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TORTURE, PSYCHOANALYSIS
AND HUMAN RIGHTS

Torture, Psychoanalysis and Human Rights contributes to the development of that field of study
referred to as ‘psycho-social’ that is presently more and more committed to providing under-
standing of social phenomena, making use of the explicative perspective of psychoanalysis.
The book seeks to develop a concise and integrated framework of understanding of torture
as a socio-political phenomenon based on psychoanalytic thinking, through which different
dimensions of the subject of study become more comprehensible.
Monica Luci argues that torture performs a covert emotional function in society. In order
to identify what this function might be, a profile of ‘torturous societies’ and the main psycho-
logical dynamics of social actors involved – torturers, victims, and bystanders – are drawn
from literature. Accordingly, a wide-ranging description of the phenomenology of torture
is provided, detecting an inclusive and recurring pattern of key elements. Relying on psycho-
analytic concepts derived from different theoretical traditions, including British object
relations theories, American relational psychoanalysis and analytical psychology, the study
provides an advanced line of conceptual research, shaping a model, whose aim is to grasp
the deep meaning of key intrapsychic, interpersonal and group dynamics involved in torture.
Once a sufficiently coherent understanding has been reached, Luci proposes using it as
a groundwork tool in the human rights field to re-think the best strategies for prevention
and recovery from post-torture psychological and social suffering. The book initiates a dia-
logue between psychoanalysis and human rights, showing that the proposed psychoanalytic
understanding is a viable conceptualization for expanding the thinking of crucial issues
regarding torture, which might be relevant to human rights and legal doctrine, such as the
responsibility of perpetrators, the reparation for victims and the question of ‘truth’.
Torture, Psychoanalysis and Human Rights is the first book to build a psychoanalytic theory
of torture from which psychological, social and legal reflections, as well as practical aspects
of treatment, can be mutually derived and understood. It will appeal to psychoanalysts,
psychoanalytic psychotherapists and Jungians, as well as scholars of politics, social work and
justice, and human rights and postgraduate students studying across these fields.

Monica Luci, PhD, is an analytical psychologist and relational psychoanalyst, with extensive
experience in the psycho-social assistance and psychotherapeutic work with asylum seekers
and refugee survivors of torture. On the topics of survivors of torture and post-traumatic
states in psychological assessment, psychotherapy and research, she has contributed to a number
of international conferences and taught in several professional and academic contexts. She
is also an author, translator and editor of publications on the themes of trauma, collective
violence, cultural studies, transcultural psychology, sexuality and ethical issues.
TORTURE,
PSYCHOANALYSIS
AND HUMAN
RIGHTS

Monica Luci
First published 2017
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2017 Monica Luci
The right of Monica Luci to be identified as author of this work has been
asserted by her in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright,
Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or
reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical,
or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying
and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system,
without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks
or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification
and explanation without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Luci, Monica, 1972–, author.
Title: Torture, psychoanalysis, and human rights / Monica Luci.
Description: New York : Routledge, 2017. | Includes bibliographical
references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016042612| ISBN 9781138908598 (hardback : alk. paper) |
ISBN 9781138908604 (pbk. : alk. paper) | ISBN 9781315694320 (e-book)
Subjects: LCSH: Psychoanalysis. | Torture—Psychological aspects. |
Torture victims. | Human rights.
Classification: LCC BF173 .L783 2017 | DDC 150.19/5—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016042612

ISBN: 978-1-138-90859-8 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-138-90860-4 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-69432-0 (ebk)

Typeset in Bembo and Stone Sans

by Florence Production Ltd. Stoodleigh, Devon, UK
To Leonardo with love
CONTENTS

Acknowledgments ix
Introduction xi

PART 1
The phenomenon of torture 1

1 Torture: what is it? A definition of the field of inquiry 3

Torture in international law 3
Torture in literature 8
References 13

2 Torturous societies 15
Torture: a power relationship between two embodied social realities 15
The basic features of a torturous society 20
References 27

3 Social actors of torture 31

Perpetrators 31
Victims of torture 51
Bystanders 63
References 75

PART 2
A psychoanalytic understanding of torture 91

4 Paradoxical Multiple Self States and Monolithic

Self States: destinies of the Reflective Triangle 93
A theoretical premise 94
The paradox of the multiple self: multiplicity as unity and dissociation
as continuity 96
viii Contents

The in-between space: an investigation into the phenomenology of

states of twoness and states of thirdness 100
Paradoxical multiple self-states and monolithic self-states: destinies
of the Reflective Triangle 121
References 128

5 The emotional life of torturous societies: Monolithic

Societal States 135
Freud: what kind of group psychology? 137
Application to torturous societies 139
The shape of a Monolithic Societal State 143
Torture 156
References 158

6 The Splintered Reflective Triangle in bystanders,

perpetrators and victims of torture 161
Me–You and You–Me: bystanders and the phenomenon of the
‘missing witness’ 162
Other–Me and Me–Other: the objectification of perpetrators 167
Other–You and You–Other: de-subjectification of the victims 176
References 185

PART 3
Implications for human rights 193

7 The permissibility of torture 195

Arguments for torture 195
Arguments against torture 200
Emotional undercurrents of rational arguments 206
References 208

8 Three fields of application in human rights:

responsibility of perpetrators, reparation
for victims and the problem of truth 211
Responsibility of perpetrators of torture 211
Reparation for survivors of torture 219
The question of ‘truth’ 227
References 237

Index 245
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The research that led to this book would not have been possible without the contri-
bution of many people in the academic and clinical fields and in my private life.
I am grateful to all the staff I met at the Centre for Psychoanalytic Studies of
University of Essex for the interesting and stimulating academic environment in
which my research started and developed. First and foremost, I would like to express
my sincere and warm gratitude to Renos Papadopoulos, Professor of Analytical
Psychology, who provided insight and expertise that greatly assisted the research
that led to this book and made it possible. Our discussions and different perspectives
on the topic were immensely thought-provoking and enriching. Particularly special
and affectionate thanks to Andrew Samuels, Professor of Analytical Psychology,
whose tremendously interesting work, and research spirit inspired this book, and
without his knowledge and valuable critique, this study would not have been as
far-reaching.
I would like to acknowledge Professor John Packer, former Director of the
Human Rights Center of University of Essex and now Professor of Law and Direc-
tor of the Human Rights Research and Education Centre at the University of
Ottawa, for sharing his ideas during the earlier phases of this research and for his
trust and enthusiastic encouragement in the dialogue between psychoanalysis and
human rights.
Particularly warm thoughts go to my patients who inspired my work and without
whom this study would never have started, and to my colleagues at the Italian
Council for Refugees in Rome, with particular mention of Fiorella Rathaus and
Massimo Germani, that enabled me to work in the field of care of survivors of
torture and who exchange daily their views on issues of clinical rehabilitation
with me.
Finally, a tender mention goes to my family and friends for their continuous
understanding and support. Among them, my special loving and particular thanks
x Acknowledgements

go to Leonardo, to whom I am indebted for almost everything, and whose love,

stimulating intelligence, encouragement, copious criticism, material, moral and
spiritual care enabled me to complete this work.

Excerpts from Nineteen Eighty-Four by George Orwell. Copyright 1949 by

Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company and renewed 1977, by Sonia
Brownell Orwell, Reprinted by permission of Houghton Mifflin Harcourt
Publishing Company. All rights reserved.

Also excerpts from Nineteen Eighty-Four by George Orwell (Martin Secker &
Warburg 1949, Penguin Books 1954, 1989, 2000). Copyright 1949 by Eric Blair.
This edition copyright © the Estate of the late Sonia Brownell Orwell, 1987.
Introduction © copyright Ben Pimlott, 1989. Notes on the Text © copyright Peter
Davison, 1989. Reproduced by permission of Penguin Books Ltd.

Disclaimer: Throughout the book, gender-specific terms may be used in order to

ease the text flow. Whenever a gender-specific term is used, it should be understood
as referring to both genders, unless explicitly stated. This is done solely for the
purpose of making the text easier to read, and no offense or sexism is intended.
INTRODUCTION

Indifference is the deadweight of history . . . it numbly operates, but still operates

. . . it is the raw matter that obstructs intelligence . . . Between absenteeism and
indifference a few unattended hands, out of any control, weave the canvas of
collective life.1
(Antonio Gramsci, The Indifferent, 1 February 1917)

Many years before the research that led to this book, then during the process of
writing, I initiated working as a clinical psychologist and, then, as Jungian analyst
with asylum seekers and refugees who had survived torture. That experience was
one of the most problematic, demanding and challenging in my life, but it was
and still is a great source of knowledge, nurturance and relational richness.
Especially during the earliest years, I felt that the work with my patients who
had survived extremely disruptive experiences and their moving life stories ‘at the
mind’s limits’ (from Améry, 1980) had a powerful uprooting, alienating effect on
me. Thanks to them, I did become aware of something that could not be easily
communicated to others – even very qualified friends and esteemed colleagues –
and could not be easily integrated into my life.
First, I became aware ‘first hand’ about the existence and wide spread of torture
in the contemporary world, which was something I prejudicially relegated to a
gloomy obscurantist past. Second, being exposed to the survivors’ live narratives
and physical marks reproduced in my mind a compulsive repetitive thinking of
the disturbing material of my patients in therapy. For all their powerful and dreadful
content, these thoughts possessed an essential quality of ‘secrecy’, that I could not
fully understand. In this regard, Marcel Viñar writes:

nobody wants to know anything or believe anything about the horrors of

torture, which, as a consequence, are actively ignored – a reaction which
xii Introduction

extreme horror provokes, [this is] because no optimum distance [to fear]
is possible, only avoidance or fascination. The person who watches is either
too close – involved and captivate – or too far – an outsider, and maybe
cannot feel anything.
(Viñar, 2005: 315)

My reaction was one of fascination and captivation. Indeed, in a separate room of

my mind a repetitive and haunting question never ceased to torment me about it:
‘Why torture?’
At the time, I had the impression that our knowledge of torture was at the same
point of Winston’s in George Orwell’s Nineteen Eighty Four, when, at the beginning
of his attempt to enfranchise himself from the external and internal domination of
the Party, he writes in his diary: ‘I do understand HOW, but I do not understand
WHY’ (1949: 83). Similarly, we know how torture works and to what extent in
the world, but we are far from reaching an understanding of its deep psychological
rationale. What is the reason for continuing a cruel practice that is inaccurate in
producing intelligence, ineffective as punishment, useless and illegal as war making
tech-nique and, in addition, has deep destructive effects on victims’ private life
and in the life of communities? Beyond ethical and health concerns, if humanity
still continues to use torture there must be a motivation, though distorted and
morally wrong.
In fact, despite the relevant number of international declarations and conventions
prohibiting human rights violations, nowadays torture is still a highly pervasive
practice. When the Second World War was about to end, the United Nations was
created and, as early as 1948, the General Assembly adopted the Universal Decla-
ration of Human Rights. Article 5 of this declaration reads: ‘No one shall be
subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment’,
phrasing which can be found reproduced, almost or wholly word for word, until
now in regional declarations on human rights and subsequent conventions.
Nevertheless, it was recognized that torture in the world was continuing and
practiced to a great and frequent extent. In 2004, the authors of the Istanbul Proto-
col were still able to note: ‘The striking disparity between the absolute prohibition
of torture and its prevalence in the world today demonstrates the need for states
to identify and implement effective measures to protect individuals from torture
and ill-treatment’ (OHCHR, 2004:1). Amnesty International reports every year
on breaches of human rights, indicating that torture invariably takes place in a signi-
ficant number of countries. For example, between January 2009 and May 2013,
Amnesty International received reports of torture and other ill-treatment committed
by state officials in 141 countries, and from every world region. The 2014 report
was significantly titled Torture in 2014: 30 Years of Broken Promises.
In his Understanding Torture Wisnewski writes:

There has never been a time when the world was without torture. It has
emerged in many ways, and has been supported in many institutional venues,
 Introduction xiii

but it has never been far from civilization. . . . Our changing relations to
torture are one of the most interesting features of its history. We have at
once thought torture absolutely necessary to secure a just trial, and through
it utterly incompatible with any kind of justice. We have both abhorred it
and demanded it. . . . Unfortunately, torture doesn’t seem to be going any-
where. This painful and lamentable fact – that torture is both in our past
and on our horizon – demands our scrutiny.
(Wisnewski, 2010: 3–4)

Reflecting on the overall phenomenon of torture today necessitates an effort

to gain a deeper and wider interdisciplinary understanding in terms of the primary
deep reason for its use and the conditions that lead to its emergence. Torture is a
complex, multifaceted phenomenon with political, social, economic, psychological,
legal, philosophical aspects, and, because of this complexity, it requires a complex
analytical perspective. This book is intended as a psycho-social study aimed at
developing an integrated framework for the understanding of torture, which might
address this socio-political phenomenon from a psychoanalytic perspective. How-
ever, it also engages controversial issues of the legal theory and practice of the
protection of human rights and the fight against torture. Approaching torture in
this way is not accidental: as Elaine Scarry argues, torture is the inversion of both
justice and health (1985: 41–2).
Psychoanalytic investigation is not usually associated with the phenomena of
legal justice. The traditional reluctance of psychoanalysis to comment upon the
domain of jurisprudence has arisen out of the predominant interest of psychoanalysis
in psychological and clinical enquiry rather than cultural or social processes. But
this has been changing slowly. Nowadays, psychoanalysis is more interested in the
social processes, while increasingly recognizing its ethical foundations as both theory
and practice. In particular, it is worth noticing the attention given in the last two
decades by American relational psychoanalysis to social issues (Altman, 2008, 2009;
Grand, 2008, 2013; Hollander, 2006, 2009; Layton et al., 2006; Summers, 2006,
2009, among many others), in a few cases in direct connection with human rights
(Harris and Botticelli, 2010; Thomas, 2009), along with the interesting debate that
is currently developing within analytic psychology about social and political themes
(Beebe, 2003; Papadopoulos, 2002, 2005; Samuels, 2001, 2015a, 2015b; Singer,
2000, 2012; Zoja, 2009, among many others).
At first glance, torture does not seem to be a uniform phenomenon. It can be
used in a number of different socio-political contexts and for different conscious
reasons: it may be used by regimes to fight opposition; in counterinsurgency wars
to silence ‘subversion’ and/or to fight (so called) ‘state enemies’; in the context of
intelligence gathering by secret services; in the context of the ‘war on terror’ to
fight ‘terrorists’, etc. Despite such a variety in its manifestations, the phenomenon
of torture is here investigated in order to detect a possible unifying unconscious
pattern, which may go beyond this apparent multiplicity. The effort is to identify
a ‘core structure’ of torture that might offer an understanding and organize its key
xiv Introduction

themes in a coherent and inclusive view, while also leaving space in terms of the
variability of the phenomenon.
A particular emphasis will be on the continuum of intrapsychic, interpersonal,
group and socio-political aspects of torture, in order to stress that, beyond this multi-
plicity and complexity, from a psychological perspective, there is continuity among
these different levels.

The method and structure of the book

The method of this study consists in: 1) critically reviewing the literature on torture
addressing both its socio-political aspects and key issues of the social actors involved;
2) developing a framework of understanding of the phenomenon of torture based
on psychoanalysis and analytical psychology, which might give reasons for the
essential intrapsychic, interpersonal, groupal/institutional dynamics described in the
previous part; 3) connecting such a model to the human rights field, exploring a
possible dialogue between these two disciplines – psychoanalysis and human rights
– on some essential questions with mutual benefit.
The aim of Part 1 is to delineate the subject matter of the book: the phenomenon
of contemporary state torture with consideration to its social, groupal and individual
aspects.
Chapter 1 is intended to define the research area, detecting some core features
and giving a concise definition of the phenomenon of state torture. In order to
do this, this chapter investigates the ‘what’, ‘who’ and ‘why’ of torture according
to both contemporary international law and relevant literature that analyzes the
topic from different perspectives. The aim is to arrive at a definition of torture
that grasps the ‘general profile’ of the phenomenon beyond its relative variations.
Chapter 2 provides an overview of the main socio-political features characteriz-
ing ‘torturous societies’ (i.e. societies where torture is systematically used) in terms
of their socio-political dynamics and narratives. An argument is developed indicating
that torture appears in certain societies, in which the conditions for torture to emerge
are created. These conditions are outlined in order to demonstrate a ‘typical recurring
pattern’: 1) a power relationship between two embodied social realities: the tortur-
ous power and the sub-human; 2) an emotional situation characterized by a state
of terror in the face of a perceived threat; 3) the double bind between torture and
terror; 4) the presence of an invisible enemy; 5) the need for separations; and 6)
the establishment of a better world ideology, which aims to recreate society.
The aim of Chapter 3 is to present a concise picture of the main key issues
concerning social actors involved in torture. In the wake of leading authors’ works
on this theme, this phenomenological analysis looks at the fundamental social and
psychological issues characterizing the experience of social actors of torture, i.e.
perpetrators, victims and bystanders. The considerable amount of existing literature
on perpetrators is organized into three main problem areas: 1) ‘the problem of
evil’, which describes social processes that make evil and torture more likely to
occur in society; 2) ‘the making of torturers’, which outlines the most common
 Introduction xv

methods employed to create torturers out of ordinary people; and 3) ‘the future
of torturers’, which depicts what happens to torturers after the collapse of tortur-
ous powers. In the section dedicated to victims, a portrait of victims of torture
is delineated: their somatic and psychological suffering; the way this is described
in psychological and psychiatric narratives; the traumatic bonding and the inter-
generational transmission of trauma; and possible positive responses to the experi-
ence of torture. As far as the population of bystanders is concerned, the paragraph
addresses the complex picture of different bystanders’ attitudes, including internal
and external bystanders. Attitudes towards torture are placed along a continuum
of responses of denial: from an attitude of passive support (the continuum between
perpetrators and bystanders) to passive opposition (the continuum between bystan-
ders and victims). Rescuers and political opponents are included in this analysis.
The aim of Part 2 is to develop a psychoanalytic framework of understanding
of the phenomenon of torture outlined in Part 1. Psychoanalytic concepts from
different psychoanalytic traditions (British object relations theories, American
relational psychoanalysis and analytical psychology) are selected in order to grasp
key intrapsychic, interpersonal and group dynamics involved in torture. This blend
of theories (especially the combination of analytic psychology and relational
psychoanalysis) has some legitimacy, which is briefly addressed at this point. Also
in this part, large and small group dynamics, as well as the interpersonal and
intrapsychic mechanisms described in Part 1 are analyzed and understood in light
of the proposed paradigm of understanding.
In Chapter 4 a range of psychoanalytic concepts are presented and discussed to
give conceptual underpinnings to the central concept of the Reflective Triangle. This
concept relies on the image of a triangle to represent a state of mind, which makes
use of three (real or phantasized) poles – i.e. Me, You and Other – to process
emotions and to shape thinking. The modes of using these three poles are critical
to the mode of processing issues of identity and difference in relationships, which
is at the core of crucial reflective skills and symbolizing functions. Several psycho-
analytic theories seem to suggest, in different theoretical languages, that a healthy
self works as a paradoxical multiplicity of self states, that is in states of thirdness (or
through Reflective Triangles). The possibility of maintaining such a state of mind is
at the core of the Paradoxical Multiple Self States dynamics, where identity and
difference can be processed simultaneously. On the contrary, a Splintered Reflective
Triangle, and in turn Monolithic Self States are at the origin of states of twoness, in
which identity and difference cannot be processed at the same time, while the
reflective function of self is compromised.
The aim of Chapter 5 is to reconsider large group dynamics in torturous societies,
as outlined in Chapter 2, in light of the psychoanalytic concepts of the concepts
of Monolithic Societal States and states of twoness, as discussed in Chapter 4. The
groundwork for such an interpretation is offered by Freud’s Group Psychology
and the Analysis of the Ego and Foucault’s description of the Bentam’s Panopticon.
The latter provides the ideal political geometry of a Monolithic Societal State, where
the social dynamics result from a system of multiple splintered triangles. Torture
xvi Introduction

is understood as the manifestation of a Splintered Reflective Triangle at a social level,

which shapes, on one hand, monolithic group identities based on an overempha-
sized sameness versus another group whose difference is overemphasized as well.
The space of the Reflective Triangle is not available, with the resulting one-
dimensional connections based on identity or on difference prompting individuals
to work in a bi-dimensional way within their roles of perpetrators, victims and
bystanders. This is meant to explain the typical pattern of social relations established
in torturous societies and the dehumanizing logics of torture.
Chapter 6 illustrates how the phenomena of bystanders, perpetrators and victims
of torture, as described in Chapter 3, could be understood in greater depth by
making use of the concept of the Splintered Reflective Triangle (Chapters 4 and 5).
For each category of social actor, we can find, to a certain extent, the repetition
of the same pattern: an extensive use of states of twoness that generates, on the one
hand, ‘psychotic’ (horizontal) phenomena of identity (among those who perceive
themselves as peers and belonging to the same group) and, on the other hand,
‘perverse’ (vertical) phenomena of difference (among those in conditions of social
inequality and/or in hierarchical contexts). In such a state of mind, the in-between
spaces of individual self are progressively ‘sequestered’, and individuals tend to behave
as perpetrators, victims or bystanders, depending on their group and social identity.
Part 3 focuses on the main debates in human rights literature on torture, in light
of the previous understanding of the phenomenon. The general aim is to initiate
a dialogue between the fields of psychoanalysis and human rights on the topic of
torture as well as to show that the proposed psychoanalytic framework is a viable
conceptualization for expanding the understanding of crucial issues that might be
relevant to the legal doctrine.
Chapter 7 contains a critical review of the main ‘for’ and ‘against’ arguments
of the debate on the permissibility of torture. From this review, it appears that
most pro-torture arguments are shaped according to a pattern of oversimplified
thinking based on polarizations, terrifying phantasies of annihilation, omnipotent
phantasies of defences and protection combined with the logic of self-sacrifice. It
becomes clearer that the subject of rational philosophical or moral arguments, on
the basis of which political or legal decisions are taken, has its internal emotional
rationale. On the other hand, arguments ‘against’ torture take into consideration
more complex perspectives on the issue.
Chapter 8 suggests three major themes on torture in human rights debate as a
line of development for further research:

1 The issue of responsibility of perpetrators: torture poses a delicate question of

allocation of criminal liability. The problem in the legal field is often defined
in terms of whether the abuse perpetrated by ordinary soldiers can be imputed,
and to what extent, to the higher military echelons, to the top-level policy
makers and legal officers, or even to the political leaders. The important question
of mens rea in a superior-subordinate relationship in military and civil contexts
is discussed as a crucial point when allocating criminal responsibility in torture.
 Introduction xvii

2 The question of the reparation of victims: the problem essentially deals with
the dilemma ‘how to redress?’ The combination of measures of redressing is
a very delicate matter, with some element of risk about re-victimization or
inadequate remedy. Under international law the standard is ‘restitutio in inte-
grum’. This ideal, as well as being impossible to implement, may be deceptive
and risky after torture, given the complexity and wide spectrum of social,
physical and psychological consequences for the victim’s life. Weaknesses and
strengths in the range of remedies and the importance of a participatory process
are discussed.
3 The problem of ‘truth’, which concerns the entire population, bystanders inclu-
ded. Torture implies dehumanization of all parties involved and society overall.
Therefore, all these parties require some repair, some healing, some renewal
of their humanity and some truth. This question is often addressed in post-
conflict societies under the chapter of Truth and Reconciliation Commissions.
One of the most controversial points for such commissions concerns the balance
they can find between what we might call the ‘truth of perpetrators’ and the
‘truth of victims’, between amnesties to perpetrators and reparation for victims
they can recommend. The main question seems to be concerned with the
potential to construct ‘shared truths’.

In each of these closely interconnected sections, the proposed model aims to provide
a new perspective to reframe these key problems by offering new insights and
possible paths to be further explored in human rights terms.
The struggle against torture imposes interdisciplinary joint efforts: first, to
understand the phenomenon as profoundly as possible and, second, to implement
more and more adequate approaches for intervention and prevention. The latter
point is beyond the scope of this book, although it will hopefully suggest some
areas of inquiry and some lines of development for further research.

Note
1 Translated by author

References
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Améry, J. (1980) At the Mind’s Limits. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.
Amnesty International (2014) Torture in 2014: 30 Years of Broken Promises. 13 May 2014, Index
number: ACT 40/004/2014. Available at: www.amnestyusa.org/research/reports/
torture-in-2014-30-years-of-broken-promises.
Beebe, J. (Ed.) (2003) Terror, Violence and the Impulse to Destroy: Perspectives from Analytical
Psychology. Einsiedeln: Daimon Verlag.
xviii Introduction

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(1911–1922). Roma: Carocci, 2004, pp. 134–5.
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Dialogues, 8: 671–89. doi:10.1080/10481880802297699
Grand, S. (2013) The Reproduction of Evil: A Clinical and Cultural Perspective. New York:
Routledge.
Harris, A. and Botticelli, S. (Eds.) (2010) First Do No Harm: The Paradoxical Encounters of
Psychoanalysis, Warmaking, and Resistance. New York, London: Routledge.
Hollander, N.C. (2006) ‘Trauma, ideology, and the future of democracy’. International Journal
of Applied Psychoanalytic Studies, 3: 156–67. doi:10.1002/aps.97
Hollander, N.C. (2009) ‘A psychoanalytic perspective on the paradox of prejudice:
Understanding US policy toward Israel and the Palestinians’. International Journal of Applied
Psychoanalytic Studies, 6: 167–77. doi:10.1002/aps.205
Layton, L., Hollander, N.C., Gutwill, S. (2006) Psychoanalysis, Class and Politics: Encounters
in the Clinical Setting. London and New York: Routledge.
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Manual of the Effective Investigation and Documentation of Torture and Other Cruel,
Inhuman and Degrading Treatment or Punishment, Professional Training Series no.
8/Rev. 1, New York, Geneva.
Orwell, G. (1949) Nineteen Eighty-Four, London: Penguin, 2008.
Papadopoulos, R.K. (Ed.) (2002) Therapeutic Care for Refugees. No Place Like Home. London:
Karnac, Tavistock Clinic Series.
Papadopoulos, R.K. ‘Political violence, trauma and mental health interventions’. In
Kalmanowitz, D. and Lloyd, B. (Eds.), Art Therapy and Political Violence: With Art Without
Illusion, London: Brunner-Routledge, pp. 35–59
Samuels, A. (2001) Politics on the Couch: Citizenship and the Internal Life, London: Profile Books.
Samuels, A. (2015a) A New Therapy for Politics? London: Karnac.
Samuels, A. (2015b) Passions, Persons, Psychotherapy, Politics. The Selected Works of Andrew
Samuels. London/New York: Routledge.
Scarry, E. (1985) The Body in Pain: The Making and Unmaking of the World, New York, Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
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Books.
PART 1

The phenomenon of
torture
1
TORTURE: WHAT IS IT?
A definition of the field of inquiry

Torture seems to be an elusive subject of knowledge: its nature seems to be multi-

faceted, its aims manifold, and the contexts and forms of its practice diverse in
space and time (Innes, 1998). Legal, philosophical and historical languages may all
attribute different meanings to the same word, addressing a range of different related
issues. However, the persistence of torture in the world and the impossibility so
far of eradicating it make it important to recognize the necessity of narrowing a
definition in order to gain a deep insight into the phenomenon (Matthews,
2008: 31).
With this purpose in mind, we need to position ourselves at intermediate distance
from our subject of study, neither too close nor too far, not being distracted
by the details of a too deep analysis but remaining sensitive to core distinctions.
In this chapter, the attempt will be to define the field of inquiry, looking at the
‘what’, ‘who’ and ‘why’ of torture in contemporary legal definitions and in other
essays on contemporary state torture. The aim is to draft a definition of the
phenomenon, which will be further investigated into in the following chapters.

Torture in international law

The prohibition of torture is absolutely and fundamentally embedded within
international law. It is deemed a peremptory norm or jus cogens, meaning that
it cannot be abrogated by treaty law or other rules of international law, pursuant
to the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties.1 However, what we mean by
‘torture’ may be controversial, because there is no single definition existing under
international law.
The international legislation about human rights defines the notion of torture
in three main international conventions. The first instrument providing a compre-
hensive and clear definition of torture was the 1975 UN Declaration on the
4 The phenomenon of torture

Protection of All Persons from Being Subjected to Torture and Other Cruel, Inhu-
man or Degrading Treatment or Punishment. Article 1 Point 1 of this Declaration
states:

torture means any act by which severe pain or suffering, whether physical
or mental, is intentionally inflicted by or at the instigation of a public official
on a person for such purposes as obtaining from him or a third person informa-
tion or confession, punishing him for an act he has committed or is suspected
of having committed, or intimidating him or other persons. It does not include
pain or suffering arising only from, inherent in or incidental to, lawful
sanctions to the extent consistent with the Standard Minimum Rules for the
Treatment of Prisoners.

In Point 2,

Torture constitutes an aggravated and deliberate form of cruel, inhuman or

degrading treatment or punishment.

In 1984, the UN General Assembly adopted the Convention Against Torture

and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment that entered
into force in June 1987. Its definition of torture has become customary in
international law. In Article 1 torture is defined as,

any act by which severe pain or suffering, whether physical or mental, is

intentionally inflicted on a person for such purposes as obtaining from him
or a third person information or a confession, punishing him for an act he
or a third person has committed or is suspected of having committed, or
intimidating or coercing him or a third person, or for any reason based
on discrimination of any kind, when such pain or suffering is inflicted by
or at the instigation of or with the consent or acquiescence of a public official
or other person acting in an official capacity. It does not include pain or
suffering arising only from, inherent in or incidental to lawful sanctions.

Another relevant definition of torture is the one contained in the 1985 Inter-
American Convention to Prevent and Punish Torture. Article 2 reads:

For the purposes of this Convention, torture shall be understood to be any

act intentionally performed whereby physical or mental pain or suffering is
inflicted on a person for purposes of criminal investigation, as a means of
intimidation, as personal punishment, as a preventive measure, as a penalty,
or for any other purpose. Torture shall also be understood to be the use of
methods upon a person intended to obliterate the personality of the victim
or to diminish his physical or mental capacities, even if they do not cause
physical pain or mental anguish.
 Torture: what is it? 5

The concept of torture shall not include physical or mental pain or suffering
that is inherent in or solely the consequence of lawful measures, provided
that they do not include the performance of the acts or use of the methods
referred to in this article.

Comparing conceptions of torture in international human rights law and

international criminal law, both in doctrine and case law, Sir Nigel Rodley detects
three props as central in our modern legal understanding of the concept of torture:
1) the intensity of pain or suffering inflicted; 2) the status of the perpetrator; 3)
the question of purpose (Rodley, 2002). Similarly, in Interpretation of Torture in
the Light of the Practice and Jurisprudence of International Bodies, the Office of
the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) detects four elements to
be taken into account when qualifying an act as torture: 1) the nature of the act;
2) the intention of the perpetrator; 3) the purpose; 4) the involvement of public
officials or assimilated (OHCHR, 2011: 3).

The ‘what’: the pain or suffering inflicted

The issue of what constitutes torture refers to the kinds of practice used and the
degree of pain or suffering caused. The OHCHR’s reference to the ‘nature of the
act’ (the ‘what’), finds that the ‘legal definition of torture encompasses both acts
and omissions that inflict severe pain or suffering’, and that this pain can be either
physical or mental (2011: 3–4). Thus, the threat of torture or mock executions is
comprised within this concept of mental suffering.2
Even if, for most legal instruments, pain and suffering must be ‘severe’, the
distinction between torture and cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment is not always
clear. While the authorities suggest that pain intensity is not determinative in
distinguishing between torture and other forms of ill-treatment, the intensity of
force is still a substantial factor in certain situations. In case the force is used legally
for a lawful purpose, and it is proportional and not excessive, it will generally not
amount to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment. The threshold for acceptable
force is much lower in situations of powerlessness, such as in detention, or in other
situations of direct control that similarly amount to deprivation of liberty. It is
accepted that, in such a cindition, any form of physical or mental pressure or coercion
constitutes at least cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment, regardless of the
proportionality test (Nowak and McArthur, 2006).
Judicial attempts to interpret these concepts or to make clear distinctions have
proved difficult. Rodley (2002) illustrates cases where the term ‘torture’ was
referenced and others where this category was not used, although the treatment in
question could have been similar, or even the same. To simply limit the discourse
to the three conventions mentioned, in the 1984 United Nations Convention
against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment
(UNCAT) the reference to torture as an aggravated form of other ill-treatment is
dropped and this Convention acknowledges that ‘there may be other understandings
6 The phenomenon of torture

of torture that are wider than narrower’ (Rodley, emphasis in original, 2002: 476).
No reference to the aggravated intensity of pain or suffering, nor to severity can
be found in the Inter-American Convention to Prevent and Punish Torture
(1985). No pain or suffering needs to be demonstrated where the methods used are
‘intended to obliterate the personality of the victim or to diminish his physical or
mental capacities’ (Article 2). The international criminal tribunals (the International
Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda and the International Criminal Tribunal for the
former Yugoslavia) and the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court dealt
in several different ways with the issue of the requirement of aggravated intensity
of pain or suffering to regard a crime as torture. Few cases address this distinction
in the same way (see Rodley, 2002).
Despite the sometimes blurry, yet persistent, distinction between torture and
other forms of ill treatment, it is clear that the UN Committee Against Torture
(UNCAT) aims to guarantee the same safeguards and protection for both categories
of ill-treatment: ‘Experience demonstrates that the conditions that give rise to ill-
treatment frequently facilitate torture and therefore the measures required to
prevent torture must be applied to prevent ill-treatment’.3 This proclamation
by the UNCAT, represents a clear shift in the torture/CIDT distinction. States
are now obligated to prevent torture and other forms of ill-treatment by applying
the same UNCAT measures to all forms of ill-treatment, irrespective of varying
levels of severity. Given this development and interpretation in international law,
the choice of the word ‘severe’ must not be apprehended in a way that allows a
dichotomous justification for ill-treatment in certain circumstances, while the pro-
hibition of torture is absolute.
Ultimately, we can derive from the point debated that the ‘what’ of torture, is
indisputably the pain or suffering inflicted.

The ‘who’: a public agent as perpetrator

In Article 1 of both the UNCAT and the UN Declaration on the Protection of
All Persons, the perpetrator is identified in a ‘public official’. So, the typical torturer
will be a law-enforcement official or member of the security or intelligence
services, precisely seeking to obtain, in the course and in furtherance of his or her
duties, information or confession. This is to exclude private acts for purely personal
ends.
While the question of the involvement of a public official is usually straight-
forward, the recognition of the ‘other person acting in an official capacity’
(UNCAT) may be more problematic and delicate (OHCHR, 2011: 4). As such,
the perpetrator may also be someone with no official status acting in collusion with,
and to advance the purposes of public officialdom, often to shroud the responsi-
bility of members of that officialdom. Conversely, the direct perpetrator of the
torture may be acting in collusion with, and to advance the purposes of, civilian
political authorities who prefer to turn a blind eye to the ‘excesses’ of law-
 Torture: what is it? 7

enforcement or security officials. Since torture is normally committed in the dark

and secret reaches of state power, it is likely that those involved may be able to
conceal their responsibility, particularly in the light of their public functions. The
UNCAT asserts that a state ‘bears international responsibility’ for the acts and
omissions of individuals ‘acting in [an] official capacity or acting on behalf of the
State’4 and is ‘obligated to adopt effective measures to prevent . . . other persons
acting in an official capacity from directly committing, instigating, inciting,
encouraging, acquiescing in or otherwise participating or being complicit in acts
of torture as defined in the Convention.’5
Therefore, a public official has to be the perpetrator, directly or indirectly, for
the violation of torture to be established.

The ‘why’: the purposive element

There is virtually uniform treatment of the factor of purpose as a, if not the, central
component of the concept of torture. Rodley states:

Except in respect of crimes against humanity, as defined in Article 7 of the

Rome Statute for the International Criminal Court . . . Every other
instrument defining torture contains a reference to a purposive element:
Article 1 of the UN Declaration and Convention against Torture, Article 2
of the Inter-American Torture Convention, and the Elements of Crimes
concerning the war crime of torture under the ICC Statute in respect of
international armed conflict (Article 8(2)(a)(ii).1) and of non-international
armed conflict (Article 8(2)(c)(i).4).
(Rodley, 2002: 481)

In particular, the UNCAT (1984) does highlight very effectively the purposeful
use of torture when inflicted as a means of obtaining information or confession,
or as a punishment for a person’s purported act, or for intimidating or coercing a
person, or due to discrimination of any kind. The OHCHR (2011) identifies the
UNCAT list of different purposes for the commission of torture as a guideline,
but noticing it is not exhaustive. Similarly, Koru and Hofstadter (2015) observe
that, even though the purpose of torture can be categorized under headings, the
content of these categories is not complete, and can be interpreted in a flexible
manner. For example, an act that is inflicted on a person for the purpose of
punishment can appear in various forms, such as beating, violent shaking, prolonged
isolation, rape and sexual assault (Nowak and McArthur, 2008: 75).
Rodley comments (2002: 481–2) that even more explicit is the intention of the
Inter-American Convention to target the purpose (to ‘obliterate the personality of
the victim’, or ‘diminish his . . . mental capacities’, even in the absence of physical
pain or mental anguish), as a characterizing feature of torture.
8 The phenomenon of torture

Torture in literature

The ‘what’: the torment

Torment, both physical and psychological, seems to be the essential concern of
torture (Améry, 1980; Foucault, 1975; Innes, 1998; Korovessis, 1970; Millet, 1994;
Peters, 1996; Scarry, 1985).
However, the relation between torture and pain is less obvious than it appears.
Pain and stress generate reactions in humans that are better understood in terms
of combinations of mental and physical processes. The body-mind dichotomy should
be dropped in order to properly understand the experience of human pain. Améry
(1980), who experienced torture, movingly describes the essence of pain:

The pain was what it was. Beyond that there is nothing to say. Qualities of
feeling are as incomparable as they are indescribable. They mark the limit
of the capacity of language to communicate.
(Améry, 1980: 33)

In torture, the elaborate and highly articulate sensory system is assaulted with
the deliberate intention of triggering pain mechanisms. As Melzack and Wall (1983:
32) observed, pain has a complex structure, subjectively perceived and psycho-
logically conditioned. In torture, conditions are specifically designed to enhance
the experience of pain, to block the operation of natural pain inhibitors, to prevent
optimal conditions for recovery from pain, and to increase the pain in as many
ways as possible. In order to maximize pain, ‘technical’ personnel, such as doctors
and psychologists, are often enrolled as collaborators (Allhoff, 2006; Bloche and
Marks, 2005a, 2005b, 2005c; Gordon and Marton, 1995; Harper and Roberts, 2007;
on this topic see Chapter 3).
The manipulation of pain and stress in torture suggests that it is a violent attack
on the foundation of the human being, the body, although the final targets may
be their mind and/or social identity. Methods of torture are oriented to penetrate,
beat and perforate the body, to shatter the mind, to humiliate, to disrupt biological
rhythms, and to destroy relationships and social bonds, human dignity and self-
respect (Sironi and Branche, 2002). In their assault on the victim’s body, torturers
seek to produce the illusion that the body is the source of harm to the mind. One’s
own body is perceived as the origin and cause of the suffering, such as in stress
positions, where torture does not even require the immediate presence of torturers,
who can come and go at their pleasure.
As Millet (1994) effectively summarizes,

The practice of torture is an imposition of the body upon the mind. So that
the mind (self, idea, will) is put at the mercy of the body’s capacity to with-
stand pain. Physical torture implies all that we mean as psychological torture,
plus a great deal. For one suffers here the frustration of insult and ill will,
the hurt of being hurt on purpose, the realization that one is deliberately
 Torture: what is it? 9

made to suffer physical pain – the body’s pain compounded by the injury
of injustice and contempt; psychic wounds. If insult is the psychological
equivalent of a blow, torture aims at the organization of insult so general
and overwhelming as to destroy: through helplessness, the shame of help-
lessness, an exhaustion and impotence directed toward a final surrender of
the self.
(Millet, 1994: 92)

Incontestably, torture deals with physical and psychological torment and is

accurate at targeting vital human needs (physiological needs, the need for physical
and mental boundaries, the need for intimate relations, the need to maintain a good
image of oneself, the need for a sense of agency, the need to trust humanity and
retain hope, etc.). Meanwhile, knowledge about techniques to inflict pain through
torture is a subject of secret communication among the military and secret services
of diverse countries, and there exists a shameful commerce of such a skill as con-
ducting torture sessions (McCoy, 2006; Robin, 2005).

The ‘who’: the public character of torture

Torture is not private violence. Though currently secret, it belongs to a public dis-
course and practice, pertaining to the state and its agencies.
Peters (1985) detects this essential aspect of twentieth-century torture: ‘torture
stands in the same relation to such private offences as trespass, battery or aggravated
assault as a state execution stands in relation to murder. Torture is thus something
that public authority does or condones’ (1985: 3).
Torture is, in our times, the ‘sub-legal’ and ‘paralegal’ physical coercion of indi-
viduals deemed dangerous to the ‘state’s notion of order’ (1985). In the same way,
writing on the modern state, Millet (1994) agrees that, on the ground of torture,
permission is crucial. To indulge fancy without permission is criminal and to be
punished, a merely individual act without meaning, self-indulgent, aberrant and
forbidden. However, with permission it might become patriotism, laudable, salaried
and professional services. Everything depends upon permission, which belongs to
the state (Millet, 1994: 36). Torture is something a state does or condones.
Similarly, writing on the social context of torture, Kelman pinpoints that,

the essential phenomenon of torture . . . is that it is not an ordinary crime,

but a crime of obedience, a crime that takes place, not in opposition to the
authorities, but under explicit instructions from the authorities to engage in
acts of torture, or in an environment in which such acts are implicitly
sponsored, expected, or at least tolerated by the authorities.
(Kelman, 1993: 23)

Parry, in his book Understanding Torture (2010), explains that torture is a normal
part of the state coercive apparatus. Torture is about dominating the victim for a
10 The phenomenon of torture

variety of purposes, including public order, control of racial, ethnic and religious
minorities, and domination for the sake of domination, and it fits within the practice
and beliefs of the modern state. Torture is employed to create – and to destroy
and re-create – political identities in a political system. Its violence is secretly at
the service of the state.
The public character of torture is also evident in its use by non-state social actors.
For example, if a rebel group controls a certain area and has the capacity to capture
and confine people, and then harms those captives for a purpose that serves the
interest of the group, legally, this would fit with the meaning of torture (Hajjar,
2013). A clear contemporary example is that of ISIS, which uses other torture
followed by horrible executions of prisoners to send intimidating messages to other
states, and tries, by these means, to reach recognition as a power at the service of
the creation of an Islamic State.

The ‘why’: a question of ‘truth’

Although torment is indisputably the essential ingredient of torture, according to
Quiroga and Jaranson (2008), the most important criteria in the definition of the
phenomenon is the intention and purpose of torturers and their cooperators, i.e.
the reason for its use (the ‘why’).
The distinction between the judicial torture of the past and political torture of
our time is relevant in terms of historical and legal perspectives. However, whether
torture be judicial or political, past or present, it has the following features: 1) it
happens between social actors with a different endowment of power and/or
citizenship; 2) it goes always along with a question of ‘truth’.
In Torture and Truth, Page DuBois writes that torture performed at least two
functions in ancient Greece:

As an instrument of demarcation, it delineates the boundary between slave

and free, between the untouchable bodies of free citizens and the torturable
bodies of slaves. . . . In the work of the wheel, the rack, and the whip, the
torturer carries out the work of the polis; citizen is made distinct from
non-citizen, Greek from barbarian, slave from free.
(DuBois, 1991: 63, in Schulz, 2007: 13)

The citizen cannot be tortured. The non-citizen may be. Again and again,
speakers in the courts describe the basanos as a search for truth. A claim is made that
truth resides in the slave’s body. But what kind of truth is the slave’s truth? Aristotle
says: ‘The slave is a part of the master – he is, as it were, a part of the body, alive
but yet separated from it’ (DuBois, 1991: 63, in Schulz, 2007: 14, emphasis added).
The master can conceal the truth, since he possesses reason and can chose between
truth and lie, and consequently can choose the penalty associated with false
testimony. His own point of vulnerability is his slave’s body, which can be forced
to produce the truth.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 phosphorescence, 338;
reproduction, 340;
skeleton, 334;
spicules, 334;
zooids, 330
Alcyoniidae, 349
Alcyonium, 330 f., 332, 349;
nematocyst of, 247;
A. digitatum, 332, 338 f., 347, 349;
larva, 341;
A. glomeratum, 349;
A. palmatum, 340;
A. purpureum, 338
Aleurone, 37
Algae, related to holophytic colonial Flagellata, 109, 130
Algeria, dourine disease in, 119
Alicia mirabilis, 382
Aliciidae, 382
Alimentary canal, of Asterias rubens, 438;
of Ophiothrix fragilis, 485;
of Echinus esculentus, 516;
of Echinarachnius parma, 546 f.;
of Echinocardium cordatum, 551;
of Antedon rosacea, 583;
of Hyocrinus, 589;
of Actinometra, 589;
development of, in Eleutherozoa, 604, 605;
in Antedon rosacea, 618, 619
Allen, on food of Echinus esculentus in Plymouth Sound, 516
Allman, 246, 265, 267, 273, 274;
on Cystoflagellates, 135
Allogromia, 59 f., 65
Allogromidiaceae, 58;
habitat of, 48, 59
Allopora, 287;
A. nobilis, 287
Alpheus, 351
Alternating modes of brood-formation in Sporozoa, 48
Alveolar, structure (fine) of cytoplasm, 6;
system (coarse) in relation to skeleton of Radiolaria, Dreyer's
scheme of, 84
Alveolate ectoplasm, of pelagic Foraminifera, 61;
of Heliozoa, 71 f.;
of Actinosphaerium, 72 f.;
of Radiolaria, 79;
pedicellaria of Leptogonaster, 456
Alveole (= minute cavity in cytoplasm), 5 f.;
in Ciliata, 142;
in Stylonychia, 140;
(= large vacuole of Radiolaria, etc.), 76, 79, 84
Alveolina, 59
Alveolus, of Echinus esculentus, 526
Alveopora, 397
Amalthea (Fam. Corymorphidae, 273), 266
Ambulacral area, of Echinarachnius parma, 544;
of Echinocardium cordatum, 550
Ambulacral groove, of Asteroidea, 432;
representative in Ophiuroidea, 481;
representative in Echinoidea, 515;
of Pelmatozoa, 579;
of Antedon rosacea, 581, 582, 587;
of fossil Crinoidea, 595;
of Thecoidea, 596;
of Carpoidea, 596;
of young Ophiuroid, 613
Ambulacral ossicle, of Asteroidea, 432;
of Asterias rubens, 434;
of Ophiothrix fragilis, 481;
compared to auricula of Echinus esculentus, 526;
to inner plates of Palaeodiscus, 557;
to side-plates of Crinoidea, 589
Ambulacral plate, of Echinus esculentus, 511;
of Cidaridae, 533;
of Sphaerechinus, 539;
 of Strongylocentrotus, 539;
of Echinarachnius parma, 544
Amines, 15
Ammodiscus, 59
Amnion, 613
Amniotic cavity, 613
Amoeba, 4 f.;
reactions of, 7 f.;
devouring
a plant cell, 9;
excretion of, 14 f.;
motion of, 17 f.;
respiration of, 17 f.;
taxies of, 22
Amoeba, 51;
habitat of, 57;
posterior disc or sucker, 53;
A. binucleata, 30, 52;
A. coli, habitat, 57;
A. limax, 5;
form of amoebulae of Acrasieae, 90;
motions of, 47 n., 52;
A. polypodia in fission, 10;
A. proteus, 5;
brood-divisions of, 56 n.
Amoeboid, motion, 5;
stages of Acystosporidae, 97, 103 f.;
zoospores of Trichosphaerium, 54, 56;
gametes of Flagellata, 116 n.
Amoebophrya, 86, 159, 161
Amoebula, 31, 51;
of Myxomycetes, 91, 92;
of Didymium, 92;
of fever parasites, 104
Amphiaster (an aster in which the actines form a whorl at each
extremity of the axis, which is straight), 222
Amphibia, hosts of Opalinidae, 111, 123
Amphiblastula, 226
Amphicaryoninae, 306
Amphidisc, 176, 177 f., 202
Amphidiscophora, 203 f.
Amphihelia, 399
Amphileptus, 137
Amphimonadidae, 111
Amphimonas, 111
Amphinema, 273
Amphiprion percula, 378
Amphiura, 497;
A. squamata (= elegans), 485 n., 497, 601
Amphiuridae, 497
Amphizonella, 51;
test of, 53
Amphoriscidae, 192
Ampulla, of Millepora, 259, 260;
of Stylasterina, 284, 285;
of tube-foot of Asterias rubens, 441, 443;
synonym of axial sinus of Ophiothrix fragilis, 487;
of stone-canal of Echinus esculentus, 517;
of tube-foot of Echinus esculentus, 517;
of respiratory trees of Holothuria nigra, 563;
of podia of Holothuria nigra, 566;
of feelers of Aspidochirota, 568, 570;
of Pelagothuria, 568, 570;
of Molpadiida, 568;
of Synaptida, 568;
of Elasipoda, 571
Anabolic, 12 f.
Anabolism, 12 f.;
modes of, 15 f.
Anal, cirrhi, 139 f.;
papilla (tube) of Antedon rosacea, 581, 583;
of Eucalyptocrinus, 596
Ananchytidae, 554, 559
Anapta, 577
Anatomy, of a starfish (Asterias rubens), 432 f.;
of Ophiothrix fragilis, 479 f.;
of Echinus esculentus, 504 f.;
of Echinarachnius parma, 542 f.;
of Echinocardium cordatum, 549 f.;
of Holothuria nigra, 561 f.;
of Antedon rosacea, 581 f.
Anatriaene (a triaene of which the cladi or branches point
backwards, in the same direction as the rhabdome or shaft),
224
Anchoring flagella, 114;
of Dallingeria, 112;
of Bodo saltans, 117
Ancistrum, 137
Anemonia, 381;
A. sulcata, 381
Animal-feeding Protista, 38
Animals, defined, 39 f.;
and plants, discussion on, 35 f.;
Higher, 31, 38
Anisochela (a chela of which the two ends are unequally developed),
222, 234
Anisonema, 110
Anisospores of Radiolaria, 76, 85;
of Collozoum inerme, 76
Anochanus, 554
Anopheles, intermediate host of malarial parasite, 103 f.;
enemies of, 106;
precautions against, 106
Antedon, 594;
A. rosacea, 581, 582;
external features, 581;
skeleton, 582;
alimentary canal, 583;
water-vascular system, 583;
nervous system, 583 f.;
coelom, 585;
 genital organs, 586;
muscles, 587;
blood-system, 587;
development of, 617 f.;
A. eschrichtii, 594
Antennularia, 279;
A. antennina, 279;
A. ramosa, 279
Anterior, dorsal process, of ciliated band of Bipinnaria, 606;
of Auricularia, 608;
median process, of ciliated band of Bipinnaria, 606
Antero-lateral process, of ciliated band of Echinopluteus, 607
Anthea cereus, 381
Antheneidae, 471
Anthocaulus, 389
Anthocodia, 330
Anthocyathus, 388, 389
Anthomastus, 333, 349
Anthomedusae, 262 f.
Anthophysa (Flagellata), 111, 112 f.;
(Siphonophora, Physophorinae), 308, 302
Anthoptilidae, 362
Anthoptilum grandiflorum, 362
Anthozoa, 326 f.;
commercial importance, 328
Antipatharia, 407 f.
Antipathella, 408;
A. gracilis, 408
Antipathes, 408;
A. ternatensis, 409
Antipathidea, 367, 371, 407 f.
Antiseptic properties of "aromatic" compounds, 36 n.
Anuncinataria, 203
Anus, of Ciliates, 143 f.;
of Stylonychia, 139 f.;
of Carchesium, 147;
of Vorticella, 156;
 of Asterias rubens, 434;
of Echinus esculentus, 516;
of Echinarachnius parma, 546;
of Pygastrides relictus, 548;
of Euclypeastroidea, 549;
of Echinolampas, 554;
of Neolampas, 554;
of Holothuria nigra, 560;
of Antedon rosacea, 582;
of Dipleurula larva, 604;
of Asterina gibbosa, 611
Aphodal, 210
Aphrothoraca, 70
Aplanospore, 31
Aplysilla, 196
Aplysina, 225
Apocyte, 30, 32
Apocytial, condition, 32;
forms among Myxosporidiaceae, 107 f.;
Rhizopoda, 52
Apolemia, 308
Apoleminae, 307
Apopyle, 170
Aporosa, 397
Appendicularia, host of Gymnodinium pulvisculus, 132
Aquatic organisms, minute, distribution of, 47 n.
Arachnactis, 373, 411;
A. albida, 411;
A. americana, 411;
A. lloydii, 411
Arachnoides, 549
Arbacia, 520, 538
Arbaciidae, 530, 531, 532, 538, 558
Arbacioid type of ambulacral plate, 531, 538
Arcadomyaria, 324
Arcella, 51, 53;
A. vulgaris, 55
Archaeocidaridae, 557, 558
Archaeocyte, 171
Archaster, 467;
A. bifrons, 467
Archasteridae, 456, 466
Archenteron, definition of, 604
Archer, on Protozoa, 45;
on Heliozoa, 71
Archicoel, 450
Arcuothrix, 52;
transition between pseudopodium and flagellum in, 47 n.
Arenaceous Foraminifera, 58 f.;
Carpenter on, 63 f.;
labyrinthine structure in, 66
Argas persica, 121
Aristocystis, 599, 599
Aristotle, 166
Aristotle's lantern, of Echinus esculentus, 515, 516, 524, 525;
variations of, in Endocyclica, 531;
of Echinarachnius parma, 546, 547;
absent in Echinocardium cordatum, 550
Arm, of Asteroidea, 431, 432, 453;
of Ophiothrix fragilis, 479;
of Ophiuroidea, 481, 491;
of Crinoidea, 580, 589;
of Antedon rosacea, 581;
of Antedon (other species), 594;
of Hyocrinus, 590;
of Rhizocrinus, 591;
of Bathycrinus, 591;
of Pentacrinidae, 592;
of Holopus, 594;
of Eudiocrinus, 594;
of Inadunata, 595;
of Articulata, 595;
of Camerata, 595;
development of, in Asterina gibbosa, 611;
 in Antedon rosacea, 620
Arm-spines, of Ophiothrix fragilis, 479;
of Ophiuroidea, 491;
of Ophiothrix, 492;
of Ophiacantha, 492;
of Ophiopteron 492
Aromatic compounds in relation to nutrition and antisepsis, 36
Arthropods, hosts of Gregarines, 97 f.
Articulata, 595
Ascitic dropsy, Leydenia associated with, 91
Ascon, 185
Asconema setubalense, 221
Asexual reproduction of Asteroidea, 459;
of Linckia, 459;
of Asterina wega, 459
Ashworth, 331 n.
Asiphonacea, 347
Asphyxia, its effect on contractile vacuole, 143
Aspidochirota, 568, 569, 570 f., 577, 578
Aspidosoma, 476
Aspirotrichaceae, 137, 148, 151, 153, 154
Assimilation, assimilative anabolism, growth, 9, 13, 15 f.
Association, in Gregarines, 95, 98 f.;
in Lankesteria ascidiae, 95 f.
Astasia, 110, 112
Aster (= centrosome of mitotically dividing cell and peripheral rays),
25, 27;
(a polyaxonid spicule), 184
Asterias, 473, 475;
A. rubens, 432;
external features, 432;
pedicellariae, 433;
skeleton, 434;
coelom, 437;
alimentary canal, 438;
food, 439;
water-vascular system, 441;
 nervous system, 444;
perihaemal spaces, 448;
blood-system, 449;
genital organs, 451;
A. glacialis, 473;
pedicellariae, 434;
A. hispida, 474;
A. muelleri, 473;
A. murrayi, 473;
A. ochracea, 474;
A. polaris, 474;
A. spirabilis, 601, 602;
A. tenuispina, 453
Asteriidae, 453, 458, 473
Asterina, 454, 456, 459, 461, 463;
A. gibbosa, number of arms, 453;
eggs of, 463;
development of, 609, 610 f., 617;
A. wega, 459
Asterinidae, 455, 458, 463
Asternata, 554
Asteroid stage in the development of Ophiuroidea and Echinoidea,
613, 622
Asteroidea, 430, 431 f.;
compared with Ophiuroidea, 477 f.;
compared with Echinoidea, 503, 558;
mesenchyme of larva of, 602;
development of, 605, 608, 609, 610 f.;
phylogeny of, 621
Asteropsis, 471
Asterosmilia, 401
Asthenosoma, 536;
A. hystrix, 536, 537;
A. urens, 536
Astraeidae, 387, 399
Astraeopora, 390
Astrangia, 400;
 A. solitaria, 374, 400
Astrocnida, 501
Astrogonium, 472
Astroides, 404
Astronyx, 501
Astropecten, 455, 459, 467;
fossil, 475;
A. irregularis, 468;
movements, 468;
burrowing habits, 469
Astropectinidae, 454, 458, 459, 467, 470
Astrophyton, 491, 501
Astropyle, 81
Astrorhiza, 59
Astrorhizidaceae, 59
Astroschema, 501;
vertebra, 481
Astroschemidae, 501
Astrosclera willeyana, 194, 194
Astroscleridae, 194
Astylus, 287
Atelecrinus, 588, 594
Athoria (usually placed in a subfamily Athoriinae of the
Physonectidae, 307), 300
Atolla, 322;
A. bairdi, 322;
A. gigantea, 322;
A. valdiviae, 322
Atollidae, 322
Atoll, 390 f.
Atorella, 314, 322
Atrophy, of oral apparatus of Ciliata during conjugation, 151
Attached, Foraminifera, 64;
Flagellata, 112 f.;
Ciliata, 152;
Suctoria, 160 f., 162
Attachment, temporary, of Stentor, 155;
 permanent, of Rhizocrinus, 591;
of Bathycrinus, 591;
of young Pentacrinidae, 592;
of Thecoidea, 596;
of Cystoidea, 597;
— temporary, of larva of sterina gibbosa, 610;
of Brachiolaria larva, 612;
of larva of Antedon rosacea, 619
Aulactinium, 79;
A. actinastrum, 82
Aulena, 220
Aulocystis grayi, 208
Aurelia, 310, 314, 324;
A. aurita, 312
Aureliania heterocera, 383
Auricula, of Echinus esculentus, 526;
of Cidaridae, 531;
of Arbaciidae, 531;
of Echinarachnius parma, 546;
represented by radial pieces of calcareous ring of Holothuroidea,
566
Auricularia, 607;
metamorphosis of, 614, 615
Auronectidae, 301, 308
Aurophore, 308
Autodermin, 523
Automatic processes, so-called, 12
Autotrophic, 37
Autozooids, 333
Axial filament, of Heliozoan pseudopodia, 49, 71, 72, 74;
of Actinophrys sol, 71;
of Actinosphaerium eichornii, 72;
of Radiolaria Acantharia, 80
Axial sinus, of Asterias rubens, 448;
of Ophiothrix fragilis, 487;
of Echinus esculentus, 517, 528;
of Echinocardium cordatum, 552;
 of Holothuroid larva, 564;
of larva of Antedon rosacea, 583;
development of, in Asterina gibbosa, 609
Axifera, 353
Axinella, 216, 222, 225;
A. erecta, 216
Axinellidae, 217
Axon, 444
Axoniderma, 216
Axopora, 262
Azoosporeae, 89

Babesia (= Piroplasma), 120

Bacteria, food of Myxomycetes, 92 f.;
nutrition of, 36
Bactronella, 193
Baker, H., on organisms of putrefaction, 43;
on Protozoa, 45;
on Noctiluca, 134 f.
Balanoglossus, larva and affinities of, 616
Balantidium, 137;
habitat of, 152
Balbiani, on Protozoa, 45;
on regeneration, 35 n.;
on "Pébrine" (Nosema bombycis), 107
Barbados, Miocene deposit of Radiolaria, 87
Barotaxy, 20
Barrier reef, 390 f.
Bary, A. de, on methods of culture of lower organisms, 44;
on nature of Myxomycetes, 91
Basal granules, of cilia, etc., 138 n., 141
—see also Blepharoplast
Basal plates, of Antedon rosacea, 584;
of Crinoidea, 588;
of Hyocrinus, 588, 590;
of Atelecrinus, 588, 594;
of Rhizocrinidae, 588, 590;
 of Thaumatocrinus, 588, 594;
of Pentacrinidae, 591;
of Holopus, 592;
of Cystoidea, 598;
of Blastoidea, 599
Bastian, H. Charlton, on spontaneous generation, 44 n.
Bateson, 174
Bath sponge, 221
Bather, on Sympterura, 502;
on classification of Crinoidea, 589;
on phylogeny of Echinodermata, 622
Bathyactis, 404
Bathyanthus, 411
Bathycrinus, 589, 591
Bathypathes, 408
Bebryce, 356
Bell, F. J., 406 n.;
on classification of Ophiuroidea, 494;
of Endocyclica, 533
on relationships of Holothuroidea, 430 n., 622
Bell-animalcules, 155 f.;
feeding of, 145
—see also Carchesium, Epistylis, Peritrichaceae, Vorticella,
Zoothamnium
Beloidea, 77
Beneden, E. van, on Sporozoa, 94;
on pelagic Anthozoa, 411
Bernard, F., 241 n.
Bernard, H. M., 386 n., 397
Beroe, 413, 423;
B. cucumis, 416, 417;
B. ovata, 416, 423
Beroidae, 414, 423
Berthold, on protoplasmic movements, 16 n.
Bezzenberger, list of species of Opalina, 124 n.;
on parasitic Ciliata, 152 n.
Bicoeca, 111
Bicoecidae, 111
Bidder, 168, 172 n., 186 n., 235 n.
Biemma, 224
Bigelow, 304, 420 n.
Bile, 13
Biloculina, 59, 67
Biloculine, 66
Binary sex (= syngamy with marked inequality between the pairing
cells), 33 f.;
in Centropyxis, 57;
in Stylorhynchus, 99;
in Pterocephalus, 99;
in Coccidiaceae, 100 f.;
in Sarcocystis tenella, 108 n.;
in Volvocidae, 127 f.;
in Eudorina, 129;
in Peritrichaceae, 151 f.
Biomyxa, 58
Bionomics of Protistic life, 43
Bipinnaria, 605 f., 608;
metamorphoses of, 612
Bipocillus (a microsclere consisting of a curved shaft, terminated by
a cup-shaped expansion at each end, characteristic of the
genus Iophon), 222
Birds, hosts of Acystosporidae, 103
Birth-pore, of brood-cavity of Suctoria, 161
Bisexual differentiation—see Binary sex
Bivium, of Echinarachnius parma, 543;
of Holothuria nigra, 561
Black Corals (= Gerardia, 406, and Antipatharia, 407)
Bladder, of Rotifers and Platyhelminthes, 14 n.
Blanchard, on Sporozoa, 94
Blastocoel, 603
Blastoidea, 580, 599 f.
Blastomere, 603
Blastostyles, 265
Blasts of Coccidiaceae, morphology of, 120;
 of Acystosporidae, 104 f.
Blastula, definition of, 603
Blepharoplast, 19;
of Heliozoa, 72;
of Flagellata, 109, 115;
of Trypanosoma, 121;
of nuclear origin in Trypanosoma, 109 n.;
of T. noctuae, 120 f.;
of Ciliata, 141
Block-musculature, of spines of Echinus esculentus, 506
Blood, Acystosporidae and Haemosporidae parasitic in, 97, 102 f.;
Protomastigaceae parasitic in, in fever, 119 f.
Blood-corpuscle, entered by Haemosporidae and Acystosporidae,
102 f., 104 f.;
by Treponema and Trypanosoma, 120
Blood-system, of Asterias rubens, 449 f.;
of Echinus esculentus, 529;
of Holothuria nigra, 567;
of Antedon rosacea, 587
Bloody rain, 125
Blowflies, alleged spontaneous generation of, 42
Bodo, 111, 119;
B. caudatus, 116 n.;
B. saltans, 114, 116 n., 117 f.
Bodonidae, 111;
movements of, 114 n.
Body-cavity—see Coelom
Bohemura, 502
Bolina, 419;
B. infundibulum, 416
Bolinidae, 419
Bolinopsis, 419
Bolocera tuediae, 381
Borchgrevink, 310 n.
Borgert, on Dictyochidae, 87;
on fission in Aulacantha, 85;
on phaeodium in Radiolaria, 81 n.
Botanists, contributors to knowledge of Flagellates, 119
Bothriocidaris, 557, 561
Botryoidea, 79
Bougainvillia, 263, 264, 266, 269;
B. ramosa, 269
Bougainvilliidae, 269
Boulenger, 294 n.
Bourne, G. C., 246, 337, 338 n., 347
Bourrelet, 553
Boveri, on functions of chromatin, 28 n.
Bowerbank, 168, 169, 234 n.
Brachial ossicle, of Antedon rosacea, 582;
of fossil Crinoidea, 595
Brachiolaria, 612, 613
Brachionus, often found with Euglena viridis, 124
Brachiopoda, 428, 579
Brachyenemic, 405
Brachyeneminae, 405
Brady, classification of Foraminifera, 58 f.
Brain-Coral, 401
Branched, endoplasm, of Noctiluca, Trachelius, and Loxodes, 133,
153;
meganucleus, of Dendrosoma, 160;
theca, of Dinobryon, 112;
of Schizotricha, 152
Branching colony, of Carchesium, Epistylis, Zoothamnium, 158
Brandt, Karl, on commensals and parasites of Radiolaria, 87 n.;
on Radiolaria, 88
Breeding temperature of Protozoa, 47
Breeze Flies, intermediate hosts of Trypanosoma evansii, 119
Briareidae, 350
Brisinga, 474
Brisingidae, 453, 454, 474
Brissidae, 556
Brissopsis, 556;
B. lyrifera, 556
Brittle Star—see Ophiuroidea
Brood-cavity, in Suctoria, 160 f., 162
Brood-cell, 31
Brood-cyst, of Proteomyxa, 88 f.
Brood-division, brood-formation, 30 f.;
in Rhizopoda, 56 f.;
in Foraminifera, 67 f.;
in Radiolaria, 85 f.;
in Proteomyxa, 49, 88 f.;
in Sporozoa, 48, 94 f.;
in Flagellata, 109, 115, 117 f.;
in Polytomeae, 115;
in Chlamydomonadidae, 115;
in Paramoeba eilhardii, 116 n.;
in Choanoflagellates, 122;
in Proterospongia, 122;
in Volvocidae, 127 f.;
in Ciliata, 147;
in Colpoda cucullus, 147, 153;
of male Peritrichaceae, 151 f., 157;
retarded, 31 f.
Brood-mother-cell, 31
Brood-pouch, of Pteraster, 465, 466;
of Hemiaster philippi, 556, 602;
of Anochanus, 554;
of Cucumaria laevigata, 602;
of Psolus ephippifer, 602
Brooks, 288, 290, 308 n.
Brown colour of lakes or ponds often due to Dinoflagellates, 131
Browne, 273, 281 n., 291 n., 312
Bruce, Col. and Mrs., on Trypanosomic fever and sleeping sickness,
120
Bubbles of carbon dioxide formed in Arcella, etc., 53
Buccal sinus of Holothuria nigra, 566
Buccal tentacle—see Buccal tube-foot
Buccal tube-foot (and tentacle), of Ophiothrix fragilis, 486;
of Echinus esculentus, 518;
of Echinocardium cordatum, 551, 561;
 of Holothuria nigra, 561;
of Spatangoidea, 577;
development of, in Holothuroid pupa, 615
Budding, in Trichosphaerium, 54;
in Rhizopoda, 56;
in Acanthocystis, 73;
in Acantharia, 86 n.;
in Spirochona, 147;
in Suctoria, 160, 162;
in Sponges, 177 f., 228, 229, 230;
in Hydrozoa, 250 f., 263, 275;
in Medusae, 270, 296;
in Scyphistoma, 317;
in Alcyonaria, 340;
in Zoantharia, 371
Bud-fission in testaceous Rhizopoda, 55;
in Euglypha, 29
Buffon, on organisms of putrefaction, 43
Bulimina, 59
Bulk and surface of organism, ratio between, 14
Bunodactis gemmacea, 378
Bunodeopsis, 382
Bunodes, 378, 382;
B. gemmacea, 382
Bunodidae, 382
Burrowing habits, of certain Asteroidea, 461;
of Astropecten, 469;
of Paxillosa, 469;
of Porcellanasteridae, 471;
of Strongylocentrotus lividus, 541;
of Echinarachnius parma, 546;
of Echinocardium cordatum, 549;
of Spatangus purpureus, 555;
of Molpadiida, 575;
of Synaptida, 576;
of Synapta inhaerens, 577
Burrowing Urchins, 529
Bursaria, 137, 155
Bury, on primary axial sinus of Holothuroid larva, 564;
on change in position of mouth during metamorphosis of
Auricularia, 614
Bütschli, on protoplasm, 16 n.;
on paramylum, 95 n.;
on Protozoa, 46;
on Cystoflagellates, 135;
on classification of Ciliata, 137;
on Strombidium and Torquatella, 155 n.;
on Sponges, 168, 172 n.

Caecum (diverticulum), of alimentary canal of Echinocardium

cordatum, 551;
of alimentary canal of Elasipoda, 569, 571
Caenomorpha, 137, 141 n., 154;
C. uniserialis, 155
Cake-urchins = Clypeastroidea, q.v.
Calcaire Grossier, 70
Calcarea, 184 f.
Calcareous ooze, 114
Calcareous ring, of Holothuria nigra, 566;
of H. cinerascens, 567;
of Phyllophorus rugosus, 567
Calcaromma calcarea, 83
Calcituba, 59;
growth of, 64;
pylomes of, 64
Calices of Madreporaria, 371
Calicoblasts, 385
Calkins, on nucleus in Protozoa, 25 n.;
on Protozoa, 46;
on rhythm in life-cycle of Ciliata, 148 n.
Calliactis (family Sagartiidae, 381);
C. parasitica, 378
Callianira, 418
Callianiridae, 417