 300.72—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019030892
 For Marty Fishbein—
a brilliant and inspiring theorist and mentor
—James Jaccard

For Renee and Dana—

in appreciation for the balance and joy they create
—Jacob Jacoby
Series Editor’s Note

Theory is an analyst’s best friend, while data are the fodder of good theory; but which
comes first, the data or the theory? Similarly, some folks never let data get in the way
of good theory and some folks never let theory get in the way of good data; but is it this
either/or taming-­of-­the-­shrew-­like scenario? Constructing a theory is more like crafting
an elegant ensemble of logically connected ideas that depict the world and allow knowl-
edge to leap forward. As Jaccard and Jacoby point out, 90% of our graduate training is
on methods for collecting and techniques for analyzing data and only 10% is spent on
identifying and crafting the ideas into theories that can be tested.
I have always been a student of good theory and this book is a veritable bible on
how to craft testable theories, even before the wonderful enhancements to this second
edition. Enhancements include, for example, what constitutes a theoretical contribution
and how do you craft one? How do you use a logic model to generate ideas and avoid
pitfalls in the theory construction process? How do you use mixed methods and data
mining to craft good theory? How do you test a theory and revise it if need be? Jaccard
and Jacoby answer these questions with practical wisdom born of extensive experience
and uncommon insights.
In addition, the expanded discussion of moderator variables, counterfactual causal-
ity, and their new 10-­step method for generating theory is simply invaluable. Oh, and the
new chapters on measurement are absolutely essential because good theory demands
good measurement. The operationalization of good theory is way too often neglected in
training programs and many seasoned veterans have yet to learn how to do good mea-
surement. Last but not least, they offer insight and wisdom on both interpreting others’
theories as well as clearly expressing your own theories.
Their book is transdisciplinary, with many useful examples spanning fields such
as anthropology, business, communications, education, economics, health, marketing,
organizational studies, political science, psychology, social work, sociology, and so on.
vii
viii Series Editor’s Note

And the companion website is a tremendously useful and helpful resource for students
and instructors alike! I will be teaching a course on model building and theory con-
struction. Jaccard and Jacoby is unequivocally the only choice for such a course.
Sadly, Jacob “Jack” Jacoby has departed our worldly sphere. Brilliant thinkers chal-
lenge our worldview on humanity and they leave indelible marks that shape us and how
we think. Jack was one of our field’s finest.

Todd D. Little
Honeymooning at Casa Montana
Preface

Theory construction is at the heart of the scientific process. The strategies that social
scientists use to generate and develop ideas are important to understand and foster
in young academics and investigators as they prepare for a research-­oriented career.
Although books have been written about theory construction, there are surprisingly few
books on the topic that tackle the problem of teaching students and young professionals,
in a practical and concrete way, how to theorize. Students, especially graduate students,
take one or more courses on research methods and data analysis, but few experience
more than a lecture or two, or read a chapter or two, on theory construction. It is no
wonder that students often are intimidated by the prospect of constructing theories.
This book provides young scientists with tools to assist them in the practical
aspects of theory construction. It is not an academic discussion of theory construction
or the philosophy of science, and we do not delve too deeply into the vast literature on
these topics. Rather, we take a more informal journey through the cognitive heuristics,
tricks of the trade, and ways of thinking that we have found to be useful in developing
theories—­essentially, conceptualizations—­that can advance knowledge in the social
sciences. By taking this journey, we hope to stimulate the thinking and creative pro-
cesses of readers so that they might think about phenomena in new and different ways,
perhaps leading to insights that might not otherwise have resulted. The intent of this
book is to provide a practical, hands-­on, systematic approach to developing theories and
fostering scientific creativity in the conceptual domain. Relative to the majority of books
on theory construction, this book is unique in its focus on the nuts and bolts of building
a theory rather than on an analysis of broad-­based systems of thought.
We have used the book both as a stand-­alone text in a course on theory construction
and as one of several texts in graduate courses on research and research methodology.
In terms of the latter, almost all traditional research methods books include a section
or chapter on the nature of theory and/or theory construction. However, the treatment
ix
x Preface

of theory construction usually is brief and of limited practical value. The present book
is intended to provide the instructor with a useful source for helping students come up
with ideas for research and for fine-­tuning the resulting theories that emerge from such
thinking. It provides more detail and more practical knowledge than what is typical of
chapters in books on research methodology. The social psychologist William McGuire
often lamented about how research training with graduate students focuses at least 90%
on teaching methods to test ideas but no more than 10% on how to get those ideas in
the first place. Despite this difference in emphasis, the process of theory development is
fundamental to successful scientific research. Indeed, many would say that there can be
no theory testing without theory. An objective of this book is to move toward a needed
balance in the emphases given to theory construction and theory testing.
The book can be used in many different disciplines. We draw on examples from the
fields of anthropology, business, communications, education, economics, health, mar-
keting, organizational studies, political science, psychology, social work, and sociology,
to name a few. Some instructors may prefer more detailed examples in their particular
field of study, but we believe that using examples from multiple disciplines helps stu-
dents appreciate the commonalities and value of multidisciplinary perspectives.
The book has several pedagogical features that enhance its use as a textbook and as
a source of learning. First, each chapter includes a section on suggested readings with
commentary, where we direct the reader to key references for further study on the topics
covered in the chapter. Second, each chapter has a list of key terms that highlights the
most important jargon and terminology. Third, each chapter has a set of exercises that
encourages the reader to think about the material that was presented in the chapter. We
include exercises to reinforce concepts and exercises to apply the concepts to problems
of interest. Finally, each chapter has a highlighted box that covers an interesting topic
that applies the concepts covered in the chapter or that shows important uses of them.
We also created a website that contains supplemental materials to support the book (see
the box at the end of the table of contents). The website is intended for use by students,
professors, and professionals alike.

CHANGES IN THE SECOND EDITION

In the first edition, we downplayed issues surrounding data collection and data analy-
sis, preferring to keep discussion at a conceptual level. This orientation still dominates
the current edition, but we felt it important to more fully recognize that theory often
emerges from data collection and data analysis. In the first edition, the emergence of
theory from data was front and center in the chapter on grounded and emergent the-
ory because in qualitative research, emergent theory is prominent. However, the emer-
gence of theory from exploratory data analysis was absent for quantitative research. We
have added a new chapter, “Emergent Theory: Quantitative Approaches” (Chapter 11),
to address this and have retitled our chapter on qualitative approaches (Chapter 10)
“Emergent Theory: Qualitative/Mixed-­Methods Approaches.” The quantitative chapter
on this topic prioritizes novel, exploratory methods of quantitative analysis that can
 Preface xi

help readers generate new theory through data mining. Readers who are less interested
in quantitative research may find the core material in this chapter of lesser relevance.
However, we have kept this material conceptual as opposed to being steeped in statisti-
cal theory and have provided supplemental materials on our website that walk readers
through the execution of the methods on popular software at a more practical level.
Another nod to the fact that data often lead to new theory is the addition of a chap-
ter on theory revision (Chapter 15). When we collect data to test a theory, disconfirma-
tory results can emerge that lead us to revise the theory or abandon it altogether. When
faced with disconfirming or only partially supportive data, one can use critical think-
ing processes to make decisions about whether and how to revise a theory. Chapter 15,
“Theory Revision,” highlights these processes. Theory revision in light of disconfirming
data is as relevant to qualitative researchers as it is to quantitative researchers, so this
chapter should be of interest to all.
Measurement and observation are core to science. When we formulate measures, we
invoke theory to link measures to the underlying construct the measures are assumed
to reflect. When we address measurement error in research, measurement theory also
is front and center. As such, measurement theory is a core part of science. Measurement
is typically viewed as the province of methodology, but we seek to build a case with two
new chapters showing that the practice of measurement is firmly entrenched in theory
and that measurement-­oriented theory construction is essential for the social sciences.
The first chapter on measurement, “General Frameworks” (Chapter 13), emphasizes
the concepts of metrics, reliability, validity, and measurement facets. The second chap-
ter, “Types of Measurement Strategies” (Chapter 14), focuses on self-­reports, observer
reports, and “objective” measures, strategies that form the backbone of social science
research. We provide readers with theory construction principles that guide how one
thinks about and conceptualizes such measures. Readers who want to contribute to
measurement theory will learn useful conceptual tools for doing so. Readers who are
not so inclined will still learn about the importance of measurement theory and how to
apply that theory to the specific research projects they pursue. This will be true for both
qualitative and quantitative researchers because both traditions ultimately use measure-
ment in one form or another.
In the first edition, we wrote each chapter so that it could generally “stand on its
own.” The idea was that if instructors wanted to change the reading order of chapters,
omit certain chapters based on their own or their students’ substantive interests, or
browse different topics rather than read every chapter, the book would be amenable to
these approaches. The new chapters have this same quality.
We also have added new material to most chapters from the first edition. As exam-
ples, in Chapter 3, we added a discussion of what constitutes a theoretical contribution
and what strategies social scientists can use to make theoretical contributions. This
helps orient readers to the remainder of the book. We added a section on conceptual
logic models to the chapter on generating ideas (Chapter 4) because such models are key
to idea refinement. We expanded Chapter 6, on thought experiments, to give a better
appreciation of their role in science and reworked several of the example experiments.
We made clearer how thought experiments can be used both by confirmatory-­oriented
xii Preface

and emergent-­oriented theorists. For the chapter on causal thinking (Chapter 7), we
expanded our discussion of moderator variables, added a brief discussion on counter-
factual causality, and added two ways of generating theory, a 10-­step method and a
“binder” method. In this chapter, we also added a section on common mistakes made
during the theory construction process. We expanded the material on grounded and
emergent theory in Chapter 10 to discuss mixed-­methods approaches in more depth and
to develop the actual thought processes theorists use to construct theories from quali-
tative data. We also expanded Chapter 16, on reading about and writing theories, and
generally updated the book to include practical perspectives that have evolved in theory
construction since the first edition.
Our book should be useful (1) in theory construction courses, (2) in proseminars
for doctoral students to help them develop their thesis research, and (3) as a supplement
to methods courses where instructors can select a subset of chapters for students to read.
Young researchers and professors also should find the book of interest independent of
courses. We hope that even seasoned researchers will walk away from most chapters
with at least one or two new “nuggets of knowledge” they will find useful in their work.
In this sense, our intended audience is broad.
As noted, we have created a web page for the book (see the box at the end of the
table of contents). This contains useful supplemental information for readers as well as
instructional aids for professors.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

My dear friend and colleague Jacob Jacoby passed away before writing commenced on
the second edition. Despite this, his presence remains even in the new chapters. Jack
was an important influence on my life both professionally and personally, and I will
always be grateful for the opportunity to have known and learned from him. His legacy
will be with us for years. I miss you, Jack.
As with the first edition, a large number of people contributed in diverse ways to the
development of the second edition. I again would like to thank students and colleagues
who provided feedback on earlier drafts, including David Brinberg, Department of Mar-
keting, Virginia Polytechnic University; Miriam Brinberg, Department of Human Devel-
opment, Pennsylvania State University; Wendy J. Coster, Department of Occupational
Therapy, Boston University; Cynthia G. S. Franklin, Steve Hicks School of Social Work,
University of Texas, Austin; Liliana Goldin, Silver School of Social Work, New York
University; Guillermo Grenier, Department of Global and Sociocultural Studies, Florida
International University; Sean Patrick Kelly, School of Education, University of Pitts-
burgh; Hailin Qu, Spears School of Business, Oklahoma State University; Rick Sholette,
Director, Paraclete Ministries; Michael Slater, School of Communications, Ohio State
University; and Weiwu Zhang, Department of Public Relations, Texas Tech University.
At The Guilford Press, C. Deborah Laughton, as always, was insightful and supportive
in her role as editor. She once again improved the book immensely. It is rare one gets the
opportunity for a “do-­over” of a project, and I am grateful to C. Deborah for giving me
 Preface xiii

the opportunity. Although all of these individuals contributed significantly to the book,
I alone am responsible for any of its shortcomings.
I dedicated the first edition to Marty Fishbein and I do so again here. Marty was an
amazing scientist, teacher, and professor who positively impacted my life and those of
his many students. It is rare that one has the opportunity to study under and work with
a true genius. Jack, I am sure, would once again dedicate the book to his spouse, Renee,
and his daughter, Dana, two incredible women. My spouse, Liliana, again contributed
to the book in many meaningful ways, and I remain amazed after all these years at her
great intellect and breadth, which have been of such immense benefit to me in the form
of lively discussions of theory, method, and substance. She is my role model in every
way. And a special note of recognition to my daughter, Sarita, who inspires me and
serves as my role model every bit as much as her mother.

James Jaccard
Brief Contents

PART I. BASIC CONCEPTS

1 · Introduction 3

2 · The Nature of Understanding 7

3 · Science as an Approach to Understanding 22

PART II. CORE PROCESSES

4 · Creativity and the Generation of Ideas 51

5 · Focusing Concepts 95

6 · Thought Experiments for Variable Relationships 111

PART III. FRAMEWORKS FOR THEORY CONSTRUCTION

7 · Causal Models 151

8 · Mathematical Modeling 196

9 · Simulation as a Theory Development Method 248

10 · Emergent Theory: 267

Qualitative/Mixed‑Methods Approaches

xv
xvi Brief Contents

11 · Emergent Theory: Quantitative Approaches 307

12 · Historically Influential Systems of Thought 340

PART IV. THEORY AT THE LEVEL OF MEASUREMENT

13 · Theory and Measurement: General Frameworks 375

14 · Theory and Measurement: 402

Types of Measurement Strategies

PART V. CONCLUDING ISSUES

15 · Theory Revision 435

16 · Reading and Writing about Theories 461

17 · Epilogue 485

References 491

Author Index 511

Subject Index 518

About the Authors 522

Extended Contents

PART I. BASIC CONCEPTS

1 · Introduction 3
Organization of the Book / 4
Theories and Settings / 5

2 · The Nature of Understanding 7

The Nature of Reality / 8
Concepts: The Building Blocks of Understanding / 11
Conceptual Systems: The Bases for Deeper Understanding / 15
BOX 2.1. Concepts, Cultures, and Values / 15
Communication / 17
Summary and Concluding Comments / 19
Suggested Readings / 20
Key Terms / 21
Exercises / 21

3 · Science as an Approach to Understanding 22

Approaches to Understanding / 22
BOX 3.1. The Fringes of Science / 25
The Essentials of Scientific Endeavor / 26
Science and Objectivity / 27
The Process of Theory Construction / 28
Characteristics of a Good Theory / 32
What Is a Theoretical Contribution? / 33
Summary and Concluding Comments / 45
Suggested Readings / 46
Key Terms / 47
Exercises / 47

xvii
xviii Extended Contents

PART II. CORE PROCESSES

4 · Creativity and the Generation of Ideas 51
One Small Step for Science / 52
Creativity / 52
Choosing What to Theorize About / 56
Literature Reviews / 58
Heuristics for Generating Ideas / 59
BOX 4.1. The Nacirema / 60
Scientists on Scientific Theorizing / 81
Conceptual Logic Models / 84
Summary and Concluding Comments / 89
Suggested Readings / 90
Key Terms / 91
Exercises / 91
APPENDIX 4.1. Examples of Weak Argumentation / 93

5 · Focusing Concepts 95
The Process of Instantiation / 95
Shared Meaning, Surplus Meaning, and Nomological Networks / 98
Practical Strategies for Specifying Conceptual Definitions / 99
BOX 5.1. Etic and Emic Constructs / 100
Multidimensional Constructs / 103
Creating Constructs / 104
An Example of Specifying Conceptual Definitions / 105
Operationism / 107
Summary and Concluding Comments / 108
Suggested Readings / 109
Key Terms / 109
Exercises / 110

6 · Thought Experiments 111

for Variable Relationships
Thought Experiments for Relationships in Grounded
and Emergent Theory / 113
Describing Relationships with Different Types of Variables / 114
Thought Experiments for Relationships between Nominal Variables / 115
Thought Experiments for Relationships between Quantitative Variables / 118
Thought Experiments for Relationships between Nominal
and Quantitative Variables / 129
BOX 6.1. Simpson’s Paradox / 130
Thought Experiments for Moderated Relationships / 136
Broader Uses of Hypothetical Factorial Designs in Thought Experiments / 143
Summary and Concluding Comments / 146
Suggested Readings / 146
Key Terms / 147
Exercises / 147
 Extended Contents xix

PART III. FRAMEWORKS FOR THEORY CONSTRUCTION

7 · Causal Models 151
Two Types of Relationships: Predictive and Causal / 152
Causality and Grounded/Emergent Theory / 155
Types of Causal Relationships / 155
Constructing Theories with Causal Relationships / 158
Identifying Outcome Variables / 159
Identifying Direct Causes / 159
Indirect Causal Relationships / 160
Moderated Causal Relationships / 165
Reciprocal or Bidirectional Causality / 169
Spurious Relationships / 173
Unanalyzed Relationships / 175
Expanding the Theory Yet Further / 176
BOX 7.1. Finding Sources for a Literature Review / 184
The Binder Method / 187
Common Mistakes during Causal Theory Construction / 189
Perspectives on the Construction of Causal Theories / 189
Summary and Concluding Comments / 192
Suggested Readings / 192
Key Terms / 193
Exercises / 194

8 · Mathematical Modeling 196

Types of Variables: Nominal, Discrete, and Continuous / 197
Axioms and Theorems / 198
Functions / 198
Linear Functions / 199
Deterministic versus Stochastic Models / 203
Model Parameters / 204
Rates and Change: Derivatives and Differentiation / 205
Describing Accumulation: Integrals and Integration / 208
Just‑Identified, Overidentified, and Underidentified Models / 209
Metrics / 210
Types of Nonlinearity / 210
BOX 8.1. Reading Mathematical Models / 211
Functions for Nominal Variables / 222
Advanced Topics: Manipulating and Combining Functions / 224
Multiple Variable Functions / 227
Phases in Building a Mathematical Model / 228
An Example Using Performance, Ability, and Motivation / 228
An Example Using Attitude Change / 232
Chaos Theory / 235
Catastrophe Theory / 237
Additional Examples of Mathematical Models in the Social Sciences / 238
Emergent Theory Construction and Mathematical Models / 238
Summary and Concluding Comments / 239
xx Extended Contents

Suggested Readings / 240

Key Terms / 241
Exercises / 242
APPENDIX 8.1. SPSS Code for Exploring Distribution Properties / 243
APPENDIX 8.2. Additional Modeling Issues for the Performance,
Ability, and Motivation Example / 245

9 · Simulation as a Theory Development Method 248

Defining Simulations / 249
The Uses of Research Simulations / 250
The Difference between Simulations and Laboratory Experiments / 250
Basic Simulation Varieties / 251
The Analysis of Criterion Systems as a Basis for Theory Construction / 253
Simulations and Virtual Experiments / 260
Agent‑Based Modeling / 260
BOX 9.1. Agent-Based Modeling of Segregation / 262
Resources for Conducting Simulations / 263
Summary and Concluding Comments / 263
Suggested Readings / 264
Key Terms / 265
Exercises / 265

10 · Emergent Theory: 267

Qualitative/Mixed‑Methods Approaches
Grounded and Emergent Theory: An Overview / 268
Qualitative Research and Ways of Knowing / 269
Framing the Problem / 270
The Role of Past Literature / 271
Collecting Qualitative Data / 271
Field Notes and Memo Writing / 277
BOX 10.1. Anthropology and the Ethnographic Tradition / 278
Theoretical Sampling / 279
Analyzing and Coding Data / 279
Constructing Theory in Qualitative Research / 285
Mixed‑Methods Research / 291
Products of Qualitative and Mixed‑Methods Research / 293
Summary and Concluding Comments / 294
Suggested Readings / 296
Key Terms / 297
Exercises / 298
APPENDIX 10.1. The Limits of Information Processing / 300

11 · Emergent Theory: Quantitative Approaches 307

Exploratory Analyses of Direct Effects / 309
BOX 11.1. Robust Statistics / 318
Exploratory Analyses of Moderated Relationships / 320
Cluster Analysis / 325
Factor Analysis / 329
 Extended Contents xxi

Big Data, Data Mining, and Machine Learning / 331

Chance Results / 335
Summary and Concluding Comments / 336
Suggested Readings / 336
Key Terms / 337
Exercises / 338

12 · Historically Influential Systems of Thought 340

Grand Theories / 341
Frameworks Using Metaphors / 352
Frameworks Emphasizing Stability and Change / 357
Psychological Frameworks / 359
BOX 12.1. Collaboration / 360
Frameworks Inspired by Methodology / 364
Summary and Concluding Comments / 369
Suggested Readings / 369
Key Terms / 371
Exercises / 372

PART IV. THEORY AT THE LEVEL OF MEASUREMENT

13 · Theory and Measurement: General Frameworks 375
Defining Measurement / 376
Conceptual Definitions and Measurement / 377
Classic Test Theory: The Basics / 379
The Facets of Measurement and Theory Construction / 382
Measurement Theory Construction / 383
Emergent Theory Building in Measurement: Cognitive Testing,
Expert Interviews, and Pilot Research / 390
BOX 13.1. Measuring Sex and Gender / 391
Using Extant Measures / 393
Other Criteria for Measure Evaluation / 395
Classical Test Theory and Qualitative Research / 396
Writing Reports to Justify Measurement Choices / 396
Empirical Tests of Measurement Theory / 397
Summary and Concluding Comments / 397
Suggested Readings / 399
Key Terms / 400
Exercises / 400

14 · Theory and Measurement: 402

Types of Measurement Strategies
Constructing a Theory of Self‑Reports / 403
BOX 14.1. Quantifying Love / 413
Constructing a Theory of Observer Reports / 423
Constructing a Theory of “Objective” Measures / 425
The Importance of a Theory Construction Mindset to Measurement / 426
Measurement and Qualitative Research / 426
xxii Extended Contents

Summary and Concluding Comments / 428

Suggested Readings / 429
Key Terms / 430
Exercises / 431

PART V. CONCLUDING ISSUES

15 · Theory Revision 435
Disconfirmation and Theory Revision / 436
Boundary Conditions and Theory Revision / 438
Replication and Theory Revision / 440
Disconfirmation and Qualitative Research / 441
BOX 15.1. Strong Inference / 442
Bayesian Perspectives in Theory Revision / 443
A Look to the Future: Computer Automation and Theory Revision / 451
Theoretical Desiderata for Revised Theories / 456
Paradigm Shifts / 456
Summary and Concluding Comments / 457
Suggested Readings / 458
Key Terms / 458
Exercises / 459

16 · Reading and Writing about Theories 461

Reading about Theories / 461
BOX 16.1. PowerPoint Presentations of Theories / 466
Writing about Theories / 468
Grant Proposals, Technical Reports, and Presentations / 473
Summary and Concluding Comments / 474
Suggested Readings / 475
Key Terms / 475
Exercises / 476
APPENDIX 16.1. Inferring Theoretical Relationships
from the Choice of Statistical Tests / 477

17 · Epilogue 485
A Program of Self‑Study / 488
Concluding Comments / 490

References 491
Author Index 511
Subject Index 518
About the Authors 522

The companion website (www.theory-­construction.com) includes PowerPoint slides

of all of the book’s figures, methodological primers and video demonstrations,
supplemental exercises, and other resources.
Part I

BASIC CONCEPTS
1

Introduction

Few people dispute the central role of theory in the social sciences. Scientists formulate
theories, test theories, accept theories, reject theories, modify theories, and use theories
as guides to understanding and predicting events in the world about them. A great deal
has been written about the nature and role of theory in the social sciences. These writ-
ings have spanned numerous disciplines, including anthropology, economics, history,
philosophy, political science, psychology, sociology, and social work, to name but a few.
This literature has described, among other things, broad frameworks for classifying
types of theories, the evolution of theories over time, the lives and scientific strategies
of great scientific theorists, and general issues in the philosophy of science. Although
this literature is insightful, much less has been written to provide social scientists with
practical guidelines for constructing theories as they go about the business of doing
their science. Most students are intimidated by the prospect of constructing their own
theories about a phenomenon. Theory construction is viewed as a mysterious process
that somehow “happens” and is beyond the scope and training of a young scientist try-
ing to find his or her way in the field. Whereas most graduate programs in the social
sciences require multiple courses in research methodology so that students will become
equipped with the tools to test theories empirically, the same cannot be said for theory
construction. In contrast to focusing on methods for testing theory, the current work
focuses on methods for generating theory.
The fundamental objective of this book is to provide students and young scientists
with tools to assist them in the practical process of constructing theories. It does so via
describing in some detail the strategies, heuristics, and approaches to thinking about
problems that we have found to be useful over the more than 70 collective years that
we have been doing social science research. This book is not an academic discussion of
the literature on theory construction or the philosophy of science. We do not delve too
deeply into the vast literature on these topics. Rather, we take a more practical journey
through the cognitive heuristics, tricks of the trade, and ways of thinking that we have
found to be useful in developing theories.

3
4 Basic Concepts

ORGANIZATION OF THE BOOK

The book is organized into five parts. Part I presents the basic concepts that form the
backdrop for later chapters. In these early chapters, we consider the nature of science
and what it means to understand something. We develop the notion of concepts and
highlight the central role of concepts in theories. We lay the foundations for communi-
cating to others the concepts in one’s theory and then describe what separates science
from other ways of knowing.
With this as background, we turn to developing core strategies for constructing a
theory, the topic of Part II. In Chapter 4, we focus first on strategies for generating ideas
and for stimulating creative thinking. Once you have a set of rough ideas, they need
to be refined and focused to meet the criteria of a rigorous scientific theory. Chapter 5
describes strategies for thinking through your constructs and discusses how to develop
clear and communicable conceptual definitions of them. We provide numerous strate-
gies for making fuzzy constructs more precise and not overly abstract. Chapter 6 focuses
on relationships between variables and develops strategies for making explicit the rela-
tionships you posit between variables. We show how to derive theoretical propositions
based on a careful analysis of relationships.
Part III considers different frameworks for theory generation. Chapter 7 considers
one of the most dominant approaches to theory construction in the social sciences, the
framework of causal thinking. This approach elaborates the causes and consequences
of different phenomena and views the identification of causal linkages as a central goal
of science. Chapter 8 describes strategies for building mathematical models of different
phenomena. Our intent here is to make clear the sometimes seemingly mysterious ways
in which mathematics and social science theorizing interface. Chapter 9 describes the
potential that simulations—­in particular, the development of simulations—­have for
theory construction. Chapters 10 and 11 develop emergent approaches to the construc-
tion of theory. Chapter 10 focuses on qualitative methods to identify constructs and
relationships on which to focus a theory, whereas Chapter 11 focuses on exploratory
quantitative/statistical approaches that allow theory to emerge from data. Some social
scientists might argue that these chapters belong in the previous section, where one
initially identifies constructs and relationships to include in a theory. As we emphasize
throughout this book, theory construction is not a set process, and a case like this
could be made for almost every chapter in the current section. This book provides you
with key ingredients for constructing a theory. How you choose to mix those ingre-
dients to form your theoretical recipe depends on your predilections and the domains
that you are studying. Chapter 12 summarizes 13 broad-based theoretical frameworks
that may help in the idea-­generation process. These frameworks include materialism,
structuralism, functionalism, symbolic interactionism, evolutionary perspectives, post-
modernism, neural networks, systems theory, stage theories, reinforcement theories,
humanism, multilevel modeling, and person-­centered theorizing. The idea is to think
about a phenomenon you are interested in from two or more of these perspectives in
order to help generate fresh ideas and perspectives.
 Introduction 5

Part IV focuses on theory construction as applied to measurement. Measurement

and observation are, of course, central to science. When we formulate measures, we
invoke theory to link measures to the underlying construct the measures are assumed
to reflect. As such, measurement theory is a core part of science. Measurement is typi-
cally viewed as the province of methodology, but we argue here that key principles of
measurement derive from theory and that measurement-­oriented theory construction
is thus essential. We seek to develop your theory construction skills in this important
domain. Chapter 13 emphasizes the concepts of metrics, reliability, validity, and mea-
surement facets. Chapter 14 focuses on self-­reports, observer reports, and “objective”
measures, strategies that form the backbone of social science research. Both chapters are
central to qualitative as well as quantitative research.
In the final section, we first consider theory revision in light of disconfirming data.
When we collect data designed to test or evaluate a theory, sometimes results emerge
that lead us to revise the theory or abandon it all together. When faced with disconfirm-
ing or only partially supportive data, one uses critical thinking processes to make deci-
sions about whether and how to revise a theory. Chapter 15 highlights these processes.
Theory revision in light of disconfirming data is as relevant to qualitative researchers as
it is to quantitative researchers, so this chapter should be of interest to all. Chapter 16 in
this section discusses strategies for reading journal articles and scientific reports so as
to make explicit the theories that the authors describe and subject to empirical evalua-
tion. We also discuss strategies for presenting theories in different kinds of reports. We
close with an Epilogue that comments on the theory construction process in light of the
material covered in previous chapters and that addresses some odds and ends that did
not fit well into the other chapters.
We recognize that some chapters will appeal to those with a more quantitative bent
to science, whereas other chapters will appeal to those with a more qualitative orienta-
tion. We have written the chapters so that each stands on its own, allowing you to skip
around as you see fit. Having said that, we strongly urge you to read all the chapters to
truly broaden and enrich your toolbox for generating theory. Both qualitative and quan-
titative approaches are powerful tools for generating ideas and theories. At some point,
you will want to master both.

THEORIES AND SETTINGS

This book is written primarily for students and professionals interested in pursuing a
career as a researcher in the social sciences. It is intended to provide you with concrete
strategies for building upon existing theories and constructing your own theories. Theo-
rizing does not occur in a vacuum. It occurs in the context of individuals pursuing a
career in some professional setting, usually an academic setting. At times, we describe
how the setting in which you work impacts the way in which you theorize and the kinds
of questions you ask. We also discuss strategies for dealing with the constraints you face
as a result of these settings.
6 Basic Concepts

For us, constructing theory is one of the most rewarding aspects of doing science; it
is on a par with the excitement associated with empirically testing and finding support
for theory. In all honesty, we probably are more captivated by research that questions
the theories we have posited because of the ensuing call to “put on our detective hats”
to figure out why we were wrong. This invariably demands that we approach the prob-
lem from a new conceptual angle. This book describes some (but not all) of the types of
detective hats that we have put on over the years. We hope that we can help to start you
down the path of a richer and more productive approach to the construction of theories
as you fashion your own strategies and set of detective hats for thinking about phenom-
ena and solving problems.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 Götrik Fincke nousi ylös lähteäksensä Filippuksen puheille.

— Ennen mentyänne, herra Götrik, tyhjentäkäämme ensimäinen

maljamme, sanoi Olavi, viitaten Gretchenille, joka heti toi esille
hopeatarjottimen, johon ennakolta oli ladottu kalliita, viinillä täytettyjä
maljoja.

Gretchen asetti tarjottimen pöydälle, pani toisen suuremmista

maljoista
Fincken, toisen Olavin eteen ja tarjosi kolmannen, pienimmän pikarin
Ebballe, peräytyen sitten kunnioittaen taemmaksi.

He joivat kaikki pohjaan, ja Fincke poistui, luvaten pian palata.

Olavi käski Gretchenin ja palvelijain odottaa kyökissä ruokineen,
kunnes hän toisin määräisi.

Tuskin olivat Olavi ja Ebba jääneet kahden kesken, kun Ebba

yht'äkkiä huutaa parkaisi. Olavi oli käynyt kuoleman kalpeaksi, silmät
oli tunkea kuopistaan ja kasvot vääristyivät kivusta. Ebban
huutaessa tuli Gretchen sisään.

— Hän kuolee! huusi Ebba, kauhistuneena rientäen huoneesta

ulos.

— Auttakaa! Minä palan! ähkyi Olavi. Ken on tehnyt mulle tämän?

Gretchen astui lähemmälle.

— Sen olen minä tehnyt, sanoi hän pannen kätensä ristiin

rinnoille.

— Olavi katsoi häneen terävästi, läpi-lävistävin silmin.

 — Sinä? suhisi hän.

— Niin, vastasi Gretchen, minä juuri. Näin sinun kaatavan jotakin

mustaa nestettä Ebba neitsyen maljaan. Tiesin kyllä ett’et sitä tehnyt
mitään hyvää tarkoittaen, ja niinpä vaihdoin viinin.

— Miksikä, miksikä teit tämän? kuiskasi Olavi, väännellessään

sinne tänne ja kylmän hien pihkuessa hänen otsastaan.

— Miksikö? Siksi että olen nähnyt, miten sinä olet ollut täynnäsi
pahuutta kuin myrkyllinen, käärme. Sinä et edes voinut pitää kavalia
hankkeitasi salassa; sinulla piti oleman joku, jolle aiheesi ilmoittaisit,
voidaksesi jo edeltäkäsin riemuita pahuuttasi. Arvaappas mitä minä
tunsin puhuessasi, miten etsit sopivaa tilaisuutta saattaaksesi Niilo
Iivarinpoikaa hengiltä. Hän, jota minä rakastin ja jonka puolesta
mielelläni olisin mennyt kuolemaan. Minä varoitin häntä, mutta hän ei
ymmärtänyt varoitustani, vaan on nyt kuolleena.

Hän kallisti alakuloisesti päätänsä, mutta nosti sen heti jälleen

pystyyn.

— Ja mitä annoitkaan kerran minulle juoda? Minua hirvittää vielä

sitä ajatellessani. Ooh, tunnen sen asian varsin hyvin. Olen
Saksassa monta kertaa kuullut, miten velhot moisella juomalla
kulkevat Kyöpelin-vuorelle. Minkä tähden teit minulle sen? Tahdoitko
myydä minut saatanalle ja, varastaa minulta ijankaikkista autuuttani?
Mutta minä olen itkenyt ja rukoillut, ja perkele on minusta jälleen
lähtenyt, vaikka jo olin hänen kourissansa ja kauvan kannoin hänen
merkkiänsä punaisena pilkkuna olkapäällään Ja mitä ai'oit tehdä
nyt? Niilo Iivarinpojan morsiamen, jalon Fincke herran kauniin
tyttären tahdoit minun sijastani myydä paholaiselle, ostaaksesi
tämän tytön viattomalla sielulla hänen apunsa. Ja tämänkö sallisin
tapahtua? Hänetkö antaisin sinun, ilkeiden tarkoitustesi
täyttämiseksi, uhrata ikuisen kadotuksen tuskille, niinkuin minutkin
tahdoit uhrata? Minä vaihdoin viinin, itse olet juonut suuhusi noita-
juoman.

Tyttösen näin puhuessa kiivaalla ja suuttuneella äänellä, oli Olavi

vain tuijottanut häneen, ja vaahtoa kokoutui hänen huulilleen.
Horkansetki sai hänestä kiinni, jalat vääntyivät väärään, sormet
tarttuivat jäykkinä pöytäliinankulmaan. Mies vaivainen putosi kovan
suonenvedon vallassa lattiaan, vetäen perästänsä pöytäliinat, astiat
ja viinimaljat.

Nyt törmäsivät, melusta peljästyneinä, palvelijat sisään. He kokivat

nostaa Olavia pystyyn. Hän avasi silmänsä ja tuijotti tylsästi
ympärilleen, kunnes hänen katseensa kohtasi Gretchenin, joka
kalpeana ja peloissaan nojausi viereisen tuolin selkälautaa vasten.

— Sinä — sinä — olet minut murhannut, huusi hän, törmäsi ylös ja

tarttui häntä rintaan.

Röijyn sametti halkesi, ja hämmästyen näkivät palvelijat että

Olavin kamaripoika oli nainen.

— Noita-akka — — juotti — mulle — myrkkyä! äkkäsi Olavi.

Hän vaipui lattialle, taasen kovan suonenvedon väristyksissä.

Filippus Kern, jota oli lähetetty noutamaan ja joka oli rientänyt

paikalle ynnä Fincken kanssa, otti pienestä vaskirasiasta, jota hän
aina kantoi taskussaan, kolme rippileipää, joissa oli kolme ristin
muotoista merkkiä kussakin, vasta-syntyneiden karitsain verellä
siihen piirrettyjä.
 Hän koki saada ne sisään Olavin kovasti yhteen-purtujen
hampaiden välistä.

— Jos hän nielaisee ne, on hän pelastettu! mumisi Filippus.

— Sitokaa tuo tuossa! huusi hän sitten, osoittaen Gretcheniä. Hän

on myrkyttänyt hänet. Hän on velho!

Palvelijat ymmärsivät yhdestä sanasta. Gretchenin peljästys asian

äkkinäisestä lopusta, kuolevan sanat ja etupäässä se seikka, että
hän oli nainen, todistivat häntä vastaan. Gretchen pantiin kiinni.
Seuraavana päivänä oli hän vietävä kaupungin vankilaan.

Samassa astui Niilo sisään, juuri kun Olavi taasen aukasi silmänsä
ja puoleksi kohosi jaloilleen.

— Kavaltaja, huusi hänelle Niilo. Niin, tuijota minuun, sinä

kelvoton.
Ilkeät vehkeesi eivät onnistuneet. Tunnen kaikki kemialliset
hankkeesi.
Kauvan olet välttänyt rangaistusta, mutta nyt saat, kun saatkin,
tekojesi palkan.

Ebba oli viereisestä huoneesta kuullut Niilon äänen ja riensi nyt

riemuiten hänen syliinsä. Liikutuksen vallassa painoi hänet Niilo
rinnalleen, hellästi suudellen noita onnesta loistavia kasvoja.

Olavi Sverkerinpoika koki vielä nousta. Hänen silmänsä kiiluivat

vihaa, ja hän nosteli nyrkkiänsä. Mutta väristen vaipui hän jälleen
maahan.

— Kirje… korisi hän, ja kasvoille lensi kuolemantuska.

 Taasen tuli hänelle kova suonenveto. Tämän tauottua kävivät
hänen kasvonsa hetkeksi levollisemmaksi. Hänen silmistään lensi
himmeä, rukoileva katse läsnä-olijoihin, hänen huulensa liikkuivat,
ikäänkuin olisi hän tahtonut jotakin sanoa, hänen rintansa aaltoili
raskaasti, mutta samassa hetkessä tuli häneen suonenveto
uudestaan, ja tuskissa väännellen heitti hän henkensä.

Peljästyneenä nojasi Ebba päätänsä Niilon hartiaa vasten,

ikääskuin olisi hän tahtonut karttaa tuota kauheaa näkyä.

Älä välitä kavaltavan konnan kuolemasta, sanoi Niilo. Petturi,

vakoja, joka kavalasti imarrellen luikertaa kansalaistensa
luottamukseen varastaaksensa heidän kunniansa — ehkäpä
pannaksensa isänmaan onnen kaupoille, hän ei ansaitse sääliä,
vaan halveksimista vain. Tule, mennään pois!

Myöhempään illalla oli Pekka Niilon ja oman hevosensa kanssa

linnakentällä, odottaen pimeässä jotakuta tulevaa. Eikä hänen
tarvinnut kauvan odottaa, ennenkun ihmishaamu näkyi tulevan,
juosten linnasta päin kentän poikki. Se oli Gretchen hovipoika-
vaatteissaan. Hetken päästä kuului kahden laukkaavan hevosen
kavioin kopse tömisevän pitkin kaupungin ahtaita katuja, mutta se ei
häirinnyt moiseen meluun tottuneita, kiinniruuvattujen
ikkunaluukkujensa takana nukkuvia kaupunkilaisia. Ratsastajat,
ajoivat ulos tulliportista, ja toinen heistä, tuttavamme Pekka, lausui
leikillisesti:

— Kun nyt tulen mustalaisten luo, niin annanpa akkojen povata

itselleni, pitääkö minun tänä vuonna mennä naimisiin vai olla
menemättä.
 Kun oikeuden-palvelijat seuraavana päivänä tulivat noutamaan
tuota velhoomisesta ja noituudesta syytettyä tyttöä, oli hän, kun
olikin, tipo tiessään. Sen huoneen ikkuna, jossa häntä oli pidetty
suljettuna ja jossa Niilo vielä edellisenä iltana oli käynyt häntä
puhuttelemassa, oli auki — ja tämä seikka oli ainoana, jälkenä
hänen perästänsä, Oli huimaavan syvä sieltä ylhäältä maahan, ja
mahdotonta oli että mikään ihmis-olento olisi tuosta uskaltanut
hypätä alas. Kun räystäsränni, joka kävi ihan ikkunanpieltä myöten,
pari vuotta sitä ennen pystytettiin, oli muuan työmies luiskahtanut
keskikorkealta irti ja pudonnut kuoliaana maahan..

Gretchen oli ja pysyi poissa. Luultavasti oli hän — niin arveltiin —

lentänyt tiehensä Pelsepupin avulla. Eräs vahtimies väitti nähneensä
mustan jättiläislinnun kaltaisen haahmon yösydännä häilyvän seinää
vasten räystäsrännin kohdalla hänen ikkunansa alla. Mies oli niin
peljästynyt, ett'ei uskaltanut sille puolen linnaa ennen päivän tultua,
mutta silloin ei haahmoa enää näkynyt.
LOPPU.

Oli päästy elokuun loppupuoleen. Porkkolan kartano oli uudestaan

rakennettu ja välkkyi vastaveistettynä, komeana koivujen
vihannoivain välistä.

Lukuisa joukko ritareita ja ylhäisiä naisia loistavissa puvuissa oli

kokoontunut tuohon suureen, koristettuun saliin — Ebba Fincken ja
Niilo Iivarinpojan häitä viettämään.

Vihkimyksen toimitti kirkkoherra vanhus. Hän oli Ebballe antanut

kirkon kasteen, hän oli kasteen-liiton hänelle vahvistanut, ja kun hän
nyt näki neidon — sitten kun Herra oli kovilla kärsimyksillä koettanut
— onnellisena morsiamena posket punassa seisovan tuon hohtavan
silkkiteltan alla, jota kauniit kaasot ja uljaat ohjemiehet pitivät, silloin
vapisi hänen äänensä liikutuksesta, hänen alkaessaan:

— Ei yhdellekään ihmiselle ole suotu että läpikatsoa Herran,

kaikkivaltiaan sallimusta. Mutta niinkuin Daavid virrentekijä lausuu:
ahdistuksesta minut päästänyt olet, niin tulee meidän aina luottaa
Herran päälle, joka ei omaisiansa hylkää. Katsokaa kuinka kauniina
kesä nyt seisoo kukoistuksessansa ja tähkäpäät pellolla turpoovat.
Runsaalla kädellä suopi nyt kaikkein hyvien lahjojen antaja viljaa,
sitten kun hän vanhurskaudessansa kovasti ja kauvan on koetellut
meitä näljällä ja kalliilla ajalla. Kansa, joka oli miekkaan tarttunut, on
nyt palannut takaisin sirppiensä ja autojensa tykö. Rauha vallitsee
maassa, ja mitä viha on kaatanut, sen ahkeruus uudestaan
ylösrakentaman pitää, niinkuin tämä talo, jossa nyt olemme
kokoontulleet, jälleen on ylöskohonnut tuhkasta, suurempana ja
kauniimpana kuin entinen. Täällä tulee nyt uljas, jalo ja ylhäinen
vänrikki Niilo Iivarinpoika emäntänsä, siveän, jalon ja ylhäisen
neitsyen Ebba Fincken kanssa Herran pelvossa ja hänen
siunauksessansa viettämään elämänsä suven ja vanhuutensa
syksyn onnellisella kukoistuksella ja ihanalla hedelmällä, johon
alaskutsumme sen kaikkein korkeimman armon. Rukoilkaamme!

Kun vihkimys oli toimitettu messuineen ja virrenlauluineen, istuttiin

hää-aterialle, joka nautittiin ilon ja riemun vallitessa.

— Se oli ikävää, lausui Niilo, — kun palvelija oli tarttua häätorttu-

vatiin, tarjotakseen Ebballe — että reipas Pekkani, joka aina on
tehnyt tehtävänsä sodan ja vainon vallitessa, nyt ei ole saapuvilla
palvellakseen minua. Siitä kun hän Turussa sai joksikin aikaa loman,
ei häntä enää ole näkynyt. Mutta hänet oikealta kannalta
tunteakseni, ei hän ole hukkaan joutunut.

Samassa kuului rämisevän kärryt; -jotka seisahtivat portaiden

eteen, ja sisään hääsalihin astui Pekka tyytyväisyys naamassaan ja
puoleksi laahaten muassaan talonpojan-tyttöä, jonka vereksille
punaposkille hämi ja ujous ajoi lisää purppuraa.

— Pekka! huudahti Niilo.

— Niin, nuori herra, vastasi Pekka, pyyhkien pellavatukan

silmiltään.
Hän itse ja Kreeta, torpparin-ämmä myös, laillisesti vihityt
Pohjanmaalla kristilliseen avioliittoon. Sanottuhan on, ett'ei miehen
pidä yksinänsä oleman.

— Ai, ai, sanoi nauraen Niilo. Jos minun täytyy jättää Ebba rouva
ja lähteä sotaan, niin tulet sinä siivosti mukaan, ja miten käy silloin
torpan, kun Kreeta yksinään saa sitä hoitaa.

— Sen hän osaa oivallisesti, kehui ylpeänä Pekka. Hän pystyy itse
kyntämään, jos niin tarvitaan, sillä siihen ovat Pohjanmaan reippaat
tyttösiipat nyt saanet oppia, kun niin monta miestä on hukkunut
tuohon tyhmään sotaan. Mutta sotapa ei sentään ollutkaan niin
tyhmä. Tällä haavaa on Pohjanmaalla miesväen puute, enkä muuten
kai olisi saanutkaan Kreetaa muassani tänne.

Hän heitti tirkistävän, itserakkaan ja ihastuneen silmäyksen

Kreetaansa ja lisäsi sitten:

— Teitä en koskaan jätä, Niilo herra, en kotona enkä muualla. —

Annappa tänne, sanoi hän sitten palvelijalle, jonka tuli kantaa
häätorttua. Etkö näe että minä olen täällä! Anna mun kantaa.

Aterian loputtua tarttui Götrik Fincke suureen hopeamaljaan, pyysi

äänettömyyttä ja lausui:

— Vihollinen vei voimani päivinä käsivarteni, mutta hän ei voinut

viedä ruotsalaista sydäntäni. Ja tämä sydän sykkii vieläkin ylpeyttä,
ajatellessani niitä voittoja, joihin niin usein olen vienyt Suomen
poikiani. Se pahoitti minua kovasti, kun kansa äsken näkyi menneen
hajallensa ja käänsi aseensa omaa rintaa vastaan. Ja vieläkin minua
pahoittaa se eripuraisuus, joka vallitsee valtakunnassa. Se päivä on
tuleva, jolloin voimiamme tarvitaan valtakunnan vanhaa vihollista
vastaan. Vielä ei kukaan tunne hänen voimaansa, mutta tulkaan hän
vain! Vaikkapa hän hakkaisikin poikki kansan käden, niinkuin hän on
minun käteni katkaissut; — niin kauvan kuin meillä on toinen käsi ja
rehellinen, isänmaallinen sydämemme tallella, olemme, kun
olemmekin, vahvat. Tämä on minun sanani teille, te nuoret, nyt
juodessani teidän onneksenne tästä vanhasta maljasta, jonka kerran
itse otin pajarin teltasta.

Götrik Fincke tyhjensi rakkaan maljansa, jonka jälleen

passaripoika täytti reunoihin asti. Niilo Iivarinpoika tarttui siihen nyt.

— Teidän sananne on pysyvä meille kalliina, kunnioitettuna

muistona, isä, sanoi hän vakavasti. Lapsemme ja lapsenlapsemme
ovat ne painavat sydämiinsä. Niinkuin itse olen kasvanut isoksi ja
vahvaksi, vaikka olen maannut vihollisen miekan lyömänä kalman
omana melkein, niin kasvakoot hekin voimassa ja olkoot aina valmiit
asettamaan rintansa maan ja valtakunnan suojaksi. Sotilaana kyllä
tiedän että onni voi vaihtua. Mutta minä olen kokenut vanhan,
arvoisan kirkkoherramme sanojen totuuden ja huomannut että,
vaikka viimeinenkin toivo näkyy rauenneen, voi Jumala armossansa
kääntää kaikki paruiksemme. Tulkoon, jos niin on taivaan tahto,
vihollinen kymmenkertaisella voimalla. Me ja meidän jälkeisemme
emme pelkää, sillä Herra on auttava meitä, niinkuin tähän saakka,
hyvässä taistelussamme.

Hän tyhjensi vuorostaan maljan. Vakava mieli-ala vallitsi nyt

hetken aikaa seurassa. Jokaisella oli kansan taistelujen ja
kärsimysten muisto vireänä mielessä; he eivät unohtaneet tuota
kamppausta, joka vuosi satojen vierressä on ikääskuin pyhäksi
käynyt ja jossa tiedettiin kansan elämän taikka kuoleman kaupoilla
olleen.
 Hääjuhlaa jatkettiin sitten ilon ja riemun vallitessa, ja
morsiustanssin huvi elähytti nuoret ja vanhat. Ylpeä oli ylkä ja
miellyttävä morsian. Mutta kauniinta oli nähdä, kun illan hämärä tuli,
soitsutanssi tanssittiin morsiusparin kunniaksi ja soitsujen valo heitti
haaveellisen kohteensa nuoren pariskunnan onneen ja iloiseen,
hälisevään hääjoukkoon.
 *** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SOTAMIEHET
JA TALONPOJAT ***

Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will
be renamed.

Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S.

copyright law means that no one owns a United States copyright in
these works, so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it
in the United States without permission and without paying copyright
royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part of
this license, apply to copying and distributing Project Gutenberg™
electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG™ concept
and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and
may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following the
terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use of
the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for
copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very
easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as
creation of derivative works, reports, performances and research.
Project Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given
away—you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with
eBooks not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject
to the trademark license, especially commercial redistribution.

START: FULL LICENSE

THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
 PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK

To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the free

distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work (or
any other work associated in any way with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full
Project Gutenberg™ License available with this file or online at
www.gutenberg.org/license.

Section 1. General Terms of Use and

Redistributing Project Gutenberg™
electronic works
1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg™
electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree
to and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or
destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in your
possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a
Project Gutenberg™ electronic work and you do not agree to be
bound by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from
the person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in
paragraph 1.E.8.

1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may only be

used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people
who agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a
few things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg™ electronic
works even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.
See paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with
Project Gutenberg™ electronic works if you follow the terms of this
agreement and help preserve free future access to Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.
1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the
Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the
collection of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. Nearly all the
individual works in the collection are in the public domain in the
United States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in
the United States and you are located in the United States, we do
not claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing,
performing, displaying or creating derivative works based on the
work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of
course, we hope that you will support the Project Gutenberg™
mission of promoting free access to electronic works by freely
sharing Project Gutenberg™ works in compliance with the terms of
this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg™ name
associated with the work. You can easily comply with the terms of
this agreement by keeping this work in the same format with its
attached full Project Gutenberg™ License when you share it without
charge with others.

1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also
govern what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most
countries are in a constant state of change. If you are outside the
United States, check the laws of your country in addition to the terms
of this agreement before downloading, copying, displaying,
performing, distributing or creating derivative works based on this
work or any other Project Gutenberg™ work. The Foundation makes
no representations concerning the copyright status of any work in
any country other than the United States.

1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:

1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other

immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg™ License must
appear prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg™
work (any work on which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” appears, or
with which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” is associated) is
accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, copied or distributed:
 This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away
or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License
included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you
are not located in the United States, you will have to check the
laws of the country where you are located before using this
eBook.

1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is derived

from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not contain a
notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the copyright
holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in the
United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are
redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg” associated with or appearing on the work, you must
comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through
1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project
Gutenberg™ trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is posted

with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any
additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms
will be linked to the Project Gutenberg™ License for all works posted
with the permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of
this work.

1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project

Gutenberg™ License terms from this work, or any files containing a
part of this work or any other work associated with Project
Gutenberg™.

1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this

electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with
active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
Gutenberg™ License.
1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form,
including any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you
provide access to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg™ work
in a format other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other format used in
the official version posted on the official Project Gutenberg™ website
(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense
to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means
of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original “Plain
Vanilla ASCII” or other form. Any alternate format must include the
full Project Gutenberg™ License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.

1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,

performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg™ works
unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing

access to or distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
provided that:

• You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from
the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using the
method you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The
fee is owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark,
but he has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to
the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty
payments must be paid within 60 days following each date on
which you prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your
periodic tax returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked
as such and sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation at the address specified in Section 4, “Information
about donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation.”

• You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who

notifies you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that
s/he does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg™
 License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all
copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and
discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of Project
Gutenberg™ works.

• You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of

any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in
the electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90
days of receipt of the work.

• You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works.

1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg™

electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of
the Project Gutenberg™ trademark. Contact the Foundation as set
forth in Section 3 below.

1.F.

1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend

considerable effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe
and proofread works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating
the Project Gutenberg™ collection. Despite these efforts, Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works, and the medium on which they may
be stored, may contain “Defects,” such as, but not limited to,
incomplete, inaccurate or corrupt data, transcription errors, a
copyright or other intellectual property infringement, a defective or
damaged disk or other medium, a computer virus, or computer
codes that damage or cannot be read by your equipment.

1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except

for the “Right of Replacement or Refund” described in paragraph
1.F.3, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner
of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark, and any other party
distributing a Project Gutenberg™ electronic work under this
agreement, disclaim all liability to you for damages, costs and
expenses, including legal fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO
REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT LIABILITY, BREACH OF
WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE
FOUNDATION, THE TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY
DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE LIABLE
TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL,
PUNITIVE OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE
NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.

1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you

discover a defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it,
you can receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by
sending a written explanation to the person you received the work
from. If you received the work on a physical medium, you must
return the medium with your written explanation. The person or entity
that provided you with the defective work may elect to provide a
replacement copy in lieu of a refund. If you received the work
electronically, the person or entity providing it to you may choose to
give you a second opportunity to receive the work electronically in
lieu of a refund. If the second copy is also defective, you may
demand a refund in writing without further opportunities to fix the
problem.

1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth in
paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, WITH NO
OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED,
INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF
MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.

1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied

warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted
by the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any
provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.

1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the

Foundation, the trademark owner, any agent or employee of the
Foundation, anyone providing copies of Project Gutenberg™
electronic works in accordance with this agreement, and any
volunteers associated with the production, promotion and distribution
of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works, harmless from all liability,
costs and expenses, including legal fees, that arise directly or
indirectly from any of the following which you do or cause to occur:
(a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg™ work, (b)
alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any Project
Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any Defect you cause.

Section 2. Information about the Mission of

Project Gutenberg™
Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of
electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.
It exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and
donations from people in all walks of life.

Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the

assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg™’s
goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™ collection will
remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a
secure and permanent future for Project Gutenberg™ and future
generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help,
see Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at
www.gutenberg.org.