The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology

https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-020-05966-8

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Wire and arc additive manufacturing of metal components: a review

of recent research developments
Jienan Liu 1 & Yanling Xu 1,2 & Yu Ge 1 & Zhen Hou 1 & Shanben Chen 1,2

Received: 12 April 2020 / Accepted: 17 August 2020

# Springer-Verlag London Ltd., part of Springer Nature 2020

Abstract
Wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) is an important metal 3D printing method, which has many advantages, such as rapid
deposition rate, low cost, and suitability for large complex metal components manufacturing, and it has received extensive
attention. This paper summarizes the research developments of WAAM in recent years, including the WAAM-suitable metal
materials and processing technology, deposition strategy optimization including slicing and path planning algorithm, multi-
sensor monitoring and intelligent control, and the large complex metal components manufacturing technology. The promising
development directions of WAAM are prospected, including the research of new materials and new technology, composite
manufacturing, multi-sensor and real-time monitoring, algorithmic optimization of metal filling strategy, and the application of
artificial intelligence technology in WAAM, etc.

Keywords WAAM . Weldability . Slicing algorithm . Path planning . Multi-sensor . Intelligent control . Large complex metal
components manufacturing

1 Introduction and is designed for freedom and for complex components,

Due to the advantages of design flexibility, low manufacturing
cost, and possibility to use almost all kinds of raw materials
such as polymers, metals, concrete, and ceramics, 3D printing
is still a hot issue of research after 30 years of development; it
has received extensive attention in the fields of biomedicine,
aerospace, art esthetics, and architectural design [1].
Especially the high-performance 3D printing technology of
metal is widely regarded as the most difficult and promising
frontier development direction in the industry, and it is also the
most direct forming technology that can serve the equipment
manufacturing industry. Metal 3D printing produces fully
dense, high-precision metal parts in a short period of time,
* Yanling Xu
ylxu@sjtu.edu.cn; xuyanling991@sina.com
1
Intelligentized Robotic Welding Technology Laboratory, School of
Materials Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University,
Shanghai 200240, People’s Republic of China
2
Shanghai Key Laboratory of Materials Laser Processing and
Modification, School of Materials Science and Engineering,
Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, People’s Republic
of China
lightweight, customized, which can be directly applied to
aerospace, oil and gas, and marine and automotive applica-
tions [2]. As shown in Fig. 1, there are currently four main
methods for metal additive manufacturing; especially powder
bed fusion (PBF) and directed energy deposition (DED) are
the main forms of metal additive manufacturing included in
ISO/ASTM 52900 [3].
PBF is a method of additive manufacturing in which ma-
terial within a powder bed is selectively fused together using
thermal energy, from either a laser or an electron beam. This
method is suitable for small parts with complicated geometries
[4]. The samples manufactured by laser PBF are shown in Fig.
2.
Directed energy deposition (DED) features metallic pow-
der or wire being fed directly into the focal point of a laser or
electron beam or plasma arc, resulting in a molten pool that
can be selectively deposited [7]. Similar to powder bed fusion,
DED-based powder is suitable for high complexity parts and
requires an inert environment to prevent oxidation [8] and has
maximum part size limitations with long build times. The
surface roughness is typically 20–100 μm [9]. Wire and arc
additive manufacturing (WAAM) is a DED technique that
uses arc welding tools and wire to form components, with
the final object formed entirely from the deposited weld

Fig. 1 Four main methods of
metal additive manufacturing
material. WAAM can utilize gas metal arc welding (GMAW),
gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), and plasma arc welding
(PAW) [10]. Complex large metal components made by
WAAM are shown in Fig. 3.
Compared with laser-based powder additive manufactur-
ing, WAAM has the greatest advantage that it is suitable for
molding a variety of metal materials and has high deposition
efficiency. The hardware systems are shown in Fig. 4, and
formed workpieces and performance comparisons are shown
in Table 1.
Table 1 shows that WAAM has significant advantages in
deposition rate, material utilization, and construction of large
and complex metal structural parts, and the cost of WAAM is
lower, the hardware cost of the WAAM system is usually an
order of magnitude smaller than the hardware cost of the laser
powder system, while the deposition rate and the material
utilization rate are two orders of magnitude higher, which is
suitable for large and complex structural parts of various
metals. Therefore, WAAM has a very broad commercial ap-
plication value, and it has a core competitive advantage in the
Fig. 2 a, b Complex metal
components made by laser PBF
[5, 6]
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
aerospace field compared with the traditional metal processing
technology. Paolo has established a business evaluation
WAAM framework based on factors such as cost,
manufacturing time, energy demand, and carbon footprint,
and then combined with case studies to conclude that
WAAM is suitable for supporting or even replacing traditional
manufacturing methods in certain industrial environments
[14], the advantages of WAAM become more and more prom-
inent as the complexity of metal structural components in-
creases, as shown in Fig. 5. Compared with laser-based pow-
der additive manufacturing, WAAM has wider applicability,
lower cost, and the ability to form large, complex workpieces,
which is generally considered to be a near net shape process,
which can greatly improve material utilization, shorten prod-
uct cycle, and greatly improve production. It is the key devel-
opment direction of modern green manufacturing, low-carbon
and high-efficiency industries.
At present, the UK is at the forefront of the field of arc
additive manufacturing, forming a complete WAAM research
system with Cranfield University as the core, government
Int J Adv Manuf Technol

Fig. 3 Complex large metal

components made by WAAM

supporting and enterprise funding. Cranfield University has
conducted a systematic research about WAAM on various
aspects such as simulation control, system integration, work-
piece control, and path planning with the enterprises including
Aerobus, Rolls-Royce, BAE System, Bombardier Aerospace,
Astrium, and EADS. Cranfield University has realized the
direct manufacture of large-scale structural parts of titanium
alloy and high-strength steel materials by using WAAM tech-
nology, which greatly shortened the development cycle of the
large-scale structural parts. Figure 6 shows a 20-kg titanium
wing spar for BAE Systems (two built back-to-back).
In addition, Pan and Ding [15] of University of
Wollongong in Australia have been engaged in the research
of arc additive manufacturing in recent years, especially the
large-scale thin-walled complex components for arc addi-
tive manufacturing and forming a series of research results,
as shown in Fig. 7. The crossings in thin-walled structures
make path planning more complicated, but there are always
many crossings in these structures. The related research
shows in Fig. 7 that the directly crossed paths will generate
peaks, at which the weld beads overlap, as shown in Fig. 7 a.
In addition, the acute angle at the intersection can cause
stress concentration. As shown in Fig. 7 b, the opposite-
angle path pattern has proved that the best intersection with
the best radius can be generated at the corner [18]. Based on
these studies, Pan and Ding developed a mature WAAM
software that can be applied to industrial-grade thin-walled
workpieces. Figure 7 e shows the workpiece model and its
path planning, and Fig. 7 f shows the formed workpiece.
WAAM has the characteristics of high deposition rate,
forming of large size workpiece, eliminating of the compli-
cated process of mold design, and manufacturing and

Table 1 Comparison between

laser-based powder additive Laser-based powder additive WAAM
manufacturing and WAAM manufacturing

Deposition rate 0.1–0.2 kg/h (low) 4 kg/h (high)

Utilization rate 10–60% (low) 90% (high)
Suitable materials Titanium alloy, alloy steel Aluminum alloy, magnesium alloy, alloy
steel
Manufacturing cost High Low
Applicable workpiece Complex workpieces, small workpieces General workpieces, large workpieces
Manufacturing 0.05 mm (high) 0.2 mm (low)
accuracy

Fig. 4 System components. a
Laser-based powder additive
manufacturing; b WAAM [11,
12]
repairing in the forming process of traditional manufactur-
ing technology in a short period. However, the WAAM
process is unstable and the evaluation index system is sin-
gle, resulting in low precision of the formed workpiece and
poor surface quality. The residual stress and the welding
deformation are large, and there are welding defects such
as cracks, pores, and slag inclusions. It is difficult to meet
the technical requirements for the manufacture of such large
components such as nuclear power, aviation, aerospace, and
weaponry. Therefore, WAAM is a typical multidisciplinary
cross-fusion research involving materials science,
manufacturing, automation control, and artificial intelli-
gence. There are still many problems to be solved, so it is
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
of great significance to summarize the current research fo-
cus of WAAM. This paper summarizes and analyzes the
current research hot spots and difficulties of WAAM, in-
cluding new alloy development for WAAM, virtual
manufacturing technology application of WAAM, slicing
and path planning algorithms, multi-information fusion, in-
telligent control, and process innovation. The future devel-
opment direction of WAAM is prospected, including the
development of new processes, new equipment, system in-
tegration, multi-sensing technology, and application of AI.
The typical WAAM intelligent forming process is shown in
Fig. 8, and the WAAM research hotspot and future devel-
opment direction are summarized in Fig. 9.
Int J Adv Manuf Technol

Fig. 5 Main results as a function

of the solid-to-cavity ratio with
different manufacturing methods
[13]

2 WAAM material weldability and processing

technology

Many studies have been conducted on WAAM manufacturing

of various alloys, including titanium alloys, stainless steels,
nickel alloys, aluminum alloys, and magnesium alloys. The
metals typically used in WAAM process are shown in Table 2.
From the perspective of aerospace applications, titanium al-
loys and nickel alloys are commonly used [24]. Alloys used in
aerospace are expensive, and these alloy materials are not
suitable for metal powder additive manufacturing with laser,
while WAAM forms less waste and has a higher net quality,
so it is very popular in the aerospace industry. At present, most
of the current research is testing the applicability of WAAM,
microstructure, and mechanical properties of WAAM
workpieces.

2.1 Weldability and mechanical properties of several

WAAM alloys

At present, many scholars have carried out WAAM forming

mechanism, microstructure, and performance research on
many kinds of metal materials (especially metal materials that
Fig. 6 WAAM titanium parts [14] are difficult to form by traditional processing methods), such
 Int J Adv Manuf Technol

Fig. 7 Concerns of crossings in

thin-walled structures. a Direct
crossing induces peaks. b Path
pattern of opposite angles [16]. c
One direct and two crossing
methods. d Finished part [17]. e
Tool paths. f Final finished part
with the desired dimensional
accuracy [15]

Fig. 8 The process of molding

metal parts with intelligent
WAAM system
Int J Adv Manuf Technol

Fig. 9 Difficulties and

development directions of
WAAM research

as Ti6Al4V, Inconel 625, AA5183, and AZ91D. During the
molding of a WAAM workpiece, the deposited material un-
dergoes multiple thermal cycles, thereby forming different
grain structures in different layers along the deposition direc-
tion, which determines the mechanical properties of the work-
piece. A typical WAAM workpiece consists of many colum-
nar grains epitaxially grown from a substrate and arranged in a
stacking direction perpendicular to the solid/liquid interface
with a maximum temperature gradient. Most metals are suit-
able for WAAM forming workpieces, but it is still difficult to
overcome residual stress, deformation, and accuracy issues.
Ti6Al4V WAAM molding of titanium alloy is being studied
more and more. Titanium alloys with high strength and frac-
ture toughness are ideal materials for the aerospace industry,
but low utilization and high cost limit the application of tita-
nium alloys in the industry, which is a common problem for
precious metals. Wang demonstrates the suitability of WAAM
for large near net shape Ti-6Al-4V titanium alloy parts based
on TIG technology [19]. The manufactured sample is shown
in Fig. 10 a. As a result, the average yield strength and ulti-
mate tensile strength of the surface workpiece are slightly
lower than that of the forged Ti-6Al-4V bar (MIL-T 9047),
and the ductility is similar, but the average fatigue life is much
higher. The fatigue simulation data for the sample is shown in
Fig. 10 c and d. The number of failures for the three baseline
samples was well below one million, while the number of
failures for WAAM-formed samples exceeded one million.
Even after 10 million cycles, sixteen such deposited samples
did not fail. Therefore, the fatigue life of WAAM-molded
parts is much longer than the traditional molding method.
Ti-6Al-4V titanium alloy parts manufactured by cold metal
transfer additive manufacturing (CMT-AM) have increasing
potential in aerospace applications. Gou conducted the Ti-
6Al-4V WAAM experiment using the CMT welding mode.
The current and voltage waveforms during CMTAM process
are shown in Fig. 11, which consists of arcing phase and short-
circuiting (S/C) phase, which are approximately 14 ms. And it

Table 2 Metals typically used by

WAAM process Example and Alloys
applications
Titanium Inconel alloy Aluminum Magnesium Stainless steel
alloy alloy alloy

Example Ti6Al4V Inconel 625/718 AA5183 AZ91D 2209 duplex stainless steel
Aerospace [19–21]
Automotive [15] [22] [23]
Marine [24]
Tools and [25] [26, 27] [28] [29]
molds
Corrosion [30, 31] [32] [21, 33] [34–36]
resistance

Fig. 10 a Ti-6Al-4V wall deposited by WAAM process. b Optical
macrostructure and microstructure of the as-deposited Ti-6Al-4V, (i)
macrostructure showing columnar β grains and macroscopic white
bands; (ii) microstructure from the top layer of the build region
Fig. 11 Current and voltage waveforms during CMTAM process [20]
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
showing a fine α′ morphology; (iii) typical microstructure of the
majority of the wall between the bands. c Schematic diagram showing
the extraction of tensile and fatigue specimens. d Fatigue test cycles to
failure vs specimen ID [19]
was studied the Ti-6Al-4V wall after initial deposition and
two heat treatments (two heat treatment processes of 900 °C
for 4 h followed by furnace cooling (FC) and 1200 °C for 2 h
followed by FC), i.e., microstructure and mechanical proper-
ties [20]. The microcrystalline structures of the samples made
under the three conditions are shown in Figs. 12, 13, and 14 a
and b, respectively. In the microstructure of sample 1, there
are many very fine needle-shaped α′ martensite, and there are
a few layered α+β in the basket structure. The growth of
martensite grains along the z-axis has no obvious directional-
ity. The reason for this phenomenon is the relatively low heat
input of the CMTAM process. As shown in Fig. 12 b, the
layered α+β structure tends to grow along the heat dissipation
direction and parallel to each other. The average size is about
10 μm long and 1 μm wide. After 900 °C 4-h FC heat treat-
ment, the microstructure changed obviously, there were more
columnar grains in the range of 15 to 50 μm, and the α plate
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
Fig. 12 The microstructure of as-
built wall: a side and b top [20]
became significantly thicker; after 1200 °C 2-h FC heat treat-
ment, the length of β grains is about 170 μm, and these elon-
gated grains are parallel to each other.
Mechanical performance tests and the results show that the
samples have higher hardness and tensile strength. The use of
900 °C 4-h furnace cooling can significantly improve the
hardness of CMT-AM workpieces, and the use of 1200 °C
2-h furnace cooling can significantly improve the ductility of
CMT-AM molded workpieces. As can be seen from Fig. 15,
the mechanical properties of WAAM-molded parts are supe-
rior to conventional as-built parts.
Inconel alloy The cost of nickel alloys is higher than that of
titanium alloys, and is also very common in aerospace ap-
plications. WAAM of cold metal transition research for
nickel alloys has gradually gained attention. Inconel 625
has excellent thermal corrosion resistance, fatigue resis-
tance, wear resistance, and excellent strength at high tem-
peratures. Wang performed WAAM fabrication of nickel
alloy Inconel 625 and studied the effect of welding speed
on the properties of the fabricated samples, and analyzed the
microstructure and mechanical properties and the micro-
structure of the workpiece [30]. The manufactured sample
Fig. 13 Microstructure of the
heat-treated wall after 900 °C 4-h
FC: a low multiple morphology
(1000 ×) and b high multiple
morphology (2000 ×) [20]
and the microstructure of different layer heights are shown
in Fig. 16 and 17. Compared with the middle layer, the
continuous accumulation of heat causes the dendrites of
the top layer to be rougher, and the dendrite spacing of the
top layer is 30–40 μm [37]. There are no equiaxed crystals
in the bottom and intermediate microstructures of the cast-
ings [25], so this is the main reason why WAAM’s mechan-
ical properties of Inconel 625 alloy workpieces are expected
to be better than casting.
Inconel 718 alloy has high strength, good toughness, and
corrosion resistance at high temperatures and low tempera-
tures of 700 °C. It is commonly used in the manufacture of
fasteners and aerospace blades. The WAAM study and the
SLM study for this alloy can be compared and analyzed. Xu
conducted the WAAM study of Inconel 718 alloy, and Zhang
conducted the SLM study [38, 39]. The molded samples are
shown in Fig. 13 and 18. The comparison shows that the
precision and surface quality of SLM molding are much
higher, and small workpieces are very suitable for laser metal
powder molding. In terms of mechanical properties, WAAM
workpieces are far superior to SLM-molded workpieces, and
SLM is 1 to 2 orders of magnitude worse in terms of forming
efficiency and workpiece size.

Fig. 14 Microstructure of the
heat-treated wall after 1200 °C
2-h FC: a low multiple
morphology (1000 ×) and b high
multiple morphology (2000 ×)
[20]
Chen studied the applicability of WAAM forming of
nickel-aluminum-bronze alloys, and analyzed the effects of
different post-heat treatments (post-weld heat treatment pro-
cess parameters are shown in Table 3) on workpiece anisotro-
py [24]. The sample is shown in Fig. 19. The experimental
results showed that the strength of the sediment in the longi-
tudinal and lateral directions was higher than that in the nor-
mal direction. Through the designed quenching and tempering
methods and when the tempering temperature reaches 650 °C,
the ductility of the alloy has been significantly improved.
Through quenching and tempering heat treatment, the grains
were significantly refined, which could effectively change the
anisotropy of the added alloy, as shown in Fig. 20.
Magnesium alloy AZ91D Magnesium alloys have a wide range
of applications in the industry, but one of the main shortcom-
ings of magnesium alloy implants is fast degradation via cor-
rosion [31]. Han studied the manufacturing feasibility of
WAAM of magnesium alloy AZ91D, and compared the cor-
rosion resistance of magnesium alloy casting and WAAM-
molded parts [33]. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy
(EIS) graph (see Fig. 21) reveals a semi-circular form where
its diameter is related to the composition and microstructure.
Fig. 15 Ultimate tensile strength and elongation of the deposited wall
under different conditions [20]
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
AZ91D produced by WAAM had six times larger diameter
than the AZ91D produced by casting which means corrosion
resistance of AZ91D produced by WAAM was better [40]. As
can be seen from Fig. 22, after the same etching operation, the
casting was severely corroded and the grain boundaries were
destroyed. Since the second-phase particles are dispersed on
the surface as a subsequent corrosion barrier, the WAAM-
formed workpiece is more resistant to corrosion.
Aluminum alloy AA5183 The aluminum alloy has low density,
is close to or exceeds high-quality steel, has good plasticity,
and can be processed into various profiles. It has been widely
used in aviation, aerospace, automobile, machinery
manufacturing, shipbuilding, and chemical industries. Fine-
sized aluminum alloy workpieces can be formed using SLM,
but the density and mechanical properties are similar or re-
duced compared to conventional castings [26], while large
aluminum alloy workpieces are more suitable for WAAM
manufacturing. Horgar used AA5183 wire and WAAM to
make a molded flange. The sample is shown in Fig. 23. The
study shows that the hardness in the horizontal and vertical
planes is 735 MPa and 686–735 MPa, respectively [41].
Reasonable isotropic yield strength and tensile strength
reached 145 and 293 MPa, respectively, whose mechanical
properties are far superior to SLM-molded parts.
2.2 Extraordinary processing technology of WAAM
At present, the forming process of WAAM is continually op-
timized. In order to improve the microstructure and properties
of the molded parts, the auxiliary process is not only necessary
heat treatment, but also including the extraordinary processes
like adding suitable alloy powder, laser, ultrasonic micro-forg-
ing, and multi-filament filling to prepare functional gradient
materials.
Wang added titanium powder during the WAAM molding
process of aluminum-magnesium alloy to observe the effect of
titanium powder on the formation of aluminum-magnesium
Int J Adv Manuf Technol

Fig. 16 Block samples fabricated by CMT-WAAM: a deposited with travel speed of 8 mm/s; b deposited with travel speed of 9 mm/s; c deposited with
travel speed of 10 mm/s [30]

alloy WAAM manufacturing [42]. The results show that tita-
nium powder was added, and the crystal type of the interme-
diate layer changes from columnar grains to fine equiaxed
grains. Adding Ti powder in the molten pool can form
Al3Ti phase, and Al3Ti and Al have similar face-centered
crystal structure and lattice constant, can be used as a suitable
α-Al heteronucleus nucleus, and promote the grain refinement
of aluminum alloy. Therefore, the ultimate tensile strength and
elongation of the thin-walled workpiece in the vertical and
horizontal directions increase, and the microhardness of the
intermediate layer increases by 5–10 HV. The mechanical
properties of the WAAM aluminum-magnesium alloy show
more isotropy in both directions, and the microstructure of the
samples is shown in Fig. 24.
Sun studied the effect of ultrasonic micro-forging on 304
stainless steel WAAM forming workpieces, and observed the
microstructure and microhardness of ultrasonic micro-forging
at different powers, and established the relationship between
microhardness and ultrasonic micro-forging power [43]. The
microstructure of the workpiece is significantly refined by

Fig. 17 Microstructures. (a) Top

layer (ferrite: gray, austenite:
white), (b) Cr nitrides in ferrite in
HAZ, and (c) secondary austenite
in reheated ferrite [30]

Fig. 18 SLM-processed Inconel
718 tube samples and samples
after ECP from 1 to 5 min [39]
ultrasonic micro-forging, shown in Fig. 25. The microhard-
ness of the workpiece is also enhanced by ultrasonic micro-
forging. When the ultrasonic micro-forging power is fixed at
1000 W, the ultrasonic micro-forging has a depth of about
1 mm and the microhardness has a maximum of 350 HV0.1,
shown in Fig. 26.
Näsström added a laser during the WAAM molding pro-
cess to observe and compare the molten pool whether the laser
beam was added or not [44]. The results show that the arc laser
mixing can significantly make the molten pool more stable
(average fluctuation is reduced by more than 35%). And the
surface of the previous layer will be smoother, improving the
WAAM molding accuracy, shown in Fig. 27 and 28.
The research of functionally graded materials has always
been a hot issue. At present, the methods for manufacturing
functionally graded alloy materials mainly include chemical
vapor deposition, powder-based furnace remelting, laser rapid
prototyping, and welding arc deposition, among which
powder-based processes are often costly and it is difficult to
obtain full-density functionally graded workpieces, while
WAAM can significantly reduce material supply costs and
increase deposition rates. Shen uses WAAM technology to
fabricate iron-aluminum functionally graded material struc-
tures with aluminum compositions ranging from 0 up to
50% and performing microstructure analysis, hardness testing,
tensile testing, and X-ray diffraction phase modeling of alloys
[18]. The experimental results show that WAAM can be used
to manufacture aluminized iron functionally graded materials
with full density and reasonable mechanical properties. The
double-wire WAAM molding system is shown in Fig. 29.
Woo used WAAM to fabricate functionally graded mate-
rials for ferritic and austenitic steel double-wire deposition
Table 3 Post production heat
treatments provided to samples Sample no. Homogenization method
[24]
1 900 °C
2 900 °C
3 900 °C
4 900 °C
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
[45]. Five cases were designed as shown in Fig. 30(a). The
effects of different steel layer thickness ratios and deposition
strategies on the thermal and mechanical properties of func-
tionally graded workpieces were discussed. The cross-
sectional macroscopic structure of the sediment samples of
the five experimental experiments is shown in Fig. 30(b).
The experimental results show that WAAM is suitable for
the preparation of low-cost, high-performance functionally
graded materials, and the bidirectional and orthogonal depo-
sition methods are more suitable.
2.3 Methods of minimizing residual stresses and
distortions
The WAAM heat input is too large, and inevitably residual
stress and deformation will occur. At present, a lot of research
on WAAM is to reduce the residual stress and deformation of
the WAAM workpiece. These methods can be put into two
categories depending on whether additional process is re-
quired or not. The first type is the use of auxiliary processes
or systems, techniques such as applying appropriate clamping
systems [46], interlayer cooling systems [47], preheating [48],
shielded gas welding [49], post-weld heat treatment [50], and
overall or local mechanical tension [51, 52]. The second is to
directly use simulation methods for shape prediction, such as
virtual manufacturing technology, of which the commonly
used is finite element simulation. Since WAAM is a continu-
ous and complicated manufacturing process, in order to re-
duce residual stress and deformation, it is also a very impor-
tant development trend to combine the two methods and per-
form simulation (Fig. 31).
Quenching method Tempering method
Water 450 °C, 6 h
Water 550 °C, 6 h
Water 600 °C, 6 h
Water 650 °C, 6 h
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
Fig. 19 Three additively manufactured components of nickel-aluminum-bronze alloy [24]
2.3.1 With extra process and facilities
Wang established a three-dimensional finite element model
(Fig. 32(a)), and verified weld profile and heat source model,
using Simufact welding finite element analysis software and
four typical clamping methods (Fig. 32(b)). The overall defor-
mation and residual stress distribution were compared [53].
Proper clamping forms can effectively reduce distortions and
defects in the manufacture of wire and arc additives. The re-
sults show that the edge clamping form has better performance
than the angular clamping form. In the edge clamping form,
the transverse clamping dominates the longitudinal clamping
to ensure dimensional accuracy. Based on the analysis of the
residual stress distribution, the minimum residual stress distri-
bution can be obtained using only the clamping form of the
transverse clamping.
Filippo simulated a workpiece cooling system (shown in
Fig. 33) based on impinging air jets to the WAAM forming
system in order to reduce the heat input, and reduce the resid-
ual stress and deformation of the workpiece [54]. This re-
search proposes to solve this problem by introducing a work-
piece cooling system based on impinging air jets (the
simulation results are shown in Fig. 34). The numerical model
of jet impingement cooling is applied to the finite element
thermal model of the WAAM process in order to evaluate its
effectiveness, and the proposed technique can be considered a
useful method to prevent heat accumulation.
Shielding gas plays an important role in the WAAM pro-
cessing process, such as improving the welding wire deposi-
tion rate, controlling spatter, and reducing slag after welding.
Shielding gas also has a very important effect on the mechan-
ical and mechanical properties of the formed workpiece.
Different shielding gases (97.5% Ar and 2.5% CO2, 95.5%
Ar, 3% He and 1.5% H2, 95% Ar and 5% H2, 99.999% Ar)
were used to form WAAM workpieces (Fig. 35), and finally
compared the mechanical properties. Hardness measurement
and tensile strength tests have shown that 97.5% Ar and 2.5%
CO2 shielding gas will result in a higher hardness of the work-
piece cross-section and a higher tensile strength of the work-
piece structure.
In order to explore the influence of different protective
gases on the mechanical properties of WAAM forming work-
pieces, Caballero [50] designed a closed device filled with an
argon atmosphere as shown in the Fig. 36, and used two dif-
ferent customized shielding gases (SG1 38% He and 2% CO2
argon, SG2 2.5% carbon dioxide in argon) to manufacture the
workpieces, and electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) pat-
tern analysis was used to analyze the phase composition of
two samples; the conclusion indicated that the use of shielding
gas that results in a higher heat input reduces the amount of
retained austenite in the deposited microstructure.
Post-weld heat treatment has very important functions,
such as reducing welding residual stress, stabilizing the shape
and size of the structure, and improving the mechanical prop-
erties of the workpiece. Qi Z [55] conducted WAAM exper-
iments and performed different heat treatments on the three
groups of samples, namely natural cooling, and T41 and T6
heat treatment, of which T4 and T6 heat treatment procedures
include two steps: solution treatment + T4/T6 conditions un-
der natural/artificial aging. The results show that T4 and T6

Fig. 20 Optical microstructures of additively manufactured NAB alloy before and after heat treatments: a AF; b quenched; c no. 1; d no. 2; e no. 3; f no.
4 [24]
heat treatment can increase the hardness of the workpiece
from 95 to 138 HV and 146 HV, and improve the strength
and elongation in the horizontal direction, but the elongation
in the vertical direction will decrease.
Forging after welding is also an important research
method. The combination of forging and WAAM can be
during WAAM forming [56], or can be processed after
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
WAAM forming, such as a WAAM technology based
on hot forging proposed by Duarte VR. During WAAM,
the material is locally forged immediately after deposi-
tion, and in situ viscoplastic deformation occurs at high
temperatures. In the subsequent layer deposition, recrys-
tallization of the previously solidified structure occurred,
thereby refining the microstructure. The design of the
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
Fig. 21 EIS results of AZ91D WAAM and AZ91D casted [31]
device is shown in the Fig. 37, and the formed samples
are mechanically characterized. The samples have obtain-
ed improvements in yield strength and ultimate tensile
strength.
In order to combine WAAM and forging processes,
Bambach [57] proposed two process chains. The first is to first
use WAAM to form semi-finished products, and then use
forging to form a complete workpiece; the second is to forge
into semi-finished products first, and then use WAAM to add
more complex features on the final workpiece to the semi-
Fig. 22 After corrosion
microstructure of AZ91D
produced by WAAM and casting:
a, c AZ91D casted; b, d AZ91D
WAAM [31]
finished products to obtain the final parts, shown in Fig. 38.
The results confirmed that the mechanical properties of
WAAM materials can be greatly improved by hot forging
and subsequent heat treatment. For example, the yield stress
(YS) and ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of WAAM samples
in the transverse direction are increased to 922 MPa and 980
MPa, respectively, and 842 MPa and 945 MPa in the forging
direction. The tensile ductility is also significantly improved,
for example, 14.5% after forging and heat treatment, and 7%
in the manufactured state. The combination of WAAM and
forging can be used to develop new manufacturing chains,
resulting in higher material yield and flexibility than tradition-
al forging.
2.3.2 Without extra process and facilities
The second type is to directly use the simulation method to
make the shape prediction. However, there is no overall
WAAM finite element model to predict the molding due
to the WAAM molding process is too complicated.
Generally, the finite element analysis is used to optimize
the parameters, such as welding sequence, welding speed,
and path planning.
WAAM is a combination of robot welding system and wire
feeding system. The most important parameters are travel
speed (TS) and wire feeding speed (WFS). The welding
 Int J Adv Manuf Technol

Fig. 23 WAAM of AA5183 wire. a Tensile test specimens. b Deposited layers. c Individual stress-strain curves [26]

Fig. 24 Typical orientation imaging microscopy graphs of WAAM 5356 aluminum alloy a without Ti, and b with Ti. c Grain size distribution. d Grain
boundary angle distribution [42]
Int J Adv Manuf Technol

Fig. 25 Microstructure of
fabrications by WAAM untreated
and treated for different times: a
untreated; b treated for 1 min; c
treated for 2 min; d treated for
3 min [43]

Fig. 26 Hardness comparison

between treated fabrications at
different powers: a the power of
600 W; b the power of 800 W; c
the power of 1000 W [43]
 Int J Adv Manuf Technol

Fig. 27 a WAAM with laser beams and illumination laser spot over the process zone; b macrographs of generated wall structures using different
WAAM technology [44]

parameters can be optimized by finite element analysis of the combined with geometric accuracy (effective wall width, wall
thermal field and stress field during the deposition process. flatness, average layer height) [58]. The experimental results
Ding set different welding speed and wire feeding speed com- of different parameters are evaluated, and the appropriate pro-
binations (as shown in Table 4), and designed orthogonal test, cess parameters are obtained. The simulation analysis of

Fig. 28 Graphs showing mean

curves with standard deviations of
the studied melt pool surface
profiles, with the gray scale
emphasizing the size of standard
deviation [44]. a Using only arc
for AM, b using arc + leading
laser, and c using arc + trailing
laser for the AM process
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
Fig. 29 Torch, wire feeder, and trailing shielding gas for the wire arc
additive manufacturing [18]
longitudinal residual stress is carried out to obtain more opti-
mized process parameters (shown in Table 4 and Fig. 39).
The combination of parameters with excellent results ob-
tained by the experiment is shown in the Table 5.
The higher the WFS/TS ratio, the greater the heat input,
and the corresponding thermal strain exceeds the yield
strength during thermal cycling, resulting in a wider stress
region, a test with a high WFS/TS ratio than a sample with a
Fig. 30 (a) Schematic of the sample dimension and scanning strategies in additive manufactured functionally graded material (FGM) structures include
five cases; (b) cross-sectional macrostructure of the functionally graded material (FGM) specimens of five cases [45]
low WFS/TS ratio. Higher amount of stress reduction is
because the test with a higher WFS/TS ratio produces higher
constraining stress during the heating and cooling cycles of
the clamping zone to balance the tensile stress. Therefore,
the impact of the fixture will be large if tests are with high
WFS/TS ratios, and may result in higher levels of stress
reduction after the clamping is removed.
By analyzing the simulation and theoretical speculation,
Zhao believes that the order of the same direction welding of
adjacent layers is better than the reverse welding sequence
(shown in Fig. 40, and the result is shown in Fig. 41) [59],
because the welding of one layer from the starting point to
the end is completed, and then the starting point of the next
layer begins to accumulate, which makes the temperature of
the upper layer evenly distributed. The best way is to make
the path planning between layers as different as possible.
The path filling angle of the above layer is 45°, then the
filling angle of the next layer is preferably 135°. The heat
accumulation and the accumulation of layers could be
reduced.
Filippo proposed a new method for calculating the inter-
layer idle time required for WAAM operations [60]. This
method uses a finite element model to simulate the tempera-
ture field of the workpiece during the process and calculates
the appropriate idle time. The proposed algorithm calculates
idle time values specific to each layer to allow for conditions

Fig. 31 Methods of minimizing
residual stresses and distortions
that satisfy a constant interlayer temperature. Such parameters
are measured by observing the top surface of the current layer.
This allows for an increase in the size of the weld pool during
the deposition process, which results in component collapse
and non-uniform mechanical properties along the building
direction, shown in Fig. 42.
As can be seen from the above discussion, alloys such as
titanium alloys, nickel alloys, aluminum alloys, and stainless
steels are suitable for large-scale workpiece forming of
WAAM, especially titanium alloys and nickel alloys widely
used in the aviation industry. However, the current research
has not developed a specific alloy material specifically for
WAAM, and it is difficult to achieve the requirements of
multi-functionality and complexity. Therefore, by studying
the metal arc additive manufacturing mechanism, it has
Fig. 32 Finite element analysis of clamping form in wire and arc additive manufacturing. (a) Illustration of the three-dimensional finite element model;
(b) the simulation results of 4 kinds forms of clamping [53]
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
become a top priority to develop serialized, professional,
low-cost, high-strength metal materials with good molding
properties.
3 Slicing algorithm and path planning
The slicing and path planning algorithms are the core part of
WAAM, and it is also the most difficult and flexible part of
WAAM system design. Many scholars have done a lot of
research on slicing and path planning algorithms. Zhao de-
veloped an adaptive layer height slicing algorithm that
achieves layer-level adaptive control during WAAM mold-
ing by process parameters and the size of the workpiece
itself [61]. A case study of aerospace components shows
Int J Adv Manuf Technol

Fig. 33 a Archetype of the

proposed cooling system; b
geometric parameters of the jet
impingement model [54]

that the method can increase the surface waviness by 46.2%,
the effective deposition rate by 65.6%, and the material
utilization rate by 4.2% at a block width of 6 mm, as shown
in Fig. 43.
From a geometric point of view, Xiong [62] explored the
use of variable adaptive weld width profile parallel paths to
form unequal thickness workpieces to increase production
speed, achieve void-free filling, and improve geometric accu-
racy, as shown in Fig. 44.
Pan and Ding [15, 63, 64] of the University of Wollongong
conducted extensive research on the sectioning and path plan-
ning algorithms for arc additive, especially the adaptive

Fig. 34 Comparison of temperature field (K) of reference and jet impingement simulations: contour plot during the deposition of 4th and 10th layers;
temperature time histories of two nodes at different distances from the base plate [54]
 Int J Adv Manuf Technol

Fig. 35 Experimental setup for

the shielding gas assessment.
Macrostructure of a wall 1
(97.5% Ar and 2.5% CO2), b wall
2 (95.5% Ar, 3% He, and 1.5%
H2), c wall 3 (95% Ar and 5%
H2), and d wall 4 (99.999% Ar)
produced by WAAM [49]

slicing of CAD models and the path planning of complex
workpieces, shown in Figs. 45 and 46.
There are two main modes of WAAM path and planning
algorithms shown in Fig. 47. The first is that the model is
directly sliced and all the 2D contour fill information are
generated, which does not have feedback capability, and the
error is large. The more common method is the closed-loop
control system, real-time slice filling, which has higher flexi-
bility and adaptability, shown in Fig. 47 b. Therefore, the
current WAAM generally adopts a closed-loop control sys-
tem, but this puts new requirements on the slicing algorithm
and the path planning algorithm. Excellent algorithm can ef-
fectively improve the efficiency and precision of structural
complex parts and reduce the residual stress and deformation
of mold parts. The main content of this section is the research
status of slicing and path planning algorithm.

3.1 Slicing algorithm

At present, many scholars have done a lot of research on

slicing algorithms. The main slicing algorithms can be divided
into three types: simple plane, surface, and multi-directional
slicing algorithms. Among them, the simplest method is to
perform fixed layer high slices along the height direction of
the model, but the algorithm is only suitable for simple
models. Therefore, the adaptive layer high segmentation algo-
rithm is used more to form complex artifacts [65–67].

3.1.1 Surface slicing algorithms

Some models have complex structures or suspended structure.

Fig. 36 Experimental set up for the shielding gas assessment [50]
In order to reduce the need for the support structure and the
number of layers, and to improve the deposition accuracy, it is
necessary to select the surface slicing algorithm. At present,
there is no surface slicing algorithm applied to WAAM, but
the surface slicing algorithm has been widely used in the field
of non-metal rapid prototyping.
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
Fig. 37 Isometric view (3D) of
schematic representation of the
forged area at each step [56]
Chakraborty developed a new rapid prototyping method
for the formation of curved layer fused deposition modeling
(CLFDM, shown in Fig. 48) in the field of fused deposition of
ABS, which reduces the step effect compared with the planar
slicing algorithm [68]. Especially the manufacture of thin-
walled curved parts has great advantages.
Close to the WAAM system is the work of Zhao and Ma;
they used the KUKA robot’s wire feed (ABS) system and
proposed two non-planar slicing methods: the
decomposition-based surface slicing strategy and the
transformation-based cylindrical surface slicing algorithm.
The former is based on the STEP model, which is capable to
cut the mesh model and verifying the feasibility of the pro-
posed method by printing two components with the robot
[69]. In the decomposition-based method, the three-
dimensional model is decomposed into different parts, based
on the sub-components. In the transformation-based cylindri-
cal face cutting method, the latter surface is extracted from a
cylindrical surface-based model, which is then converted into
a plane-based model, and then a planar slice strategy is imple-
mented on the transformation model. The planar tool path is
then reversed to 3D space to generate a five-axis tool path; the
research results are shown in Fig. 49.
Fig. 38 The forged sample with
added AM structure [57]
3.1.2 Multi-directional slicing algorithms
Because the WAAM forming metal parts react violently, and
it is not suitable to use the support system, the surface slicing
algorithm for WAAM has rarely been tried. Compared with
the surface slicing algorithm, the algorithm processing of
multi-directional planar slicing is simpler, and it is more suit-
able for the processing of complex parts than the fixed-
direction slicing algorithm. Therefore, the application of
multi-directional slice algorithm in WAAM has been studied
a lot.
Ding studied multi-directional slicing algorithms: for com-
plex model structures, contour boundaries were searched for
and then the model was decomposed into simple 3D models
[70]. These models maintain the parent-child relationship in a
tree structure. Then each sub-3D model is sliced along the
normal direction of the respective decomposed boundary sur-
faces, and finally a three-dimensional sub-component is re-
constructed according to the tree structure; its effect is shown
in Fig. 50. As long as the indexing machine is added to the
substrate, the algorithm can allow the WAAM system to de-
posit materials in multiple directions, completely eliminating
the support structure. The proposed algorithm has important

Table 4 Parameter settings for the process study [58]
Set WFS (m/min) TS (m/min)
1 3.0 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6
2 5.0 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7
3 7.5 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8
4 10.0 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8
5 12.5 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8
6 15.0 0.2, 0.3, 0.4, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9
engineering significance for the development of mature
WAAM technology.
Nguyen also studied the slice-based algorithm based on the
direction change. The algorithm also first decomposes the
complex 3D model [71]. Each sub-component obtains the
centroid axis by analyzing the geometric information of two
adjacent layers. The algorithm can solve complex structural
features such as overhang, curvature, and branch, and make
full use of the multi-axis advantage of WAAM system, so
manufacturing time, material waste, and post-processing
may be greatly reduced. The algorithm effect and molded
workpiece are shown in Fig. 51. However, the algorithm is
not universal. When the layer is an open curve, the centroid
may be inaccurate. Therefore, the most practical method to
achieve the multi-directional deposition process is to integrate
the displacement base. The displacement sensitivity of the
displacement base and the feedback of the information will
greatly affect the flexibility of WAAM to manufacture com-
plex parts.
3.2 Path planning
3D printing has a variety of path planning methods; various
complex mathematical curves are applied, but WAAM and
Fig. 39 a Longitudinal stress prediction from the trial with WFS/TS ratio of 10 and WFS of 5 m/min; b heat input distribution plot [58]
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
ordinary 3D printing have many differences, so the general
3D printing filling method cannot be directly applied to
WAAM. WAAM has a fast deposition rate, and there will
be Step Effect (shown in Fig. 52) between the welds [72],
which will inevitably lead to the deterioration of the precision
of the molded workpiece. The high-heat input requires that the
path planning cannot be dense. The number of arc-
extinguishing point area is prone to defects, and the idle travel
between arc-extinguishing points reduces the deposition effi-
ciency of WAAM. Therefore, the WAAM path is preferably
continuous, and with fewest arc-extinguishing points.
Many WAAM path planning methods have been devel-
oped, such as Raster path, continuous ZIGZAG path, contour
offset path, spiral curve, central axis transformation offset
path, and the hybrid methods. The methods can be divided
into three categories, one is based on the Raster path method,
and its derivative methods, such as continuous ZIGZAG paths
and sub-ZIGZAG continuous paths; the second is contour-
based offset method, like central axis transformation offset;
the third is the combination method of the former two, gener-
ally for the surface precision of the formed workpiece, and the
outermost layer of the contour adopts the method based on the
contour offset. The interior of the profile is based on Raster
path method, which combines the advantages of both, ensur-
ing sufficient surface accuracy and fast filling. Different path
planning method will have important significance to manufac-
ture the 3D workpiece; the general classification of path plan-
ning is shown in Fig. 53.
3.2.1 Linear path
The first type is a raster-type filling path based on the scan line
filling algorithm [73]. The basic principle is that the equally
spaced scan lines intersect the contour to obtain all intersec-
tions and segments within the contour, and then use the
sorting table to organize these intersections and segments to
form a complete fill path, as shown in Fig. 54. The advantage
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
Table 5 Optimized welding
parameters [58] Parameters
Wire feed speed, WFS (m/min)
Wire feed speed/travel speed, WFS/TS
of this algorithm is that it is simple and easy to implement, but
the edge of filling path is discrete, and the surface precision of
the molded workpiece is inaccurate.
In order to improve the surface accuracy and reduce arc
extinction point, Rajan proposed a ZIGZAG-type filling path,
as shown in Fig. 55, which improves the raster filling path in
the filling direction, although it is still a reciprocating scanning
method [74]. The path is continuous, and the arc only needs to
be started once in the filling process, which reduces the error
caused by the re-arcing, and is also efficient enough. Among
all the WAAM filling paths, ZIGZAG is the most widely used
and stable filling method.
Although ZIGZAG is the most widely used filling
method, when the contour is complicated, this filling
method will be inefficient; especially when manufacturing
the wall structure or the inner cavity structure, the gener-
ated ZIGZAG path is often inefficient and inaccurate, in
order to fill complex contours. Ding proposed a method of
decomposing complex contours [75]. The basic principle
is to decompose complex contours into several convex
hulls, and then generate corresponding sub-ZIGZAG
paths for each sub-convex. Based on the geometric infor-
mation of the contour decomposition, these sub-paths are
connected into a continuous and complete path with only
one arc extinction point, as shown in Fig. 56.
The algorithm of sub-ZIGZAG works well for complex
contours, but this algorithm requires the decomposition of
the complex contours. The whole process requires more com-
putation time. The algorithm does not meet the requirements
of real-time manufacturing and monitoring feedback. In order
to meet the requirements of real-time, the efficiency of the
filling algorithm is required. Wang proposed an innovative
filling algorithm, which does not require the decomposition
of complex contours, and obtains a continuous ZIGZAG path
Fig. 40 a Reverse depositing
direction of WAAM; b same
direction depositing direction [59]
Values
5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0, 9.0, 10.0, 11.0, 12.0
10, 15, 20
[76]. The algorithm is inspired by the change in water level
when the container is filled with water. Imagine that water
flows into the container, and sequentially fills the space where
the water flows layer-by-layer with ZIGZAG path; it eventu-
ally forms a complete, continuous ZIGZAG path from the
bottom to the top of the contour. As shown in Fig. 57, both
the accuracy and the continuity of the path are guaranteed, and
more importantly, the calculation amount of the algorithm is
small, and the real-time precision manufacturing is satisfied.
This filling algorithm is the latest research progress in the
WAAM linear filling method.
3.2.2 Contour path
The most original idea of this path is based on the concentric
offset of the contour. The outer and inner contours are offset a
distance inwardly and outwardly, respectively, and the pro-
cess is repeated until the offset scan contour fills the contour to
form a fill path. The contour path algorithm is simple and easy
to implement. The forming precision of the edge will be very
high, and the complex workpiece can be formed, especially
the wall structure. The disadvantage of this algorithm is that
the path is complicated, the scanning path is too long, and the
improper width of the weld will result in insufficient filling of
the center of the contour, as shown in Fig. 58.
In order to solve such defects of contour offset method,
Ding [78] studied a complex filling method, which first cal-
culates the central axis of the contour, and with the central axis
as the basis of the offset, the outer closed frame is biased
outward, and the inner closed frame is biased inward until
the area enclosed by the former scanning line is larger than
the contour area, and the area enclosed by the latter scanning
line is smaller than the area of the inner hole of the contour. At
this time, the scanning path covers the entire contour, and the
 Int J Adv Manuf Technol

Fig. 41 Temperature distribution

comparison along the height
direction at the depositing ending
moment. (a) On the side of last
starting point and (b) on the side
of last ending point [59]

scanning path is intercepted according to the intersection of
the scanning path and the contour. This filling algorithm is
very innovative, breaking through the limitations of simple
contour offset in the filling effect, ensuring that the contour
can fill the entire contour, and this method is most suitable for
filling complex contour patterns, especially wall thicknesses.
Walls and structures with complex internal holes can form a
suitable filling path, as shown in Fig. 59 a and 59 b. But many
arcing and extinction points are generated, which seriously
affects the stability of the machining process and the accuracy

Fig. 42 Idle time selection for

WAAM: method based on finite
element simulation. a Heat source
model used for WAAM
simulation and moving
coordinate system; b idle time
calculation procedure; c actual
manufactured part [60]
Int J Adv Manuf Technol

Fig. 43 a Uneven parallel slicing method; b different process planning scheme for block width of 6 mm; c surface quality of component; d surface
quality of component I [61]

of the workpiece. Therefore, this filling method is only used
on complex contours.
The deposition strategy is an important factor affecting
the formation of WAAM, and the slice and path planning
algorithms are the core of the deposition strategy. This
section focuses on the current research on different slice
and path planning algorithms. Excellent algorithms play a
key role in improving WAAM molding efficiency and
accuracy. In the process of deposition, the corresponding
swing can also improve the deposition effect [79–81],
promote the fusion of the metal, accelerate the solidifica-
tion, improve the microstructure of the formed workpiece,
and improve its mechanical properties.
4 Multi-sensor and intelligent control
of WAAM
At present, the research on WAAM process mainly focuses on
the feasibility of molding process, and the microstructure and

Fig. 44 a Fixed contour offset

and adaptive contour offset path;
b the slotted part and its CAD
design [62]

Fig. 45 The proposed tool path
generation for various geometries
[63]
mechanical properties of molded parts, while the stability of
molding process and the research of multi-sensor monitoring
technology are still relatively few. WAAM’s motion actuators
are usually operated by CNC machines or industrial robots.
CNC machines usually have only 3 degrees of freedom for
machining large structurally simple parts, while industrial ro-
bots have at least 6 degrees of freedom and are very flexible
and repeatable. They are more capable of forming complex
Fig. 46 a Experimental setup; b
final finished part after partially
surface milling [63]
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
metal structural parts. The use of industrial robots in WAAM
forming large complex metal workpieces will be the future
trend. Figure 60 shows an example of the design of the
WAAM system for the development of the University of
Wollongong (UOW).
In the WAAM process, the wire is continuously melted
under the action of the arc until the metal part is formed.
The stacking process always has a dynamically changing
Int J Adv Manuf Technol

Fig. 47 Flowchart of WAAM system. a Opened-loop; b closed-loop [76]

temperature field, and the thermal process is complicated,
thereby causing the forming precision of the part and the
uneven surface quality. Sensing technology [82], human-
computer interaction [32], and artificial intelligence [83]
have been rapidly developed, laying a good foundation
for improving WAAM molding accuracy and intelligence.
The real-time acquisition, analysis, and feedback of
WAAM molding process data, combined with the intelli-
gent decision of the robot on the welding specification
parameters, adjust the welding parameters in real time,
thus achieving closed-loop control of the welding channel
size. Therefore, the monitoring and intelligent control of
the forming process is of great significance and value for
improving the forming accuracy.
4.1 Multi-sensor monitoring of WAAM
The monitoring system has a very important meaning in
the WAAM forming process. It is not only closed-loop
control to obtain a well-formed metal workpiece. The
more important significance is to obtain enough data to
lay the foundation for the intelligentization of WAAM.
The development of WAAM monitoring system has

Fig. 48 a Model of a skull prototyped; b simulated model of the skull developed with deposited filaments in CLFDM; c skull dome made by FDM
process with 0.33-mm-thick layers [68]
 Int J Adv Manuf Technol

Fig. 49 a Decomposed volumes; b offset surfaces; c trimmed surfaces; d five-axis toolpaths; e robotic FDM system; f parts printed by the proposed
method; g part printed by the proposed cylinder surface slicing approach [69]

experienced three stages: single sensor monitoring, binoc- Early metal 3D printing monitoring technology, such as
ular vision sensor monitoring, and multi-sensor Spencer using WAAM technology to form metal parts,
monitoring. installed an infrared temperature sensor at the torch, which

Fig. 50 a CAD model; b boundary model; c simplified model; e partition region; e volume decomposition; f sub-volume regrouping; g slicing along
multiple directions [70]
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
Fig. 51 a Slicing sub-parts; b tool path generation; c building the bottom; d building the cylinder; e building the handles; f finished part [71]
can monitor the workpiece temperature in real time. If the
temperature is too high, welding is stopped; otherwise, we
wait for the temperature to drop [84]. Although the method
reduces the excessive accumulation of heat, the forming effi-
ciency is greatly reduced, and the control process is relatively
passive. Ouyang used a variable polarity GTAW process to
form 4043 aluminum alloy parts, and CCD visual sensing
monitors the arc length. He believes that the first few depos-
ited layers should use a larger heat input (increasing the
welding current) to better wet the substrate, and as the metal
deposition progresses, the heat input should be reduced layer
by layer [85].
Xiong designed passive vision devices (Fig. 61) and image
processing algorithms to automatically detect the distance be-
tween the end of the welding wire and the surface of the
workpiece being processed [86], and develop an innovative
tracking algorithm to determine the position of the solid-liquid
separation point at the tail of the molten pool through contin-
uous images. Experiments show that the algorithm has
Fig. 52 a Step effect; b relationship between the overhang angle, the slice thickness, the surface normal, and the build direction [72]
excellent effectiveness and anti-jamming ability in additive
manufacturing based on robot GTA.
Xiong also designed a virtual binocular visual sensing sys-
tem to monitor the geometry of the molten pool [87]. The
width of the molten pool can be obtained through the process
of sensor calibration, image pair correction, parallax calcula-
tion, and width reconstruction. Experimental tests have shown
that the error of the detection of the sensing system was less
than 3%. In order to keep the width of each layer consistent, a
fuzzy intelligent controller (Fig. 62c) was also designed to
adjust the welding current in real time to compensate for the
deviation of the molten pool width. The experimental results
showed that the fuzzy controller can improve the consistency
of the GMAAM molten pool width Fig. 62 d.
At present, a variety of sensing methods are used in intel-
ligent welding, such as visual sensing [88, 89], arc sensing
[90, 91], acoustic sensing [92], and vibration sensing [93].
Because the WAAM system is mainly composed of an arc
welding robot and an automatic wire feeding system, the

Fig. 53 The general classification
of path planning
multi-sensor system of the intelligent welding system can be
directly applied to the WAAM molding monitoring. WAAM
molding process is monitored by multiple sensing informa-
tion: (i) input thermal parameters, including temperature, arc
voltage, current, and welding speed; (ii) environmental param-
eters, including oxygen concentration, and shielding gas flow;
(iii) contour size parameters, including monitoring of molten
pool during forming, and weld size.
Figure 63 shows the WAAM forming multi-sensor
monitoring system established by Xu, including three
sub-systems: (1) heat monitoring sub-system consists of
IR sensor, arc voltage/current sensor, and pulse frequency
measuring devices; (2) bead geometry control sub-system
consists of the laser profilometers and wire feed speed
sensor; (3) environmental monitoring sub-system consists
of the oxygen concentration sensor and the shielding gas
flow sensor [94]. Three sub-systems will be combined to
form the basis of a process control system for WAAM
processes in the future.
4.2 Intelligent control of WAAM
The development of artificial intelligence provides a glimmer
of hope for the intelligent control of the WAAM process. The
Fig. 54 Raster-type filling path [73]
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
basis of artificial intelligence algorithms is deep learning and
reinforcement learning, which is one of the hottest research
topics today. AI is combining with a variety of applications in
the industry to deliver immeasurable value. Both classical
control theory and modern control theory are control theories
based on the precise model of the controlled object. However,
the complex WAAM process is difficult to establish accurate
mathematical models. Just as the previous finite element ap-
plication in WAAM, building a complex WAAM simulation
model requires a lot of computation, and even if an accurate
model is established, it is difficult to effectively control these
huge amounts of data, not to mention real-time control. The
emergence of AI means that the uncertainty and complexity in
the complex process are effectively processed without accu-
rately describing the model.
WAAM is a very complex dynamic process, including
model design, material selection, post-processing, and per-
formance testing, which has many influencing factors and
is susceptible to interference, and the weld size is easily
deviated from the planned value. As the deviation accumu-
lates, subsequent molding processes may not proceed as
planned, and the resulting part size will be far removed
from the planned results. Therefore, improving the
WAAM forming accuracy is an urgent problem to be
solved, so it is important to detect the forming information
Fig. 55 Continuous ZIGZAG path
Int J Adv Manuf Technol

Fig. 56 a Decompose the complex contour into some convex hulls; b one of the sub-convex hull forms its own ZIGZAG path; c the sub-ZIGZAG paths
are connected to form a continuous path [75]

and establish a model for intelligent decision-making and
closed-loop control. The biggest advantage of machine
learning is that existing data can be utilized (the mathemat-
ical model is not displayed). In the case of a correlation
model between the input parameters and the target, the
machine learning algorithm will have a broad and far-
reaching impact on the modeling of the WAAM. The ap-
plication of machine learning algorithms in WAAM main-
ly includes five aspects: model design, multi-sensor
information processing, bead geometry prediction, welding
sequence optimization, and process-performance linkage.
4.2.1 Model design
The first step in WAAM is to build a three-dimensional mod-
el of the artifact, which is an important first step in the pro-
cess. However, due to its large heat input, WAAM will have
severe deformation and residual stress. Therefore, the

Fig. 57 (a) Process of the sequential water-pouring path planning method. (b) The order of the filling processes and stack states. (c) Path planning
algorithm based on a water-pouring rule [76].

Fig. 58 Narrow gap (middle
white area) is left which cannot be
filled by the path [77]
WAAM-molded workpiece has a large deviation from the
original three-dimensional model. The important measure to
improve this deviation is to compensate by the model design.
Chowdhury [95] proposed a neural network algorithm to di-
rectly compensate the geometric design of the workpiece to
offset the heat shrinkage and deformation. A well-trained
network is implemented into the STL file to perform the
required geometric corrections to produce parts with modified
geometry for dimensionally accurate finished products; the
whole process is shown in Fig. 64.
Fig. 59 a Wall structure; b
complex structure with holes [78]
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
4.2.2 Multi-sensor information processing
After obtaining the monitoring data of the molding process,
the most important thing is to obtain valuable information
from the data. The advantage of machine learning is to use
the existing data to train the model to achieve the purpose of
prediction and classification. At present, the data obtained by
the monitoring system generally has many pictures, and many
studies use convolutional neural networks (CNNs) to achieve
the purpose of classification of forming features.
Int J Adv Manuf Technol

Fig. 60 WAAM system design concepts (University of Wollongong)

Zhang [96] established a visual monitoring system with a
high-speed camera to capture the molten pool image during
the forming process at high speed. After CNN training, the
system can detect three types of forming characteristics, i.e.,
molten pool, plume, and splash, and the recognition accuracy
reaches 92.7%, as shown in Fig. 65.
4.2.3 Bead geometry control
The actual WAAM process is a complex nonlinear process
that is affected by various factors such as welding current,
arc voltage, welding speed, and environmental factors such
as oxygen concentration, and shielding gas flow. The

Fig. 61 a Schematic diagram of

visual sensing system; b
schematic diagram of detection
positions in the image [86]
 Int J Adv Manuf Technol

Fig. 62 a Schematic diagram of the detection experiment. b Detection results. c Simulation block diagram of fuzzy control system based on the first-
order transfer function. d Macroscopic metallography of the thin-walled parts. (1) Constant parameter test. (2) Closed-loop control test [87]

processes involved in WAAM are shown in Fig. 66. This
indicates that the influence factor of WAAM weld geometry
is mainly the setting path planning of welding parameters.
Welding parameters that influence on bead geometry were
found through trial experiment and various literatures [97].
In order to realize the accuracy of multi-layer multi-pass
weld deposition model, the single-layer single-pass and
single-layer multi-pass models are the foundation and has im-
portant basic significance. Only when a single-layer single-
pass model can accurately describe and predict the weld pro-
file can an accurate description and prediction model of the
entire complex component be obtained. In the prediction of
the single-layer single-pass weld morphology, there have been
some researches combined with AI. One of the tasks in

Fig. 63 a Multi-sensor system topology; b sensors’ position in a demo WAAM machine [94]
Int J Adv Manuf Technol

Fig. 64 Implementation process flow of the ANN-based geometric compensation approach [95]

welding intelligentization is to accurately predict the molten
pool and the real-time monitoring of the weld profile.
Intelligent decision-making and closed-loop control realize
the control of welding. At present, the forming prediction of
single-pass welds is mainly based on the judgment of visual
information to establish a model of welding parameters and
weld profile (generally height and width). Intelligent selection
of welding parameters based on the inverse model is currently
the most common method of intelligent welding. The current
hottest artificial intelligence algorithms are deep learning and
reinforcement learning, and both have been studied to com-
bine these two types of algorithms with the prediction of the
weld topography model.
Aviles proposed a fuzzy neural network (FNN) based on
welding control method to establish welding parameters
(welding current, voltage, speed) and the relationship between
the width and height of the weld. In the process of welding,
according to the welding parameters, the width and height of
the final weld are automatically controlled according to the
training model, and achieved the purpose of intelligent

Fig. 65 Scheme of the SLM process monitoring configuration. A high-speed camera is used to capture sequential images of the built process; a CNN
model is applied to identify quality anomalies [96]

Fig. 66 WAAM process chain
welding [98, 99]. The predicted weld width and height have
been tested and verified, and the error can be controlled within
0.5 mm (shown in Fig. 67).
In order to construct an intelligent arc additive manufactur-
ing system, Deng used machine learning to predict the geom-
etry of multi-layer multi-channel WAAM forming parts [100].
The prediction parameters selected the initial deposition tem-
perature, deposition current, and cladding voltage, and a total
of 125 sets of experimental data were obtained (the
experimental data obtained are shown in Fig. 68). The
XGBoost algorithm based on the integrated learning principle
is introduced to construct the model, and compared with the
neural network algorithm and linear regression algorithm. The
results show that the XGBoost algorithm has the highest pre-
diction accuracy, and the prediction accuracy of the neural
network algorithm is similar to linear regression. The maxi-
mum relative error of the XGBoost prediction model for width
W and height H prediction is 4.29% and 2.78%, respectively,
and the average relative errors are 1.44% and 1.05% (shown in
Table 6).
Cruz also proposed a neural fuzzy controller to control the
weld width in the GMAW process [101]. However, these
control methods usually require previous experiments to de-
termine the parameters of the controller and can only be ap-
plied to situations where the control conditions remain the
Fig. 67 The percentage represents the number of accurate predictions of
the ANN fuzzy ARTMAP [99]
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
same. Zeshi adopts the method of reinforcement learning to
establish the prediction model of welding current, voltage,
speed, and weld width and height based on visual information,
and then intelligently selects welding parameters according to
the inverse model to achieve the purpose of intelligent
welding. Finally, open-loop control experiments and closed-
loop control experiments were carried out, and the results
were compared to verify the reliability of the controller, as
shown in Fig. 69 [102].
There are few studies on the prediction of WAAM weld
morphology in multi-channel; the focus of research is still the
relationship between the height and width of the weld and the
welding parameters. In the WAAM single-pass multi-layer
experiment, Karmuhilan established a prediction model of
weld morphology and welding parameters through artificial
neural network [103]. These results show that this model can
be used to predict control parameters in wire and arc additive
manufacturing, as shown in Fig. 70 and 71.
4.2.4 Process-performance linkage
WAAM is a very complex dynamic process, which affects the
final forming performance of the workpiece. The relationship
between the influencing factors and the performance of the
workpiece is difficult to establish the mathematical expression
of the display. Therefore, machine learning algorithms have
incomparable advantages, especially that the application of
neural network algorithms in WAAM is very important.
A simple neural network model has been applied in
WAAM; Ding [104] used a simple three-layer network model
to optimize the welding speed and wire feed speed during the
molding process, shown in Fig. 72 and 73.
The weld bead spacing D is one of the most important
parameters affecting the formation of WAAM workpieces.
Generally, the appropriate parameters D are obtained through
calculation and experience. Li developed an artificial neural
network prediction algorithm to predict the appropriate pa-
rameters D, shown in Fig. 74 and 75. Test experiments show
that the algorithm can effectively improve the surface flatness
of WAAM-molded workpieces and prevent the formation of
internal defects [105].
Int J Adv Manuf Technol

Table 6 The prediction error of

each model [100] Group Measurement data Linear regression Neural network XGBoost

W (mm) H (mm) W (mm) H (mm) W (mm) H (mm) W (mm) H (mm)

1 10.31 3.03 10.89 3.24 10.65 3.28 10.75 3.12

2 10.69 3.10 11.76 3.38 10.70 3.36 10.87 3.14
3 16.50 4.21 15.37 4.01 15.66 3.99 16.53 4.21
4 10.73 3.11 10.12 2.91 10.40 3.37 10.93 3.15
5 10.00 2.97 9.01 2.71 8.89 2.81 9.74 2.92
6 10.46 3.06 10.02 2.91 10.00 3.21 10.54 3.08
7 16.90 4.28 16.12 4.10 16.30 4.17 16.82 4.26
8 11.11 3.18 10.01 3.06 10.66 3.10 11.07 3.18
9 12.01 3.35 12.96 3.51 12.83 3.56 11.83 3.31
10 11.57 3.27 11.95 3.40 12.39 3.48 11.66 3.29
Maximum relative error 9.92% 8.92% 11.08% 8.19% 4.29% 2.78%
Average relative error 6.79% 5.72% 4.85% 5.75% 1.44% 1.05%

4.2.5 WAAM welding sequence control
From a quality point of view, the optimization of the welding
sequence is the most effective means of minimizing work-
piece deformation and residual stress [106]. Especially for
WAAM molding, the path planning is complicated, involving
huge heat input. Different welding sequences, the residual
stress, and deformation of the workpiece will be greatly dif-
ferent. In general, the requirement for WAAM path planning
is to reduce the total length of the path to reduce the heat input,
and in order to reduce the residual stress, the general welding
sequence experience is to go through the longest sub-path first
based on many experiments and experience. The traditional
method of welding sequence selection is to use a simplified
experimental design to select the best sequence by experience.
These experiments usually do not provide the best sequence
[107], so optimizing the welding sequence is especially im-
portant for WAAM.
In general, WAAM welding sequence optimization has
two major methods. One is simulation method. This method
is computationally intensive and difficult to achieve real
time, but pre-weld simulation has important reference sig-
nificance. Romero modifies the lowest cost first search al-
gorithm, and optimizes the welding sequence, and welding
deformation can be reduced verified by simulation [108].
The second type is the optimization of the welding sequence
through the learning method. Chapple developed a general
artificial neural network–based algorithm to optimize the
welding deformation from two perspectives: (i) weld re-
moval optimization; (ii) the combination of welding [109].

Fig. 68 WAAM weld profile data

measured using a laser sensor
[100]

Fig. 69 Comparison of open-loop control experiments and closed-loop control experiments [102]
The given several recommendations for welding sequence
optimization include welding to avoid sudden cooling at the
end of the cross weld and symmetrical construction of the
weld.
However, the optimization of AI-based welding sequence
has not been further studied using learning algorithms, so
future work should focus on the combination of AI and similar
issues, such as A* search, reinforcement learning, dynamic
programming, and some mixed programming [110].
5 Large complex metal components of WAAM
Compared with laser cladding additive manufacturing,
WAAM’s core advantage is the low cost and high utilization
of large and complex workpieces. Many scholars use WAAM
to form large and complex metal components and conduct in-
depth research on WAAM.
Researchers at Cranfield University manufacture additively
6-m-long beams using the WAAM process and aerospace-
grade aluminum alloy. The 300-kg double-sided spar is built
in Cranfield’s new 10-m deposition facility based on two in-
dustrial robots. WAAM can save a lot of money (even 70%)
Fig. 70 a Forward ANN model; b
reverse ANN model [103]
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
and can significantly reduce lead times (from more than a year
to months) (shown in Fig. 76).
Zhang of Huazhong University of Science and Technology
has carried out a series of researches to solve the quality con-
trol problem of WAAM. In the process of arc additive
manufacturing, the technology of “casting and forging” was
introduced to develop the integrated casting and forging addi-
tive. The system successfully produced high-performance
metal forgings with a length of about 2.2 m, a weight of 260
kg, and a surface roughness of 0.02 mm [112]. Figure 77
shows the manufacturing process of the cast-forged integrated
hybrid arc additive and the final formed part.
Josef applied WAAM forming crane-related structures.
The structure is complex and requires high mechanical prop-
erties [113]. This work (shown in Fig. 78) studies the feasibil-
ity of fabricating near-net-shaped structural members directly
on sub-assemblies. It is suitable for crane structures without
post-processing, using cold metal transfer process (CMT).
Single- and multi-pass welding experiments were used to
identify and validate appropriate process parameters, and then
the parameters obtained were used to make wall structures.
The optical measurement of the obtained geometry is per-
formed to determine the mechanical properties of the full-
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
Fig. 71 Linear regression plot for
a height and b width [103]
welded metal in different directions. The tensile test results
show that the value similar to the filler and the fracture tough-
ness are in line with the literature value, but the impact tough-
ness is reduced. Further work is needed to optimize the pro-
cess and study the impact on the mechanical properties of the
final assembly.
Dai applied WAAM to the molding manufacturing of
multi-directional pipe joints [114]. The multi-directional pipe
joint of high-rise building has a complicated structure. The
connecting surface between the pipes is any space surface
where different space surfaces intersect each other. The angle
between these pipes varies from 30° to 90° [115], the number
of pipes usually exceeds 6, and the height exceeds 500 mm,
weighing more than 100 kg (shown in Fig. 79a); the tradition-
al method is to use arc welding and casting molding, but it is
easy to produce defects [116]. This work uses WAAM to
manufacture high-rise building 10-way pipe joints, applying
space surface slicing and path planning algorithms. The cylin-
drical surface is filled with contour offset rotation. The dimen-
sional error of the final forming tube is controlled to ± 1 mm,
and the angular error of the intersecting tube is less than ±
0.5°. Compared with the performance of the cast pipe joint,
the tensile strength is increased by 12.4%. The impact tough-
ness (20 °C) is increased by more than 100%, and the micro-
structure is mainly composed of pearlite and ferrite, and the
average grain size is about 15 μm, shown in Fig. 79 b.
Fig. 72 a Neural network
architecture for predicting bead
geometry. b Fixed contour offset
and adaptive contour offset path
[104]
6 Summary and prospective view
WAAM has broad application prospects, especially in the
large-scale industrial fields such as aerospace and transporta-
tion. However, due to its complex molding, many complex
reaction mechanisms have not been thoroughly studied, so
more research is needed.
6.1 Application and opportunities
WAAM has important application value among typical indus-
trial fields like aerospace, automobile transportation, and mar-
itime transportation. The higher the alloy cost and the more
complicated the workpiece structure is, the more obvious the
advantages of WAAM are. Figure 80 shows the NASA
Marshall Space Flight Center’s use of WAAM to manufacture
liquid rocket engine combustion equipment, and related ther-
mal combustion test of additive manufacturing workpieces.
Greer [118] used WAAM technology to manufacture a 2.1-
m-long excavator arm with a mass of 133 kg, as shown in Fig.
81.
In addition to these typical industrial fields, architectural
and artistic esthetics will also apply WAAM, because
WAAM is very flexible and efficient, and 3D printing is often
used by creative artists to create their workpieces. With the
popularization of art and the larger-scale structure of art itself,

Fig. 73 a Deposited near net
shape after 15 layers. b Finished
part without voids after surface
milling [104]
WAAM is bound to appear in the creation of large-scale metal
art. For example, MX3D [119] and Arup engineers from
Imperial College used WAAM technology to successfully de-
sign, build, and test a full metal bridge with a width of 2.5 m
and a span of 10 m in the center of Amsterdam, as shown in
Fig. 82.
6.2 Future research directions and outlook
The arc additive manufacturing process is a complex and var-
iable process, with many influencing factors, and the droplet
transfer, temperature field distribution, molten pool shape, and
heat dissipation conditions in the arc addition process are all in
dynamic change. The stability of the forming process, the
shape control flexibility, and the surface quality are poor.
Residues, welding deformations, and welding defects such
as cracks, pores, and slag inclusions are difficult to meet the
urgent technical needs of arc additive manufacturing in high-
end manufacturing of large components such as nuclear pow-
er, aerospace, aerospace, and weaponry. In-depth research is
still needed in process control and optimization control of
residual stress and distortion. In conjunction with the
Fig. 74 (a) The overlapping process of a molten weld bead; (b) neural network architecture for predicting the offset distance [105]
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
comments made by other experts [112, 113] in the field of
AM research, the authors summarize the following issues for
future WAAM technology.
6.2.1 New materials and new technology
In 2018, Wohlers Associates released the annual Wohlers re-
port [120] on the 3D printing industry, which pointed out that
the overall 3D printing industry has grown by 21%, of which
metal 3D printing is particularly prominent, and sales of metal
3D printing systems have increased by 80%. 3D printing is a
rapidly growing industry, especially the metal 3D printing
industry. In 2016, it was estimated that 983 metal 3D printers
were sold. In 2017, this number rose by 80% to 1,768 units.
This is the largest single-year growth rate since 2000. Not only
is the number rising, the rapid growth of metal additive
manufacturing systems installed in 2018; while the metal 3D
printing process has been improved, and printing process
monitoring and print quality assurance measures have gradu-
ally improved, there is still a lot of work to be done.
Due to the special nature of 3D printing technology, it is
limited by the nature of raw materials. Only by improving the
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
Fig. 75 The two straight weld
beads deposited on a substrate
[105]
forming properties of raw materials can the performance of
molded parts be improved. This is especially true for WAAM
technology, so one of the most important development trends
of WAAM is to research the essentials of WAAM and devel-
op new certain alloy for WAAM. The development of new
processes is an excellent way to improve the performance of
WAAM-molded parts. Combining laser pulse and ultrasonic
forging has shown excellent results. Combining and exploring
new processes has far-reaching significance for WAAM
forming complex large-structure metal workpieces with high
performance. In order to improve the mechanical properties of
WAAM-molded parts, the emergence of new alloys, the ac-
cumulation of various alloys, and the new technology will be
one of the most significant development trends of WAAM
technology.
6.2.2 Composite manufacturing of WAAM
Integrated different manufacturing system will also be one of
the major trends in WAAM formation. Cranfield University
has successfully integrated CAD systems, WAAM deposi-
tion, milling, etc. to form a WAAM incorporating milling
system. This is one of the most mature systems for WAAM
integration. However, in order to improve the effect of
WAAM manufacturing workpieces, more sub-systems would
Fig. 76 More than ten people surrounded by 6-m-long aluminum beams of WAAM [111]
be integrated, such as arc additive manufacturing as the core,
integrated interlayer cooling system, visual monitoring sys-
tem, and simulation system. Composite manufacturing of
WAAM and subtractive manufacturing are used to manufac-
ture large metal structure. Integrated WAAM manufacturing
systems will be the trend of WAAM research.
6.2.3 Multi-sensor and real-time monitoring
Robot technology is becoming more and more complex. In
2019, FANUC, the world’s leading expert in robot
manufacturing and industrial IoT solutions, presented its
new WAAM collaborative arc welding robot product line
[121]. The working radii of the two robots have reached
1441 mm and 911 mm, respectively, with a larger working
radius, higher flexibility, and intelligent options such as
straight seam tracking and touch sensing, which provide pow-
erful tools for WAAM industrial applications. Therefore,
using sensor technology to improve the WAAM system will
also be a very important development trend. Collect WAAM
visual sensor information, temperature sensor information, arc
sensor information, and spectral sensor information feedback
for precise processing of additive manufacturing, and accu-
rately control WAAM molding. In addition, the role of data is
becoming more and more important, because data is an

Fig. 77 Casting and forging integrated hybrid arc additive manufacturing [112] (Huazhong University of Science and Technology)
important raw material for deep learning and intelligence.
WAAM supports the development of multiple sensors, col-
lects data during the molding process, and will lay a solid
foundation for intelligent manufacturing.
6.2.4 Algorithmic optimization of metal filling strategy
The filling strategy is the core part of WAAM, and the devel-
opment of slicing and path planning algorithms are permanent
topics. WAAM path planning has its own special features,
such as the total path length is kept to a minimum to reduce
heat input, and there should be fewer intersections between
sub-paths, and the adjacent layers should be kept as different
as possible. There is currently no perfect slice and path plan-
ning algorithms for all situations, so developing new adaptive
slice and path planning algorithms has valuable influence.
One of the revelations of the previous path planning summary
is as described by Occam’s razor, “If no need, then no entity is
added”; the next step of the path planning algorithm should be
to pursue low algorithm complexity and real-time, but simple
Fig. 78 a View of the demonstration par; b result of the first attempt for manufacturing the AM part; c detailed view of the featured cutout [113]
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
path planning is usually the best. Overly complicated path
planning basically loses engineering value.
6.2.5 Application of artificial intelligence technology
in WAAM
With the further development of artificial intelligence technol-
ogy, its application in WAAM is also increasing. Lam Nguyen
applied machine learning to solve a meaningful problem
[122]. The rib web structure shown in Fig. 83 is very common
in various lightweight designs. When using WAAM for path
planning and processing, there will be insufficient filling at the
nodes, as shown in the Fig. 84 b. The method used by Lam
was to compensate for a certain path, but the amount of offset
is difficult to determine, so a method based on data-driven
artificial neural network (ANN) was used. The input layer is
the number of turning points and four angle values, and the
output layer is the offset value, as shown in the Fig. 84 a. After
the model was trained, it could output the corresponding offset
according to the specific geometric characteristics, so that the
Int J Adv Manuf Technol

Fig. 79 a Ten-directional pipe

joint. b Ten-directional pipe joint
manufactured by WAAM [114]

Fig. 80 Liquid rocket engine combustion device arc additive manufacturing [117]

Fig. 81 WAAM forming large mechanical arm. a Printed arm. b Installed arm [118]

Fig. 82 a Load testing of the

MX3D bridge; b the MX3D
bridge at Dutch Design Week
2018 [119]

Fig. 83 The rib web. a CAD
mode; b a typical intersection
[122]
Fig. 84 a Schematic architecture of the ANN; b performance of an example: tool path pattern without correction and with correction; c metallic parts
after face milling: (1) standard tool path; (2) proposed tool path [122]
node area would be filled. Lam’s research is very clever and
enlightening, because the WAAM molding process has many
similar complicated details, and it is difficult or impossible to
establish an accurate mathematical model, so machine learn-
ing will be a good method.
However, although machine learning is widely used in
computer vision, natural language processing, automatic
control, etc., it has rarely been combined with WAAM for
practical production. Deep learning requires a large amount
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
of data to train the model; it is one of the advantages of
WAAM. Because WAAM is designed for large and com-
plex workpieces, the molding process will continuously
generate a large amount of data. Collecting these data for
processing will be extremely of large significance. For ex-
ample, collecting molten pool data and layer height data to
form a shape prediction model, or collecting the workpiece
structure data of the forming process, and establishing the
model of the corresponding structure with the slicing and
Int J Adv Manuf Technol
path planning algorithms to intelligently select control al-
gorithm, will be of great significance to the mature automa-
tion of WAAM technology.
Funding information This work is partly supported by the National
Natural Science Foundation of China under the Grant Nos. 61973213
and 61873164, and the Shanghai Natural Science Foundation
(18ZR1421500).
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