A Review On Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing-Processing Parameters-Defect Qualit and Recent Advances

Materials Today Communications 31 (2022) 103739
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Materials Today Communications

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/mtcomm
A review on wire arc additive manufacturing: Processing parameters,

defects, quality improvement and recent advances
Bunty Tomar a, S. Shiva a, *, Tameshwer Nath b
a
Laboratory for Advanced Manufacturing and Processing, Indian Institute of Technology Jammu, India
b
Department of Mechatronics Engineering, Indian Institute of Information Technology Bhagalpur, India
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Arc welding-based additive manufacturing techniques are becoming promising for metal additive manufacturing
Wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) due to their capability of economically producing large-sized components with relatively high deposition rates.
Process planning This article introduces wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) and reviews the microstructure and mechanical
Advances
properties of various metals and alloys fabricated through this technique. Research indicates positive results as
Quality improvement
Additive manufacturing
the mechanical properties of WAAM fabricated materials, such as titanium and nickel-based alloys, are found
relatively comparable to cast or wrought materials. A feasible state-of-the-art WAAM requires controlling several
processing parameters to achieve sound components, so an elaborated review is presented on selecting suitable
process parameters. High-quality production in WAAM is limited due to elevated levels of heat inputs, causing
several materials processing challenges and defects. Common challenges faced in the fabrication of various
metals and alloys through WAAM, including high residual stresses, porosity, delamination, and cracking, are
described in this article. The defect mitigation techniques and the recent advances performed in the field of
WAAM are summarized in the last section of this paper. This paper concludes that WAAM can be an alternative
process for high-quality manufacturing and presents a future vision to make WAAM more industry-oriented
technology.
1. Introduction traditional processing steps and assembly lines [6]. Meanwhile, saving
substantial raw material is possible via AM route in comparison to
Researchers have always made a constant effort to upgrade the conventional manufacturing methods [7,8] such as casting and forging
prevailing manufacturing techniques to develop an improved method [9]. The major benefits of additive manufacturing technology over the
for optimal utilization of capital, resource, and time [1]. The Additive conventional routes for manufacturing 3D engineering counterparts
Manufacturing (AM) process has emerged as a feasible technique for such as; CNC machining can be mainly considered to improve the
building 3-D components and rapid prototyping in recent years. AM structural quality and performance and overcome the design complexity
technology uses a digital platform for layer-by-layer material deposition [10]. For many such reasons, AM is now widely recognized as the key
to achieve a complete 3-D component [2]. This unique feature of AM has reason for the fourth industrial revolution and a mainstream
established it as a reliable and innovative manufacturing technique that manufacturing process for the production of high-performance compo
manufactures the component straight from the CAD data without the nents [11,12]. Currently, components manufactured via AM route are
requirement of any external & expensive tooling such as dies, punches, finding usage in more advanced engineering and industrial applications
or casting molds. AM allows the production of customized and complex in many divisions such as; automotive, aerospace, and medical [13–15].
geometries with ease in comparison with conventional manufacturing As per the ASTM F2792 standard, additive manufacturing is the
processes. It also significantly reduces manufacturing costs, especially technology for producing 3D components by joining materials in a layer-
for low volume productions, and comparatively lesser cycle time can be by-layer manner, contrasting conventional subtractive manufacturing
expected [3–5]. In AM, part consolidation helps significantly in reducing [16]. AM technologies were characterized into seven main categories as
the number of parts counts to be produced to assemble a complete per ASTM F2792 standard, given as; Vat-photopolymerization (VP),
component. These novel features reduce the necessity for many material extrusion (ME), binder jetting (BJ), material jetting (MJ), sheet
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: shiva.sekar@iitjammu.ac.in (S. Shiva).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtcomm.2022.103739
Received 21 January 2022; Received in revised form 23 May 2022; Accepted 24 May 2022
Available online 27 May 2022
2352-4928/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
B. Tomar et al. Materials Today Communications 31 (2022) 103739
lamination (SL), powder bed fusion (PBF), and direct energy deposition rates. Wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) was first reported in
(DED) [16]. All these processes are used specifically for a given partic 1925 when Baker Ralph filed a patent for using an electric arc as the heat
ular class of materials such as; VP, ME, and MJ are majorly used for the energy source with metal wire as feedstock to manufacture metallic
production of polymer-based components, whereas BJ and SL can be ornaments [43]. In comparison to other AM techniques, the use of
used for manufacturing of all classes of materials such as ceramics, electric arc in WAAM provides a higher efficiency fusion source [44,45].
metals, polymers, and composites. Processes like PBF and DED were Using higher efficiency fusion sources in WAAM is beneficial from the
specially established to manufacture 3D components made out of metals energy consumption point, particularly for the reflective metals showing
by an additive approach [17]. poor coupling efficiency for lasers, such as aluminum [46], copper [47],
Depending on the kind of energy source used, AM technologies may and magnesium [48]. However, these arc-based AM techniques provide
be categorized into laser beam-based, electron beam-based, and arc- comparatively higher energy input to the deposit. Complementary to
based additive manufacturing. An assessment of these three energy this, using wire for feedstock in WAAM eliminates the need for the
sources is presented in Table 1. Apart from this, AM technologies are process of powder recycling [49,50], providing better working condi
also classified based on the distribution method of feedstock as; Powder tions for operators. The use of wire also provides a considerable decrease
bed, powder fed, and wire fed AM processes [17–19]. As per the ASTM in price per kilogram in comparison with the powder for many of the
F2792 standard, the fusion-based metallic AM processes are divided into engineering materials, as depicted in Table 2. Since its inception in
two main groups; powder bed fusion (PBF) and direct energy deposition 1925, several innovations, modifications, and research are carried over
(DED) [16,20]. For both of these groupings, some specific nomencla WAAM; however, it has still not gained industrial commercialization to
tures are introduced in terms of processing, mode of melting/solidifi its full potential across the world.
cation, and feedstock material, given as; Selective electron beam melting The adaptability of WAAM in various sectors has driven the
(SEBM), selective laser melting (SLM), selective laser sintering (SLS) and requirement for research in this field. As per the web of science, more
laser additive manufacturing (LAM) [15]. than 60 review articles (including conferences and proceedings) are
Powder bed fusion technique is basically based upon laser melting or published in this field in the last four years (2018–2021), with most of
sintering of selective powder particles placed in a powder bed in a layer- them 25 in the 2021 year only. In these review articles, almost 40 % of
by-layer approach [23]. This method has no limitations in terms of the reviews have concentrated on the wire arc additive manufacturing of
complex features and geometry of the component, along with a required any specific alloy (as shown in Fig. 1), whereas 25 % of articles have
surface finish for many high-grade engineering materials [24]. PBF reviewed the various planning strategies employed by the researchers in
processes are selectively competitive for the low-to-medium volume WAAM. About 13 % of reviews are specific to the defects and detri
production of geometrically complex parts. Metal PBF processes are mental aspects of this process, such as the effect of heat input and
getting extensively well-known for application in oil and gas [25], mitigation of residual stresses. Some articles are reviewed based on the
biomedical, and aerospace sectors due to their excellent material prop application and the welding technique employed in the WAAM process.
erties and benefits of inherent geometric complexity as compared to the The review area of WAAM processing parameters and the advances in
conventionally manufactured parts [26]. this technique is not much discussed by the researchers in their review
In DED, powder or wire form feedstock is directly fed into the molten articles. For the requirement of such review, this manuscript reviews the
pool formed by the heat energy source, resulting in the melting of ma process planning parameters performed by various industry experts and
terial either under vacuum or in the shielding gas atmosphere in a layer- researchers in the application field of wire arc additive manufacturing of
by-layer manner [27]. DED processes are capable of producing multiple metals, including titanium and its alloys, steels, Ni-based al
completely dense components with highly controlled microstructural loys, aluminum, and its alloys. The typical defects and challenges that
features [28–30]. These include multi-layer WAAM deposition, freeform are found to occur in terms of application and product quality for
fabrication, and functionally graded materials. Functionally graded different metals and alloys are also summarized. Along with this, the
materials having compositional variations can be easily manufactured recent advances for defect reduction and quality improvement are also
by DED [31]. Poor accuracy resolution and rough surface finish are the presented. Finally, a concluding discussion is given on the future
main drawbacks of the DED process, and the build components need research prospects of WAAM in such a way that it will be instrumental in
surface finishing by CNC machining [10,31,32]. In recent times, DED guiding beginners in this field.
techniques have made the possibility of cost-effective manufacturing of
large size metallic components with medium complexity [9]. 2. Wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM)
A wide variety of materials are studied to manufacture engineered
components using additive manufacturing technologies including PBF Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) technique utilizes the
and DED [33,34]. The mainstream additive manufacturing technologies concept of arc welding process combined with wire feeding mechanism.
are mainly focused on the fabrication of steels (low carbon, mild, duplex, In WAAM, the feedstock metallic wire is made to melt using the heat
stainless, etc.) [35,36], Ni-based superalloys [37,38], titanium-based energy of arc, and molten metal is made to deposit on a given substrate
alloys [39,40], while little work is carried out on other materials [41, using beads in a layer-by-layer fashion using a 3D CAD model data.
42]. Continuous layer upon layer deposition of such beads using a robotic or
In the comparison of AM processes based upon the use of energy gantry system leads to the formation of the whole 3D metal component.
sources given in Table 1, arc-based AM comes out to be a method of
fering economical metal additive manufacturing at higher deposition
Table 1
Comparison based on energy sources used in the metal additive manufacturing
[21,22]. Table 2
Approximate cost (₹ per Kg.) in wire and powder form [51,52].
Parameter Laser beam Electron beam Welding arc
Material Wire Powder
Energy source Photon Electron Metallic ion
Heat Source Electromagnetic wave Kinetic energy Electric Arc Ti-6Al-4 V 10,500 25,000
Energy density 106 W/mm2 108 W/mm2 106-108 W/mm2 IN625 4400 7000
Energy Efficiency Least Intermediate Excellent IN718 5200 7000
Deposition rate 150–200 gm/hr 600–800 gm/hr 2–4 kg/hr SS316L 1100 3500
Vacuum Not required Required Not required Al 450 200
2
Table 3
Summary of various WAAM techniques [52,61,64–67].
WAAM Energy source Salient Features
GMAW- GMAW A consumable type of wire electrode is used

based with deposition rate ranging from 3 kg/hour
to 4 kg/hour;
High energy efficiency process;
Less time-consuming process;
Quality and process stability is generally
lower;
Cold metal transfer Retracting type of consumable wire electrode
(CMT)-based GMAW is employed with deposition rate varying
from 2 kg/hour to 3 kg/hour;
Relatively less heat input provided and no
spatter is generated;
High process tolerance;
Tandem GMAW Twin consumable wire electrodes are used
with an average deposition rate ranging from
6 kg/hour to 8 kg/hour; it can be
Fig. 1. Pie chart showing the focus of review articles of WAAM process.
significantly higher also.
The composition control for intermetallic
2.1. Classification of WAAM process materials manufacturing is relatively easier;
Hybrid WAAM Two separate robotic systems integrated
together for WAAM deposition and on-line
Based on the form of applied heat energy source, the WAAM process bead milling;
can be broadly categorized into three categories: Gas Metal Arc Welding Provides comparatively better surface
(GMAW)-based [53], Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)-based [54], roughness;
and Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)-based [55]. The selection of specific GTAW- GTAW A non-consumable electrode rod is used;
based Process requires a separate wire feeding
welding technology for a particular WAAM application is selected based
procedure which involves the rotation of wire
on the user application. The selection of the WAAM process directly and torch;
influences the deposition rate, time consumed, and the selection of Deposition rate ranges from 1 kg/hour to
processing conditions for a given material. These categories and variants 2 kg/hour;
are presented in detail in the reference [56]. A summary of various Low energy efficiency process;
PAW- Plasma It employs a non-consumable electrode;
WAAM techniques is shown in Table 3. based A Separate electrode feeding procedure is
required involving the rotation of wire and
2.1.1. Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) torch;
In GMAW, heat is produced by an electric arc, being struck among Typical deposition rate varies from 2 kg/hour
to 4 kg/hour;
the feedstock electrode (with the +ve terminal) and the substrate (with
Highest energy density electrical arc;
the –ve terminal of the power supply). The mode of metal transfer is a High quality welds of minimized distortion;
critical factor in GMAW-based WAAM as it directly influences the sur Most extensive capital expenditure;
face quality, microstructure, and mechanical properties. Cold metal
transfer (CMT)-based GMAW-WAAM has proven to be providing a
controlled metal transfer mode and offers good control of the geometry 2.1.3. Plasma arc welding (PAW)
and the microstructure. In GMAW, the electrode is being shielded by an The arc is struck between a non-consumable electrode made of
outwardly supplied shielding gas [56,57]. GMAW system accomplished tungsten and a water-cooled nozzle. An inert gas (mostly Ar) ionizes
with milling setup known as hybrid additive/subtractive manufacturing when it passes through this arcing zone and creates a plasma jet. This
is also developed to study the effect of on-line milling on the wire plasma jet is focused onto the substrate plate through a narrow size
deposition accuracy [58]. A twin-wire-based tandem GMAW-WAAM nozzle orifice leading to the creation of a melt pool over the substrate.
provides comparatively higher deposition rates and easier composi The feedstock wire is fed into this melt pool via a separate wire feeder
tional control for intermetallic materials manufacturing [59]. It is mechanism, where the filler melts and gets deposited on the substrate
proved that GMAW-based WAAM has higher capabilities compared to surface [63]. The deposition rates in the PAW are of moderate values as
the electron beam-based, laser beam-based, GTAW-based, and it provides a higher deposition rate than GTAW but lower than GMAW.
PAW-based AM technologies in terms of higher deposition rate, better PAW provides the electrical arc of the highest energy density that allows
material utilization, low manufacturing cost, and higher travel speed and lesser distortion in the welds [64]. However,
environment-friendliness [60]. PAW-based WAAM produces welds of the highest quality, but it requires
an extensive capital expenditure for the process setup.
2.1.2. Gas Tungsten arc welding (GTAW)
In GTAW, the electric arc will be struck among a non-consumable 2.2. Applications of WAAM
electrode made of tungsten alloy (with the –ve terminal) and the sub
strate (with +ve terminal of the source). The filler wire is made to pass The AM technologies based on the WAAM processes have found
into the molten pool generated by this arc through its leading-edge via a applications in all the major industrial sectors such as; aerospace,
separate wire feeder mechanism, resulting in its melting and deposition automobile, marine, and high-temperature applications of jet engines
on the substrate [61]. The amount of heat produced at the anode is only and turbines. Different combinations of techniques and materials are
used for the generation of melt pool at the substrate surface and results used to fabricate the components for the required field of application.
in the low energy efficiency in the GTAW-based processes. The size of Aluminum and its alloys are being used extensively in place of steel for
the welding electrode depends on the welding current; a large size the WAAM of automobile parts such as heat exchanger and car body
electrode allows higher current and vice versa [62]. The deposition rates [68]. This replacement and topology optimization results in 20–30 % of
in the GTAW-based processes are lowest compared to GMAW and weight reduction as compared to conventional manufacturing with steel
PAW-based WAAM processes. [69]. Apart from the fabrication of new structures, WAAM may be used
for repairing defective and worn-out parts. Li et al. [70] proposed a
3
methodology in which a rectangular groove was made on the defect side

and was filled by GMAW-WAAM. In the end, a flat non-porous, crack-
free, and inclusion-less surface was obtained by machining the fillet. The
obtained structure had an excellent buy-to-fly ratio of about 92 %, with a
fabrication error of the repaired part less than 0.3 %. Table 4 summa
rizes the other applications of various WAAM processes.
3. Process planning and selection in WAAM
WAAM technique has the ability to produce near-net-shape appli

cation-based components with reasonably acceptable surface roughness.
End-use components need to be machined using appropriate machining
methods. To establish the capability of WAAM to produce near-perfect
components of particular materials, several process selection parame
ters and computer-aided process planning need to be addressed. Primary
process selection criteria include CAD model parameters, tool path
generation, welding process, welding process parameters, shielding gas,
and wire selection, as shown in Fig. 2.
3.1. CAD model parameters
CAD modelling, 2D slicing of the 3D CAD model, and tool path Fig. 2. Primary process selection criteria in WAAM.
generation are necessary planning steps for the fabrication of all AM
techniques. Preferably, a 3D CAD model can be obtained from reverse WAAM. Offsetting in a raster pattern is done parallel to a given direc
engineering of the geometry of the component in standard ‘.stl’ file tion, whereas offsetting in a contour pattern is parallel to the border of
format so that it may be easily sliced in the available slicing software the structure. The rest of the path patterns are either variations or
[83]. In current AM machines, a unidirectional slicing technique is used combinations of these scanning strategies [83]. Various tool paths
owing to its simplicity. As the unidirectional slicing technique requires a generated are demonstrated in Fig. 4. Fig. 4(a) shows the raster
lot of support structures for complex geometries and overhanging approach dependent upon the projection of the planer beam in one di
structures, the use of this methodology is quite restricted for complex rection. A lot of scanning lines of small width occupying 2-D space are
designs. For minimizing the application of support structures in complex projected in this method [87]. In a raster path pattern, the fundamental
geometries and overhanging structures, the multidirectional slicing component is built along a certain direction that requires the deposition
(MDS) technique is used in recently developed AM machines. In MDS, head to be rotated frequently, resulting in poor build quality. The
slicing is done in such a way that a multi-axis robot arm can deposit the Zig-zag filling path, as shown in Fig. 4(b), is almost similar to raster
material on the base surface at any orientation, making the deposition at scanning, where the only difference is the single continuous pass con
the underside of an overhang possible [84,85]. MDS requires multidi necting to parallel scanning lines. Both these strategies have poor outer
rectional depositing nozzles, and its algorithms are perplexing, so it boundary accuracy due to deflection in alternating directions and dis
requires a complete robotic configuration setup [86]. A demonstration cretization mistakes on the edges [88,89]. The contour path, as given in
of MDS is shown in Fig. 3. Fig. 4(c), follows the deposition route from the boundary towards its
interior.
Contour path patterns are generally chosen instead of raster and zig-
3.2. Tool path generation
zag patterns for fabricating thin-walled metallic components as it does
not require the deposition head to be turned frequently. Additionally,
The intricate tool path strategy is another critical step in the process
contour path-based fabricated structures overcome the problems of
planning of WAAM. The generation of the tool path is crucial in WAAM,
deformation and anisotropy by constantly changing the path direction
as it guides the travelling of the deposition nozzle to fill the sliced 2D
along the boundary [91]. Contour path pattern poses a problem by
layers representing the cross-sections of the component. Offsetting is an
leaving unfilled sections within the deposited layers, as it starts filling
essential step for tool path generation. Raster and contour patterns are
from outward to inward, so it does not assure the complete filling of a
the most commonly used patterns for scanning methodologies in
desired 2D geometry, as shown in Fig. 5 [83]. A cross-section of
thin-walled geometry is shown in Fig. 5(a). To fill this space by AM,
Table 4 contour paths (depicted by green lines in Fig. 5(b)) are produced by
Applications of WAAM processes in different field.
offsetting the boundary. The offset for the nth track is set at a distance of
Welding Application (n-0.5d) from the periphery towards its interior, where d is the step-over
Technology distance (hatch spacing). Hatch spacing is the distance between the
Aerospace Automobile Marine High Corrosion
Temperature centers of the next deposition track and the previous deposition track, as
GMAW [71] [72] [73, [57,75] [65] depicted in Fig. 6. To achieve a smooth surface in WAAM, inevitable
74] overlapping of weld beads is necessary. Several weld beads overlapping
Tandem – [59] – – – models suggest that the optimal hatch spacing in WAAM is a function of
GMAW weld bead width w, such as d= 0.667w or d= 0.738w [92]. At the fin
Hybrid [58] – – – –
WAAM
ishing touch of the deposition, narrow unfilled space is found to be left
(WAAM + by contour path patterns (the white portion in Fig. 5(c)), as it doesn’t
Milling) have enough space for the offsetting of the following contour path. The
CMT-based [76,77] – [78] – – area of unfilled space strictly depends upon the hatch spacing d, which is
GMAW
different for different AM processes. For WAAM, d relies on the wire
GTAW – [79] – [80] [81]
PAW [82] – – – – diameter, travel speed of the deposition head, and the wire feed rate,
4
Fig. 3. (a) Component showing basic build direction B; (b) required supports (olive colour) (c) build directions B1, B2 and B3 for multidirectional slicing [84].
Fig. 4. Tool Paths shown for WAAM process (a) Raster; (b) Zig-zag; (c) Contour; (d) Spiral; (e) Hybrid [56,83,90].
5
Fig. 5. (a) Cross-section for the simple thin-walled geometry; (b) Generated contour path patterns; (c) Material deposition with the generated contour path. Unfilled
gap (white area) is shown [83].
due to its high energy density electrical arc [96]. Better mechanical
properties are obtained using PAW-based WAAM deposition of
Mn4Ni2CrMo steel in comparison to GMAW due to the high energy
density electrical arc of PAW. The distortion in the bead is minimum in
the PAW process. This states that end-use properties requirement may
also drive the welding technology selection [97]. Apart from the high
deposition rate, GMAW is preferred for WAAM for the wire being fed
coaxially with the welding torch. According to ASTM F3187, coaxial
wire feed results in an easier tool path, and GMAW doesn’t require a
special arrangement for re-orientation of the wire and the deposition
direction and stands out as a better option than GTAW and PAW ap
proaches [76,98]. However, geometrically consistent deposition is
achievable for all travel directions by keeping the wire feed angle at 60◦
[99].
Fig. 6. Illustration of step-over distance (hatch spacing d) [92].
3.4. Welding process parameters
and its typical value ranges from 2 mm to 12 mm, as per the require
ment. Such unfilled sections may potentially result in premature failure To obtain stable and defect-free components for WAAM, various
of highly loaded structures. Reducing the hatch spacing may be the welding process parameters, including voltage, nominal current, wire
possible solution to avoid such unfilled areas, but in WAAM, it will feed rate (WFR), and travel speed (TS), must be administered and
hamper the deposition rate. Another possible explanation may be to controlled. These parameters will show a straight consequence on weld
revisit the gaps by overlapping the deposition path, but such revisiting characteristics, and quality of deposited structure as these parameters
may increase the wall thickness of the structures. An alternative meth together affect the heat input of the deposition [100]. The heat input is
odology named Medial Axis Transformation (MAT) is proposed to determined by the given equation. An excessive amount of heat input
address this issue [93]. while deposition will result in the re-melting of formerly deposited
The spiral tool path pattern (shown in Fig. 4(d)) is suitable for some layers to a more significant extent which will deteriorate the macro
unique geometrical models, as it overcomes the shortcomings of the zig- structure and bead geometry. A lower equivalent heat input provides a
zag tool path. This method was first commercialized in machining op uniform deposition surface without the weld pool over-flowing or
erations like pocket milling, but it may be employed for AM processes collapsing [101]. Lower heat input is also beneficial in reducing the
also [94]. To remove the shortcomings of described tool path strategies, overall porosity in the deposited structure by reducing the droplet
a combination of contour path and zig-zag tool path is employed as a temperature and the extent of gas solubility in the melt pool [102]. A
hybrid tool path (presented in Fig. 4(e)). In this pattern, the Zig-zag tool macrostructure study at different heat inputs revealed that an increase in
path is used to fill the inside core, whereas spiral path patterns do the heat input is attributed to the rise in the ratio of wire feed rate with the
outer scanning. The hybrid tool path is a most beneficial form of tool travel speed [103]. In WAAM, the question is to decrease the extent of
path planning strategy for WAAM, as it incorporates several good merits heat input and increase the deposition rate. To add more concern to this
that are not possible by the other existing tool path techniques [91,95]. scenario, WFR is directly proportional to the heat input. Research on
PAW-based WAAM of Ti64 concluded that a WFR/TS ratio of 30 is most
3.3. Welding process effective in stable bead deposition [76].
Heat input in the WAAM has a substantial effect on the melt pool’s
The welding technologies that may be used in wire arc additive size. At lower heat inputs, the width-to-height ratio tends to be relatively
manufacturing are discussed in Section 2 with all their variants. Selec smaller as the melt pool doesn’t have sufficient time to get spread before
tion of the welding technique is governed by the user application, and solidification. At higher heat input, the metal’s viscosity decreases, and
ease of process implementation; such as GMAW will be preferred over the melt pool extends more conveniently. However, the heat dissipation
GTAW and PAW in the application where high material deposition rate difference between two consecutive layers may be removed by matching
is prioritized, although it doesn’t provide the highest level of quality and the cooling power with the heat input, and consistent bead geometry can
process stability. GMAW is relatively easier to implement than GTAW be achieved [104]. For single-pass welding processes, i.e., for substrate
and PAW as it doesn’t require separate wire feeding. PAW provides high- at ambient temperature, synergic welding programs are developed to
quality welds of precise bead shape and size with minimized distortion ensure stable welding processes for a given material. These synergic
6
programs may not continue to be appropriate for heat accumulation

during a WAAM build.
Arc current is another crucial parameter in the arc welding processes,
as it significantly affects the bead roughness. It also controls the elec
trode burn-off rate, depth of fusion, and weld geometry [105]. A higher
current rate is also responsible for increasing the weld penetration
depth, resulting in stronger welded joints [106]. The electrical potential
difference between the weld pool and welding wire is a factor in the
determination of the phase of the fusion zone of the weld. Arc voltage
also controls the penetrating depth as relatively higher arc voltage
produces relatively wider, flatter, and less deeply penetrating welds. The Fig. 8. Degradation of WAAM wall of maraging steel by oxide accumulation for
use of optimized ideal arc voltage creates optimum penetration depth torch only shielding [110].
[106]. The penetration is highest at a certain arc voltage. Penetration
will start decreasing on increasing the arc voltage beyond this optimum
limit. A schematic illustration of controlling the welding current and
voltage for controlling the heat input and metal deposition rate in
CMT-based WAAM is shown in Fig. 7 [107].
3.5. Shielding gas
An adequate quantity of shielding gas is needed to protect the region

surrounding the hot molten material in order to avoid the contamination
of the welding pool at the time of WAAM deposition. It prevents the
possibility of certain shortcomings such as weld cracking, porosity, and Fig. 9. WAAM deposited wall of maraging steel using Ar filled tent shield
inclusions and also prevents the formation of detrimental oxides and ing [110].
nitrides [108]. A higher flow rate of shielding gas may be the reason for
poor penetration. Entrapped atmospheric gases due to the turbulence of
new oxides, leaving a characteristic mark on the weld plate called a
high flow rate may result in the porosity in the final component. Such
sputtering zone, as shown in Fig. 10 [113]. Using an oxidizing-doped
defects are mostly found due to the presence of atmospheric gases such
shielding gas has several benefits, including increased travel speeds,
as; oxygen (O2), nitrogen (N2), and water vapor (H2O) around the
enhanced penetration, and a decrease in the surface tension of the
welding setup. The shielding gas is supplied through the welding torch
molten metal [114]. The arc cathodic emission behavior of O2 content in
in most cases; however, for deposition of high contamination prone
argon-based shielding gas in WAAM of the thin aluminum layer was
materials such as; Ti64 and maraging steel, special arrangements for
analyzed for 0.3 ppm, 3 ppm, 200 ppm, and 2000 ppm of O2. The
shielding gas supply are made [109]. Fig. 8 shows the WAAM manu
comparative frames of arc behavior for different O2 content in shielding
factured wall of maraging steel degraded with oxide accumulation for
gas are shown in Fig. 11 [115]. The results showed that Ar doped with
torch-only shielding. In the same study, an argon-filled tent was used in
200 ppm of O2 as shielding gas forms the narrower sputter zone with the
place of torch shielding, and it showed a remarkably good performance
least arc wandering [113,115]. Fabrication of Ti64 samples with refined
in terms of wall deposition, surface waviness, and deposition efficiency,
prior β grains was done by using a shielding gas containing a mixture of
as shown in Fig. 9 [110]. A local shielding device, providing a laminar
argon and helium content, as it helped in increasing the cooling rate of
flow of shield gas, is developed for WAAM build of Ti64 material to
the melt pool surface [116].
provide better shielding conditions than conventional shielding [111].
The composition of shield gas is another important factor in the
process planning of WAAM setup to prevent arc wandering in highly 3.6. Wire selection
reactive materials, such as aluminum and titanium alloys. In the case of
aluminum and its alloys, low oxide availability in the melt pool leads to The selection of wire in the process planning of WAAM is instru
arc wandering [112]. When the oxide availability is insufficient on the mental for the various performance characteristics. The wire diameter
melt pool surface, the arc advances toward the solid surface in search of and the number of wires being fed into the generated arc are responsible
for affecting the deposition rate, heat transfer rate, and overall quality of
the weld [117]. The use of multiple wires is possible for the WAAM of
in-situ alloying. Using double wire in WAAM of Al-Cu-Sn alloy was
Fig. 7. Schematic sketch of the current (I) and voltage (U) waveforms and of
the difference in wire feed rate (VD) during the deposition phase of CMT
cycle [107]. Fig. 10. Characteristic mark of sputtering zone in WAAM [113].
7
Fig. 11. Typical arc behaviour during WAAM of aluminum for different O2 content in shielding gas [115].
proven to be beneficial in terms of surface quality, microstructure, and with a reduction in the size of β-grains. Thinner β-grains with more
strength. At the same processing parameters, the heat input in the equiaxed dendritic morphology in WAAM manufactured Ti-6Al-4 V
double wire process was almost half of the single wire process, so the were produced using traces of boron additives [123,124] and La2O3
superheat degree of the pool created by double wire was way less than nucleant particles [125,126]. In WAAM of stainless steel, using feed wire
that of the single wire melt pool. The interaction between twin arcs of containing elements having a high affinity towards oxygen such as Si can
double wire was responsible for a more stable arc and uniform melt pool. form oxides, which creates the pinning effect at grain boundaries and
The number of age-hardened θ՚ phases formed in the double wire process limits the grain growth [127].
was way more than phases formed in the single wire process resulting in
better strength of the alloy (shown in Fig. 12) [118]. 4. Materials used in WAAM
The use of multiple feed wires has resulted in the easy fabrication of
materials of such compositions that were difficult to be manufactured WAAM processes use a wide variety of commercially available
via WAAM route using a single wire feed. The fabrication of γ- TiAl spooled wires of many alloys, which are produced for the welding in
intermetallic alloy was done successfully using the twin-wire PAW- dustry and used as feedstock material. Manufacturing a defect-free and
based WAAM process [119]. In a similar work, the fabrication of reliable component requires a firm knowledge of available process op
iron-rich Fe-Al intermetallics was carried out successfully using a two tions, process control methods, and the suitable feedstock material for a
wire feed GTAW-based WAAM technique [120]. The surface quality of given application. This section of the paper reviews the commonly used
the wire also greatly affects the amount of porosity in the final built metals in the WAAM processes, focusing on the microstructure and the
component. High quality wires having no surface cracks and scratches mechanical properties of the WAAM deposited parts.
reduced the porosity in the welded joints in the study conducted in
reference [121].
The composition of wire and the presence of inoculants is another 4.1. Titanium alloys
crucial parameter for selecting feed wire in WAAM technology. In
oculants act as heterogeneous nuclei, behaving as a potential site for the The unique property of titanium alloys to have a high strength-to-
nucleation of more grains, thus increasing the number of sites through weight ratio has made them a material of prime focus to be used in
which the grains may nucleate. Kennedy et al. [122] successfully various industries such as aerospace. Poor machinability and high ma
demonstrated the potential of TiN inoculants for effective grain refine terial cost of titanium alloys lead to the demand for an efficient alter
ment of wire-arc additively manufactured Ti-6Al-4 V alloy. TiN in native process to the conventional subtractive manufacturing
oculants promoted the modification from columnar to equiaxed grains techniques. Conventional manufacturing processes offer a meager buy-
to-fly ratio for aerospace component designs. Additive manufacturing
Fig. 12. TEM image of age strengthened θ՚ phase of (a) single wire process and (b) double wire process for Al-Cu-Sn alloy [118].
8
has emerged as an excellent alternative to be used in such cases due to its input of 1648 J/mm. Material characterization revealed no evidence of
ability to produce near-net-shape components [128]. β-Ti decomposition under optimized processing parameters and thermal
It is well recognized that the microstructure of α + β Ti6Al4V alloy, processing, which is represented in Fig. 15. Moderate tensile strength of
including primary α, lath like α, hcp martensitic α՚, acicular α, and prior 739 ± 17 MPa was achieved with elongation of approximately 20 %,
β phase is highly dependent upon the thermal history during the WAAM which was slightly lower than the strength of wrought alloy (UTS =
processing of the material [129]. Wu et al. [130] deposited a thin wall of 794 MPa, elongation = 25 %), as reported by Schmidt et al. [136].
Ti6Al4V (shown in Fig. 13) using a GTAW-based WAAM system in order Implementing more précised process parameters and grain refinement
to perform an investigation on the effect of heat accumulation on the may result in a further increase in mechanical properties of WAAM
microstructure of the fabricated alloy. Broadly, the microstructure of the fabricated β-Ti alloys.
as-deposited alloy is divided into two distinct regions. In the region close
to substrate, the higher cooling rates and less heat accumulation results 4.2. Nickel-based superalloys
in lath like α martensitic matrix (in Fig. 14 (a)) and fully lamellar α
morphology interwoven with basketweave structures (in Fig. 14 (b)). In Superalloys are a special grade of high-performance alloys that
the top region, more heat generation leads to a reduction in process exhibit high strength and toughness at elevated temperatures and are
cooling rate resulting in the formation of a large α colony within prior β resistive to a corrosive environment. Such alloys find uses in aero-
grains and α phase grain boundary (shown in Fig. 14 (d-f)). As-build engines in combustor and turbine sections [137]. Nickel-based super
WAAM samples exhibited good mechanical properties with a yield alloys are widely studied by the AM fraternity due to their superior
strength of 884 ± 27 MPa, a tensile strength of 995 ± 29 MPa, and mechanical stability at high temperatures above 550 ◦ C. Additively
approximate elongation of 18.6 %, which was comparable to the manufactured nickel-based superalloys are commonly used in aero
wrought material. space, aeronautical, and petroleum industries [138]. To date, two
Metastable β-Ti alloys are very promising materials to be used in nickel-based superalloys, IN 718 and IN 625, are widely studied by re
structural applications due to their superior strength, good toughness, searchers for WAAM based processes.
and better fatigue resistance in comparison to α and α + β Ti alloys The microstructure of IN 718 fabricated via the WAAM route is
[131]. The majority of the research studies on titanium alloys are con generally composed of large columnar grains with irregularly island-
ducted on AM of α and α + β alloys such as Ti6Al4V [130,132], whereas shaped precipitates, known as Laves phase, and some spherical/
relatively little attention is given to the research on the metastable β-Ti square-shaped carbides [139]. Zhang et al. [140] studied the WAAM
alloys. The presence of detrimental secondary α, ω, and α՚՚ phases with fabricated IN 718 alloy in as-build in heat-treated (HT) conditions and
unusual phase distribution morphology, co-existing with the compared the corrosion resistance of the alloy with wrought IN 718.
as-deposited metastable β-Ti, resulting in inferior mechanical and SEM micrographs of the WAAM-HT sample are presented in Fig. 16, with
corrosion properties, maybe the reason for the less research interest in all the phases present. Material characterization revealed that
such alloys [133,134]. Ng et al. [135] demonstrated that a single WAAM-HT IN 718 alloy provides inferior corrosion resistance than HT
β-phase microstructure could be obtained in an as-deposited metastable wrought IN 718 alloys due to the formation of a porous passive layer
β-Ti alloy by selecting proper alloy composition and processing pa consisting of more NiO and less Cr2O3 on WAAM-HT IN 718 alloy.
rameters. In this study, a metastable β-Ti alloy (Ti3Al8V6Cr4Mo4Zr) Kindermann et al. [141] showed that CMT-based WAAM processed
was fabricated using a GTAW-based WAAM process using a high heat heat-treatable IN 718 alloy exhibits better stability and satisfactory
response compared to other laser-based deposition methods.
As-deposited alloy showed an improved microstructure with an average
Laves length of 1.68–2.60 µm and NbC carbide diameter of
0.59–0.90 µm. An increase in the solution treatment temperature of
CMT fabricated IN 718 alloy from 980 ◦ C to 1040 ◦ C reduced
micro-segregation, Laves and δ phase precipitation. WASPALOY is a
suitable replacement for IN 718 alloy because of its higher creep and
corrosion resistance at elevated temperatures. Cooling rates have an
almost negligible outcome on the mechanical properties of the WAS
PALOY, thus finding it a potential candidate to be manufactured via the
WAAM route [142].
Yangfan et al. [143] investigated the feasibility of WAAM processes
for the fabrication of IN 625 alloy. IN 625 alloy was fabricated using a
CMT-based WAAM process, and the mechanical properties of the
deposited alloy were found to be highly dependent upon the torch travel
speed due to the formation of precipitates in the alloy. The specimen
consisted of the different microstructures at different layers (as shown in
Fig. 17), with the bottom layers composed of mainly fine primary
cellular structures. With the increase in deposited layers and heat input,
the structure changed to columnar dendritic with secondary dendritic
arms. The last layers were composed of an equiaxed microstructure. The
as-deposited specimen had UTS of approximately 660 MPa, YS of
roughly 390 MPa, and elongation of around 44 %, which was highly
comparable with the as-casted alloy [144]. The solution heat treatment
of WAAM fabricated IN 625 alloy at 1100 ◦ C led to the dissolution of
Laves and δ phases and the removal of classical dendritic microstructure
[145].
4.3. Aluminum alloys
Fig. 13. Microstructural cross-sectional micrograph of as-build wall [130]. Aluminum is found in ample amounts in the earth’s crust as the third
9
Fig. 14. Optical micrographs of the corresponding regions: a, b, c, d, e, f in Fig. 13 [130].
most abundant element and is readily available. A wide range of Al al dendrites was obtained (as shown in Fig. 18). The less heat input in the
loys is being used in industrial applications due to their excellent CMT process was the key for such microstructure. The average ultimate
corrosion resistance, thermal conductivity, and high strength to weight tensile strength (UTS) of the fabricated samples was found to be
ratio [146]. After several Al alloy fabrication studies through WAAM, it 125 MPa and 112 MPa in longitudinal and transverse directions,
is concluded that the WAAM process is mainly favourable for the respectively, which was comparable to the UTS of cold-drawn samples
fabrication of large-sized and complex geometry Al structures since the [150].
fabrication of small and simple geometry Al structures through con
ventional machining process is more cost-efficient [147]. Several grades
4.4. Stainless steels (SS)
of Al alloys, including Al-Cu (2xxx), Al-Si (4xxx), and Al-Mg (5xxx), are
studied for fabrication through WAAM routes. Few grades of Al alloy,
The ability to offer high ductility and good corrosion resistance at
namely 6xxx and 7xxx series, are found to be difficult to weld due to
tracts a number of research on the fabrication of stainless steel using the
unsettled melt puddle during the deposition [148]. Among the various
WAAM route. WAAM is capable of producing sound and defect-free
WAAM methods, the GMAW-based CMT process is proven to be the most
parts with good mechanical properties and microstructure. Le et al.
competent for the fabrication of Al-based alloys due to its higher
[151] fabricated a sound wall of 308 L SS using GMAW-based WAAM
energy-saving capabilities [148,149].
with good mechanical properties (as shown in Fig. 19), which were
Campatelli et al. [149] successfully deposited a defect-free thin wall
highly dependent upon the microstructure. The observed anisotropy in
of the ER-4043 alloy using CMT-based WAAM. Although porosity is a
the tensile strength and ductility is the outcome of the presence of
problem with the WAAM as-deposited Al-based alloy, but a defect-free
columnar grains in the build direction. Anisotropy in the parts can be
and fully dense part was fabricated using optimized process parame
eradicated successfully by using suitable heat treatment processes, by
ters. Almost uniform equiaxed microstructure with some columnar
changing process variants or by using an orthotropic material model, as
10
Fig. 15. (a) WAAM deposited structure of the alloy; (b) low magnification optical image of the top layer; (c) corresponding SEM image of the top layer with SAD
pattern; (d) corresponding XRD pattern of the same layer; (e) low magnification optical image of the layer 8; (f) corresponding SEM image of the layer 8 SAD pattern;
(g) corresponding XRD pattern of the same layer [135].
Fig. 16. SEM micrographs of WAAM-HT IN 718 alloy sample: (a) low magnification; (b) high magnification [140].
demonstrated by Laghi et al. [152]. Steel microstructure is mainly slip bands developed with austenite and lathy ferrite during deformation
composed of austenite phase, whereas on WAAM deposition, a com are the favourable sites for micro-crack initiation [153]. The corrosion
bined microstructure consisting of large columnar austenite grains and resistance of WAAM processed ER2594 super duplex stainless steel
small ferrite grains of skeletal, lathy, and granular shapes is formed (as (SDSS) is excellent as compared to wrought alloy and meets the re
shown in Fig. 20) [153]. The cooling rate is also a factor that influences quirements suggested by the National Association of Corrosion Engi
the amount of ferrite in the deposited structure, and up to 30 % volume neers (NACE) for the usage in oil and gas industries. The absence of
fraction of ferrite can be obtained [154]. Deformation behavior in the detrimental phases in the microstructure of SDSS avoided sensitization,
steel is dependent upon the presence of the ferrite phase, and the dense which suggests WAAM is an excellent manufacturing route for SDSS
11
[155].
4.5. Magnesium alloys
The low density, high specific strength, and increased resistance to

corrosion and magnetic radiation of magnesium alloys have garnered
increased interest from the aerospace, electronics, weapon industry, and
automobile sector [156]. As one of the lightest engineering metallic
materials, magnesium alloys possess good thermal conductivity, elec
tromagnetic shielding, and recyclability and are recognized as the green
structural materials for the current century [157]. Magnesium alloys
don’t have a large number of independent slip systems due to their
Fig. 17. The microscopic appearance of the different deposited layers of IN

625 [143].
Fig. 19. Comparison of tensile properties among vertical and horizontal spec
imens [151].
Fig. 18. Longitudinal cross-section of CMT fabricated wall and corresponding optical micrographs (a, b, c) [149].
12
Fig. 20. Optical micrographs of WAAM 308 L SS at (a) top; (b) middle; (c) bottom layers [153].
hexagonal closed pack (hcp) crystal structure, which limits its form WAAM techniques. Researchers have studied the use of WAAM to
ability at room temperature and leads to poor plastic forming ability fabricate Cu-based alloys and have reported good results [162]. The
[158]. This limits the rolling forming of as-cast magnesium alloys and potential fabrication of many other alloys, including Stellite 6[163],
limits their applications in the rolled form [159]. NiTi shape memory alloy [164], and IN825-SS316L functionally graded
The research on the fabrication of magnesium alloys through wire material (FGM) [165], is also investigated via the CMT-WAAM route.
arc additive manufacturing route is still few, and most of the work
through WAAM is carried out on AZ31 and AZ91 alloys. The WAAM as- 5. Defects and challenges
fabricated sample of AZ91 alloy mainly consisted of equiaxed grains of
different sizes, with an overall grain size of 13.9 µm and 33.2 µm above Although the mechanical properties of the WAAM manufactured
and below the fusion line, respectively, which is much lesser than the components are somehow moderate with regard to the traditionally
size of the as-cast substrate material (44.4 µm) [160]. The as-fabricated manufactured counterparts, there are numerous defects that are
typical microstructure consisted of α-Mg matrix and precipitates of observed and need to be addressed for high-performance applications.
β-Mg17Al12 and Al8Mn5. The characteristic process parameters used in High heat input is a major challenge in WAAM-based fabrication pro
WAAM have a significant effect on the weld width, dilution ratio, con cesses, as it results in a high level of residual stress and distortion in the
tact angle, wettability, and microstructure of the as-fabricated samples fabricated structures. The inferior surface finish of the WAAM fabricated
[101]. Samples fabricated through WAAM by Yang et al. [161] had no components because of high heat input is also a significant concern for
apparent defects, had better mechanical properties (YS = 131 MPa, UTS dimensional compatibility as well as for premature component failure
= 210 MPa and Elongation = 10.55 %) than traditional cast alloys, and [61]. Many other reasons, such as poor processing parameters, machine
were comparable to that of wrought alloys. However, as-fabricated malfunctions, and environmental influence, are also responsible for
samples presented anisotropic characteristics of mechanical properties various defects like porosity, delamination, and oxidation [100]. As
due to epitaxial columnar dendritic growth with the travel direction. shown in Table 5, certain materials are more susceptible to specific
This shows that WAAM may be a suitable manufacturing process for the defects. This section of the paper reviews some common defects and
fabrication of magnesium alloys. their relationship with the particular materials.
4.6. Other alloys Table 5

The correlation between various materials/alloys and defects in WAAM
Copper-based alloys are exceptional engineering materials for its techniques.
good strength and ductility together. Cu-Al-based alloys have pioneered Defect Material/Alloy
in this field to serve many engineering applications, but they are sen
Titanium Aluminum Steel Nickel Bimetal
sitive to environmental conditions and hence require additional
shielding while fabrication. Additive manufacturing is a favorable route Crack ↑↑ ↑↑↑ ↑↑↑ ↑↑↑↑ ↑↑↑↑↑
Surface Finish
for the facile fabrication of complex structures of these alloys [60].
↑ ↑↑ ↑↑↑↑↑ ↑↑↑ ↑↑↑
Deformation ↑↑↑ ↑↑↑↑ ↑↑↑↑ ↑↑ ↑↑↑↑↑
Spatters create significant challenges in the manufacturing of Cu-based Porosity ↑ ↑↑↑↑↑ ↑↑ ↑↑↑ ↑↑
alloys, hence controlled metal transfer variants of GMAW-WAAM may Residual Stress ↑↑↑ ↑↑↑↑ ↑↑↑↑ ↑↑↑ ↑↑↑↑↑
be a viable option for manufacturing these alloys. Additionally, Delamination ↑ ↑ ↑ ↑↑↑ ↑↑
Oxidation
GMAW-WAAM is cost-efficient compared to other powder-based AM ↑↑↑↑↑ ↑↑↑ ↑↑↑ ↑ ↑↑↑
techniques and has higher production efficiency than contemporary ↑-Slight; ↑↑-Medium; ↑↑↑-Moderate; ↑↑↑↑-Heavy; ↑↑↑↑↑-Severe
13
5.1. Residual stress and deformation precipitate formation and boundary morphology [179], whereas solid
ification cracking is mainly supported by excessive solute segregation as
Stresses which reside in the structure even after the removal of all the it causes obstruction in the solidification of the melt pool [180].
external loads and clamping are called residual stresses. Residual Excessive solute segregation in WAAM is the result of a high level of
stresses of large scale can lead to significant structure distortion [166], residual stresses and enlarged grain size [181]. The presence of such
resulting in build failure, loss of geometric tolerance, and reduced fa defects has detrimental effects on the mechanical properties of the
tigue performance [167]. As the residual stresses have such a significant fabricated structure. Seow et al. [182] studied the impact of the exis
influence on the structural integrity and implementation of the tence of cracks (as shown in Fig. 21) on the fracture toughness of WAAM
component, so minimization and control of deformation caused by re fabricated alloy 718 and found that the toughness of WAAM fabricated
sidual stresses is a key area of research. alloy having notch parallel to cracks is almost half to that of wrought
The stresses generated are WAAM are either longitudinal residual alloy 718. The presence of these cracks was attributed to the unfavorable
stresses (LRS) or transverse residual stresses (TRS), resulting in bending deposition conditions. These cracks originated in the center of the melt
distortion, rotational distortion, and angular distortion [168]. Although pool, along high-angle grain boundaries and Laves phase, and possess
the WAAM process has very technical similarities with the SLM process characteristics similar to hot cracking.
and multi-pass welding in terms of CAD and manufacturing, residual The incomplete melting and insufficient re-melting of the underlying
stresses distribution is totally different for WAAM fabricated structures layer is the reason for the delamination of adjacent layers. Ni-based
in terms nature of the generated residual stress [169]. The height of the alloys and bimetal materials combinations are more susceptible to
deposited structure has a significant impact on the induced stresses, as delamination when fabricated with the WAAM process. This is due to the
the increase in the height of the deposit leads to a rise in the magnitude dissimilarities in the complete solubility of the metals resulting in the
of LRS but has a negligible impact on TRS. The size of substrate used in formation of intermetallic compounds. Delamination is a major concern
WAAM and the installed clamping system has a substantial effect on the in the additive manufacturing of functionally graded materials (FGM)
magnitude of LRS in the deposited structure [170]. Wu et al. [171] [183]. Problems related to cracking and delamination are not repairable
demonstrated the influence of deposition pattern and track length on the by the post-processing treatments, so pre-process treatments, such as
magnitude of residual stresses. Results suggested that short track lengths preheating of the substrate, are performed to reduce the temperature
are helpful in mitigating the residual stresses and spiral tracks have a gradient and the cooling rate [66,184].
maximum magnitude of residual stresses and deformation. As shown in
Table 5, among all the engineering materials fabricated by WAAM,
5.4. Automation and integrated machining
bimetal structures come out to have a maximum level of residual stresses
and its consequent deformation due to the difference in the thermal
Complete automation and integrated in-built machining for better
expansion coefficient of the materials. Well optimized interpass tem
accuracy, reliability, and efficiency are still seen as the main challenge in
perature and a better understanding of material characteristics may be
the uplifting of the scope of the WAAM based manufacturing process. By
implemented to minimize the residual stresses and deformation.
this time, the WAAM technique requires substantial human intervention
in adjusting the tool path and build processes. Coupled integrated
5.2. Porosity
sensing and machining are necessary to extend the application of WAAM
in the industrial sector. In-built visual sensors in WAAM may be helpful
Porosity is either process-induced [172] or raw material-induced
in detecting surface defects and geometrical deviations. Acoustic and
[173] defect in WAAM fabricated components that need to be miti
thermal sensors may also be beneficial in detecting the on-line defects
gated to avoid its detrimental effects on the mechanical properties
while deposition of the structure [185]. A very few research is carried
[174]. It comes into existence by the entrapment of hydrogen gas in the
out in this field [186]. With in-process machining, the detected defects
molten pool during deposition. Such porosity can be controlled up to an
can be corrected and eliminated with minimum scrap and wastage
extent by using a suitable shielding gas composition and application
[187]. The practical installation of these sensing devices and complete
methods. These methods are covered in Section 3 of this paper. The
presence of surface contamination, such as moisture, inclusions, and
grease in the raw material, is also a reason for the generation of porosity
in the deposited structure [175]. The presence of porosity depends upon
the amount of heat input also. Derekar et al. [176] showed that in the
pulsed-MIG method, less heat input contributed to a higher level of
porosity, whereas higher heat input has relatively less porosity. Opposite
results were obtained in CMT-based WAAM fabricated components.
Similar results were conveyed by Fang et al. [177] for the CMT, CMT
+ Pulse, and CMT + Advanced, as the highest heat input in CMT + Pulse
resulted in the largest pore formation. Large columnar grain formation
also avoids the escape of pores from the melt pool. Other than heat
input, metal transfer mode also has a significant effect on the porosity
content of WAAM fabricated structures, as Aldalur et al. [178] demon
strated that in the fabrication of 5356 Al alloy, pulsed-AC mode
considerably decreased the porosity content by achieving the 0.13 % of
porosity level as a result of its variable polarity. The obtained results
were almost 6 times lesser than the Cold metal transfer and about 10
times lesser than the Pulsed-GMAW mode.
5.3. Crack and delamination
On broad levels, WAAM fabricated components suffer grain bound

ary cracks as well as solidification cracks [6]. Grain boundary cracking Fig. 21. WAAM wall sections showing the defects along the build direc
takes place along the grain boundaries as an outcome of the variations in tion [182].
14
automation in real-time applications is a challenge and needs to be of the paper.

addressed. A competent integrated WAAM setup with complete auto
mation and in-built machining needs to be developed that will hybrid 6.1. Post-process heat treatment
the manufacturing process, including a number of processing parame
ters resulting in efficient production and minimizing the need for Post-process heat treatments have a wide role in WAAM in enhancing
post-processing, coupled visual sensors that will detect surface defects material strength, reducing residual stress, and controlling the hardness
and geometrical deviations, in-built acoustics and thermal sensors that of the fabricated structure. To avoid the possibility of cracking by
may be beneficial in detecting on-line defects at the time of deposition. incorrect heat-treatment procedures, the selection of a suitable heat-
treatment method is made based upon the deposited material, AM
method employed, and the available conditions for post-processing. An
5.5. Anisotropy
increase of 59 % in the mechanical strength of GTAW-based WAAM
fabricated AA2196 as-built Al alloy was reported by Xue et al. [193]
Solidification in WAAM supports the formation of microstructure
after suitable post-process heat treatment and hot deformation. The
containing large columnar grains rather than a fine equiaxed micro
increase in tensile properties was attributed to the grain refinement and
structure. Such columnar grains are formed on account of solidification
mechanism of microporosity closure, as post-processing effectively
conditions favoring the epitaxial growth with fewer nucleation events at
reduced the porosity and eliminated the crack initiation sites. Fig. 23
the solid/liquid interface. The presence of a higher temperature gradient
presents the micropores clustering in as-built and heat-treated samples,
(G) and less growth rate (R) at the solid/liquid interface favors the
where the red and blue particles represent the micropores larger than
formation of columnar grain morphology [188], as shown in Fig. 22
50 µm and smaller than 50 µm, respectively. In some other studies
[189]. Such microstructure results in inferior strength, toughness, and
conducted on post-process heat treatment of WAAM fabricated compo
corrosion resistance in comparison to the fine equiaxed microstructure
nents, an increase of 4 %, 5 %, 78 %, and 17 % in strength is reported for
[190]; however, they are suited for high-temperature creep applications
titanium alloys [194], Ni-base superalloys [195,196], aluminum alloys
[191]. The most prominent drawback of large columnar microstructure
[77] and intermetallic Ti/Al alloys [197], respectively, in comparison to
is the presence of anisotropy in the mechanical properties of the mate
as-built WAAM samples.
rial, as shown in Fig. 18. Sun et al. [192] indicated anisotropy in
CMT-based WAAM fabricated high-strength steel components and re
6.2. Near immersion active cooling (NIAC)
ported inferior fracture properties in the longitudinal direction as
compared to the transverse direction. As the anisotropy is responsible
As discussed in Section 5 of this paper, thermal management is the
for the detrimental effects in practical applications, so this challenge
biggest challenge in the WAAM processes. The obtained as-printed
needs to be overcome for the expansive industrialization of WAAM.
microstructure and mechanical properties of a WAAM fabricated
Some preventive measures, including the use of inoculants, are dis
structure are highly dependent upon the history of thermal cycles and
cussed in Section 3 of this paper.
the interpass temperature experienced during the deposition [198].
Recently, near immersion active cooling (NIAC) is developed and eval
6. Quality improving recent advances in WAAM uated in the WAAM method. NIAC is aimed at thermal management in
WAAM in order to mitigate the heat accumulation due to the high heat
WAAM fabricated components require suitable post-process execu input. The concept of NIAC is detailed by Silva et al. [199] on the basis of
tions to improve material properties and eliminate significant chal active cooling of the preform by near-immersion in a cooling liquid in a
lenges, including surface roughness, porosity, and residual stresses. controlled manner. Silva et al. [200] validated the use of NIAC in
Apart from this, several advances are introduced in the functioning, mitigating the heat accumulation in WAAM fabrication of AWS ER5356
tooling, and working of WAAM to mitigate different process challenges alloy. The experimental setup of the NIAC concept is demonstrated in
in WAAM-based material fabrication. A review of such post-processing Fig. 24. In order to prove the mettle of the NIAC concept, the deposition
techniques and recent advances in WAAM is presented in this section was performed in three different approaches, as shown in Fig. 25. The
results showed that NIAC had deposited walls of the best geometric
quality with the least percentage of presence of voids and porosity, as
compared to the other two approaches. NIAC approach is proven to
provide better mechanical properties with less anisotropy. Similar re
sults were shown by Scotti et al. [201] for thermal management in
CMT-based WAAM fabricated alloy using the NIAC approach.
6.3. Interpass cooling
A complex thermal profile of WAAM fabricated components

involving repeated re-heating and re-cooling cycles results in the for
mation of complex microstructures and inferior mechanical properties.
In order to attain enhanced microstructure and enhanced mechanical
properties, recently, interpass cooling techniques are developed,
involving forced interpass cooling using compressed CO2 gas. Rapid
cooling is achieved by using a gas-supplying moveable nozzle, and in-
situ layer temperature and the thermal cycle can be altered into the
desired domain for obtaining the required microstructure and mechan
ical properties. A schematic diagram of the gas cooling setup integrated
WAAM is presented in Fig. 26.
Promising results were obtained in an initial study performed by Wu
et al. [202] for WAAM fabrication of Ti6Al4V structures using forced
Fig. 22. The as-deposited WAAM microstructure of IN718 with typical coarse interpass cooling with compressed CO2. Interpass cooling process was
and columnar grains [188]. found to be producing refined microstructure, less oxidation, higher
15
Fig. 23. 3D views of the microporosity morphology in the WAAM built AA2196 alloy: (a) As-built; (b) T6 heat treated; (c) 23 % hot deformation + T6; (d) 42 % hot
deformation + T6 [193].
hardness, and improved strength. Le et al. [203] validated the active subsequent layer deposition induced beneficial grain refinement.
cooling method by using compressed dry air-based active cooling in Hu et al. [206] validated the concept of interpass rolling in WAAM
WAAM fabrication of SS308L structures. Beneficial results were ob fabrication of Ti6Al4V alloys. The ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of
tained with the lowest surface roughness, higher average hardness, and 876 MPa, yield strength of 789 MPa, and elongation of 11 % were ob
enhanced tensile strength in comparison to components fabricated tained, which were better than the as-fabricated WAAM samples. The
without using active cooling. More research is still to be carried out in increase in strength and ductility was attributed to the elimination of
this field. voids and increase in dislocation density by in-situ rolling of the deposit,
as shown in Fig. 28. Similar results were reported by Zhang et al. [207]
for the WAAM fabrication of IN718 alloy. As of now, this technique is
6.4. Interpass cold rolling employed for the fabrication of simple thin walls only. The imple
mentation of in-situ rolling in the WAAM fabrication of ready-to-use
As discussed earlier, the presence of thermal gradient within components is still has a long way to go as rolling processes have geo
deposited layers and complex reheating and re-cooling phenomenon in metric limitations.
the WAAM process results in the formation of anisotropic microstructure
and mechanical properties. The interpass cold rolling of the deposited
structure has evolved as another measure to significantly reduce the 6.5. Hot forging WAAM (HF-WAAM)
microstructural anisotropy through the mechanism of plastic deforma
tion of the structure. The interpass rolling of the weld bead has proven A novel concept of Hot forging wire arc additive manufacturing (HF-
effective in reducing the extent of residual stresses and distortion [204]. WAAM) is developed recently by Duarte et al. [208] at the University of
Colegrove et al. [205] used this concept and developed the cold rolling Caparica. This technique is designed with the primary objective to uti
integrated WAAM system in 2013. A hydraulically loaded slotted roller lize the viscoplastic deformation behavior of the materials at high
was made to move over the deposition with a constant speed, the same temperatures to increase strength, reduce residual stress and homoge
as the GMAW welding torch, as shown in Fig. 27. The use of the roller nize grain structure. HF-WAAM consists of a hammer placed inside the
was effective in reducing the distortion and surface roughness of the gas nozzle, which is activated by an electromagnetically or mechanically
deposited structure, and the need for machining in the final component operated vibrating actuator. The deformation in this operation re
was almost negligible. The reheating of the rolled layer in the sembles the hot forging process. The schematic representation of the
16
Fig. 24. Laboratory rig assembled for the NIAC concept [200].
Fig. 25. Schematic representation of the cooling approaches employed [200].
Fig. 26. Schematic presentation of forced gas cooling integrated WAAM setup [202].
17
Fig. 27. Schematic representation of interpass rolling integrated WAAM setup [205].
Fig. 28. Schematic of microstructural features produced in (a) WAAM; (b) rolling integrated WAAM [206].
Fig. 29. Schematic representation of forging area in HF-WAAM: (a) isometric (3D); (b) top view (2D) [208].
forging is presented in Fig. 29. In the initial studies, good results were obtained for the fabrication of
AISI316L stainless steel. A refined microstructure and closure of voids by
hot forging resulted in better mechanical properties as compared with
as-fabricated WAAM samples, and the improved experimental results
are shown in Fig. 30. HF-WAAM showed potential to be used in indus
trial applications, but more research is still to be carried out for its
commercialization.
6.6. Ultra cold WAAM (UC-WAAM)
As discussed in Section 5 of this paper, management of high heat

input is the primary challenge in the WAAM process as it induces high
levels of residual stress and distortion. There are several approaches to
reduce the heat input in the WAAM without declining the productivity
of the process, including CMT-based WAAM and hot wire WAAM
(HWAAM) [209]. Recently, a new variant of WAAM is developed by
Rodrigues et al. [210] named as Ultracold-Wire and Arc Additive
Fig. 30. Uniaxial tensile test results for the as-built and 55 N hammered sam Manufacturing (UC-WAAM). In UC-WAAM, the electric arc was struck
ples [208]. between the feedstock wire and a non-consumable tungsten electrode.
18
Fig. 31. Schematic representation of arc generation in: (a) GMAW-based WAAM; (b) UC-WAAM [210].
The schematic illustration of the UC-WAAM is shown in Fig. 31 in review manuscript has kept its concentration on selecting the process
comparison to the GMAW-based WAAM. It was supposed to reduce the parameters in the WAAM deposition and the effect of these parameters
process temperature by increasing the cooling rate by removing the on the microstructure, mechanical properties, and the defects that arose.
electric current from the substrate and by maintaining a distance for the The fabrication quality and material properties in WAAM are highly
electric arc from the melt pool. reliant upon the feasibility of the selected method and processing
To validate this approach, a feasibility study was carried out on the planning, so a detailed focus is given to the steps and strategies of pro
UC-WAAM fabrication of HSLA steel with a comparison to GMAW-based cessing parameters and tooling.
WAAM. It delivered promising results with better arc stability, wall To mature the WAAM technique as a commercially feasible tech
appearance and avoided the formation of spatter. It was able to increase nique, a versatile integrated WAAM setup needs to be developed, having
the cooling rates by 11 ◦ C/s and had a significant effect on the micro capabilities of addressing all the possible problems. It is observed
structure development. The author suggested the scope of UC-WAAM for through the literature review that most of the researchers have focused
the fabrication of self-supporting overhanging components, but broad on deposition in the form of straight thin walls rather than depositing in
research is to be carried out in this field. the form of a functional part. With growing acceptance for additively
manufactured end products in the market, to compete with other AM
processes, the research on fabrication of functional parts through WAAM
6.7. Support-free WAAM
needs to be addressed. The need for elaborative study on the large vol
ume finished functional components with enhanced metallurgical
Removal of the support structure in metal AM is a challenging task as
properties also should be addressed. To address the anisotropic and
it hampers the aesthetic appearance of the component and requires
columnar microstructural issues in WAAM, it is observed that the suit
additional machining along with higher deposition time. Many in
able feedstock selection and the proper management of the cooling rates
vestigators have worked on the realization of support-free AM methods.
with additional interpass cooling and deformations are pivotal and have
A geometry-based method was presented by Vanek et al. [211] by ori
yielded promising results. As these microstructures have a massive in
enting the model into a position where support structures require min
fluence on the mechanical properties of the fabricated materials, so
imum area. Hu et al. [212] presented a segmentation model to slice the
more focused research needs to be done in this area for its imple
design into approximate pyramidal shapes and then get them printed
mentation in the fabrication of end-use products. A precise selection of
separately to avoid supports. The segmentation of layers in these models
the processing parameters listed in Fig. 1 shall also provide better
resulted in cumulative fitness error due to the presence of unfilled voids
mitigation of such microstructures.
between the layers. Recently, Liu et al. [213] proposed a method based
Most of the research work in WAAM is carried out on Aluminum,
on a multi-DOF depositing platform for support-free WAAM with surface
steel, titanium, and nickel-based alloys, whereas little importance is
separation and surface segmentation. In this method, the CAD model
given to the fabrication of bi-metals via this manufacturing process. To
was divided into surface and interior solid (IS), and then the surface was
implement WAAM in diverse industrial applications and to compete in
segmented into an overhanging area (OA) and a non-overhanging area
the market with the other manufacturing processes, the possibility of
(NOA). The deposition of IS and NOA was performed by traditional
fabrication of functionally graded materials and improvement in the
vertical WAAM deposition, whereas OA was deposited by the multi-DOF
fabrication of bi-metals needs to be done. The research in the field of
deposition method. Two typical models were deposited for validation
WAAM must focus on the development directions of new alloy materials
using this novel support-free WAAM technique. Although a stable
such as high entropy alloys and magnetic alloys and their processing. It
deposition was performed for both the models but cumulative errors
is observed that a very few research is done on-line inspection of the
were identified in the inclination of walls and layer thickness. More
bead geometry and defects during the WAAM fabrication. The off-line
research work is required in this approach in the field of thermal
inspection of the faulty components after the manufacturing leads to
deformation management and deposition uniformity.
higher material loss and higher associated costs. This highlights the need
for a real-time defect detecting closed-loop control system to reduce the
7. Future prospects and conclusions overall post-processing time and to make the WAAM a more robust and
potent method. To summarize the future vision of the WAAM, a
WAAM has captured the attention of industries and researchers for competent integrated WAAM setup need to be developed that will
fabricating large structural metal components with moderate combine the manufacturing process, including a number of processing
complexity due to its low cost and high deposition rates. In this manu parameters resulting in efficient production and minimizing the need for
script, a concise review of the WAAM process with emphasis on process post-processing.
parameters selection, microstructure, mechanical properties, process
challenges, and recent technological developments is presented. This
19
CRediT authorship contribution statement [22] S. Singh, S. kumar Sharma, D.W. Rathod, A review on process planning strategies
and challenges of WAAM, Mater. Today Proc. (2021), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
matpr.2021.02.632.
Bunty Tomar: Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodology, [23] A. Adeyemi, E.T. Akinlabi, R.M. Mahamood, Powder Bed Based Laser Additive
Writing – original draft, Data curation, S. Shiva: Supervision, Visuali Manufacturing Process of Stainless Steel: a Review, Mater. Today Proc. 5 (2018)
zation, Writing – review & editing. Tameshwer Nath: Conceptualiza 18510–18517, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2018.06.193.
[24] J.A. Koepf, M.R. Gotterbarm, M. Markl, C. Körner, 3D multi-layer grain structure
tion, Visualization, Writing – review & editing. simulation of powder bed fusion additive manufacturing, Acta Mater. 152 (2018)
119–126, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2018.04.030.
Declaration of Competing Interest [25] F.F. Conde, J.A. Avila, J.P. Oliveira, N. Schell, M.F. Oliveira, J.D. Escobar, Effect
of the as-built microstructure on the martensite to austenite transformation in a
18Ni maraging steel after laser-based powder bed fusion, Addit. Manuf. 46
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial (2021), 102122, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2021.102122.
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence [26] I. Gibson, D. Rosen, B. Stucker, Powder bed fusion processes, in: Addit. Manuf.
Technol., Springer New York, New York, NY, 2015, pp. 107–145, https://doi.org/
the work reported in this paper 10.1007/978-1-4939-2113-3_5.
[27] B. Bax, R. Rajput, R. Kellet, M. Reisacher, Systematic evaluation of process
References parameter maps for laser cladding and directed energy deposition, Addit. Manuf.
21 (2018) 487–494, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2018.04.002.
[28] T.A. Rodrigues, N. Bairrão, F.W.C. Farias, A. Shamsolhodaei, J. Shen, N. Zhou,
[1] W. Liu, C. Jia, M. Guo, J. Gao, C. Wu, Compulsively constricted WAAM with arc
E. Maawad, N. Schell, T.G. Santos, J.P. Oliveira, Steel-copper functionally graded
plasma and droplets ejected from a narrow space, Addit. Manuf. 27 (2019)
material produced by twin-wire and arc additive manufacturing (T-WAAM),
109–117, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2019.03.003.
Mater. Des. 213 (2022), 110270, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
[2] J.O. Milewski, Additive Manufacturing of Metals, Springer International
matdes.2021.110270.
Publishing, Cham, 2017, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-58205-4.
[29] B. Li, L. Wang, B. Wang, D. Li, J.P. Oliveira, R. Cui, J. Yu, L. Luo, R. Chen, Y. Su,
[3] B. Dutta, F.H. Froes, The additive manufacturing of titanium alloys, in: Addit.
J. Guo, H. Fu, Electron beam freeform fabrication of NiTi shape memory alloys:
Manuf. Titan. Alloy., Elsevier, 2016, pp. 1–10, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-
Crystallography, martensitic transformation, and functional response, Mater. Sci.
12-804782-8.00001-X.
Eng. A. 843 (2022), 143135, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2022.143135.
[4] S.H. Huang, P. Liu, A. Mokasdar, L. Hou, Additive manufacturing and its societal
[30] W.C. Ke, J.P. Oliveira, B.Q. Cong, S.S. Ao, Z.W. Qi, B. Peng, Z. Zeng, Multi-layer
impact: a literature review, Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 67 (2013) 1191–1203,
deposition mechanism in ultra high-frequency pulsed wire arc additive
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-012-4558-5.
manufacturing (WAAM) of NiTi shape memory alloys, Additive Manufacturing
[5] D. Herzog, V. Seyda, E. Wycisk, C. Emmelmann, Additive manufacturing of
Technologies 50 (2022), 102513, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
metals, Acta Mater. 117 (2016) 371–392, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
addma.2021.102513.
actamat.2016.07.019.
[31] I. Gibson, D. Rosen, B. Stucker, Directed Energy Deposition Processes, in: Additive
[6] W.J. Sames, F.A. List, S. Pannala, R.R. Dehoff, S.S. Babu, The metallurgy and
Manufacturing Technologies, Springer New York, New York, NY, 2015,
processing science of metal additive manufacturing, Int. Mater. Rev. 61 (2016)
pp. 245–268, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-2113-3_10.
315–360, https://doi.org/10.1080/09506608.2015.1116649.
[32] B.E. Carroll, R.A. Otis, J.P. Borgonia, J. Suh, R.P. Dillon, A.A. Shapiro, D.
[7] J.P. Oliveira, A.D. LaLonde, J. Ma, Processing parameters in laser powder bed
C. Hofmann, Z.-K. Liu, A.M. Beese, Functionally graded material of 304L stainless
fusion metal additive manufacturing, Mater. Des. 193 (2020), 108762, https://
steel and inconel 625 fabricated by directed energy deposition: characterization
doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2020.108762.
and thermodynamic modeling, Acta Mater. 108 (2016) 46–54, https://doi.org/
[8] J.G. Lopes, C.M. Machado, V.R. Duarte, T.A. Rodrigues, T.G. Santos, J.P. Oliveira,
10.1016/j.actamat.2016.02.019.
Effect of milling parameters on HSLA steel parts produced by Wire and Arc
[33] S. Singh, S. Ramakrishna, R. Singh, Material issues in additive manufacturing: a
Additive Manufacturing (WAAM), J. Manuf. Process. 59 (2020) 739–749, https://
review, J. Manuf. Process. 25 (2017) 185–200, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2020.10.007.
jmapro.2016.11.006.
[9] O. Yilmaz, A.A. Ugla, Shaped metal deposition technique in additive
[34] A. Bhatia, A.K. Sehgal, Additive manufacturing materials, methods and
manufacturing: a review, Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part B J. Eng. Manuf. 230 (2016)
applications: a review, Mater. Today Proc. (2021), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
1781–1798, https://doi.org/10.1177/0954405416640181.
matpr.2021.04.379.
[10] T. DebRoy, H.L. Wei, J.S. Zuback, T. Mukherjee, J.W. Elmer, J.O. Milewski, A.
[35] B. Zheng, Y. Zhou, J.E. Smugeresky, J.M. Schoenung, E.J. Lavernia, Thermal
M. Beese, A. Wilson-Heid, A. De, W. Zhang, Additive manufacturing of metallic
behavior and microstructural evolution during laser deposition with laser-
components – process, structure and properties, Prog. Mater. Sci. 92 (2018)
engineered net shaping: Part I. Numerical calculations, Metall. Mater. Trans. A
112–224, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmatsci.2017.10.001.
Phys. Metall. Mater. Sci. 39 (2008) 2228–2236, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11661-
[11] F. Khodabakhshi, M.H. Farshidianfar, A.P. Gerlich, M. Nosko, V. Trembošová,
008-9557-7.
A. Khajepour, Effects of laser additive manufacturing on microstructure and
[36] Y. Zhu, J. Zou, H. Yang, Wear performance of metal parts fabricated by selective
crystallographic texture of austenitic and martensitic stainless steels, Addit.
laser melting: a literature review, J. Zhejiang Univ. A. 19 (2018) 95–110, https://
Manuf. 31 (2020), 100915, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2019.100915.
doi.org/10.1631/jzus.A1700328.
[12] I. Gibson, D.W. Rosen, B. Stucker, Additive Manufacturing Technologies, Springer
[37] K.N. Amato, S.M. Gaytan, L.E. Murr, E. Martinez, P.W. Shindo, J. Hernandez,
US, Boston, MA, 2010, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-1120-9.
S. Collins, F. Medina, Microstructures and mechanical behavior of Inconel 718
[13] F. Khodabakhshi, A.P. Gerlich, Potentials and strategies of solid-state additive
fabricated by selective laser melting, Acta Mater. 60 (2012) 2229–2239, https://
friction-stir manufacturing technology: a critical review, J. Manuf. Process. 36
doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2011.12.032.
(2018) 77–92, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2018.09.030.
[38] M.M. Kirka, D.A. Greeley, C. Hawkins, R.R. Dehoff, Effect of anisotropy and
[14] N. Li, S. Huang, G. Zhang, R. Qin, W. Liu, H. Xiong, G. Shi, J. Blackburn, Progress
texture on the low cycle fatigue behavior of Inconel 718 processed via electron
in additive manufacturing on new materials: a review, J. Mater. Sci. Technol. 35
beam melting, Int. J. Fatigue 105 (2017) 235–243, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
(2019) 242–269, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmst.2018.09.002.
ijfatigue.2017.08.021.
[15] T.D. Ngo, A. Kashani, G. Imbalzano, K.T.Q. Nguyen, D. Hui, Additive
[39] D. Li, H. Huang, C. Chen, S. Liu, X. Liu, X. Zhang, K. Zhou, Additive
manufacturing (3D printing): a review of materials, methods, applications and
manufacturing of high strength near β titanium alloy Ti-55511 by engineering
challenges, Compos. Part B Eng. 143 (2018) 172–196, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
nanoscale secondary α laths via in-situ heat treatment, Mater. Sci. Eng. A. 814
compositesb.2018.02.012.
(2021), 141245, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2021.141245.
[16] ASTM F2792–12a, Standard Terminology for Additive Manufacturing
[40] T.M. Butler, C.A. Brice, W.A. Tayon, S.L. Semiatin, A.L. Pilchak, Evolution of
Technologies, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, (2012).
texture from a single crystal Ti-6Al-4V substrate during electron beam directed
[17] I. Gibson, D. Rosen, B. Stucker, Additive Manufacturing Technologies, Springer
energy deposition, Metall. Mater. Trans. A. 48 (2017) 4441–4446, https://doi.
New York, New York, NY, 2015, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-2113-3.
org/10.1007/s11661-017-4219-2.
[18] F. Khodabakhshi, L.H. Shah, A.P. Gerlich, Dissimilar laser welding of an AA6022-
[41] F. Calignano, Design optimization of supports for overhanging structures in
AZ31 lap-joint by using Ni-interlayer: novel beam-wobbling technique,
aluminum and titanium alloys by selective laser melting, Mater. Des. 64 (2014)
processing parameters, and metallurgical characterization, Opt. Laser Technol.
203–213, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2014.07.043.
112 (2019) 349–362, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optlastec.2018.11.034.
[42] C.-T. Nguyen, J. Romero, A. Ambard, M. Preuss, J. Quinta da Fonseca, The effect
[19] L.H. Shah, F. Khodabakhshi, A. Gerlich, Effect of beam wobbling on laser welding
of cold work on the transformation kinetics and texture of a zirconium alloy
of aluminum and magnesium alloy with nickel interlayer, J. Manuf. Process. 37
during fast thermal cycling, Mater. Sci. Eng. A. 746 (2019) 424–433, https://doi.
(2019) 212–219, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2018.11.028.
org/10.1016/j.msea.2019.01.047.
[20] F. Khodabakhshi, M.H. Farshidianfar, S. Bakhshivash, A.P. Gerlich, A. Khajepour,
[43] B. Ralph, Method of making decorative articles. United States, US1533300A.
Dissimilar metals deposition by directed energy based on powder-fed laser
Filed Nov. 12, 1920, Granted April 14, 1925., n.d.
additive manufacturing, J. Manuf. Process. 43 (2019) 83–97, https://doi.org/
[44] M.A. Jackson, A. Van Asten, J.D. Morrow, S. Min, F.E. Pfefferkorn, A Comparison
10.1016/j.jmapro.2019.05.018.
of energy consumption in wire-based and powder-based additive-subtractive
[21] K.P. Karunakaran, A. Bernard, S. Suryakumar, L. Dembinski, G. Taillandier, Rapid
manufacturing, Procedia Manuf. 5 (2016) 989–1005, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
manufacturing of metallic objects, Rapid Prototyp. J. 18 (2012) 264–280, https://
promfg.2016.08.087.
doi.org/10.1108/13552541211231644.
[45] Baumers M., Tuck C., Hague R., Ashcroft I., Wildman R., A comparative study of
metallic additive manufacturing power consumption, 21st Annual International
20
Solid Freeform Fabrication Symposium - An Additive Manufacturing Conference. wire-and-arc-based additive manufacturing, Addit. Manuf. 24 (2018) 498–507,
SFF, University of Texas at, (n.d.). https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.26153/ https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2018.10.026.
tsw/15198. [72] T. Wang, Y. Zhang, Z. Wu, C. Shi, Microstructure and properties of die steel
[46] J.L. Leirmo, I. Baturynska, Challenges and proposed solutions for aluminium in fabricated by WAAM using H13 wire, Vacuum 149 (2018) 185–189, https://doi.
laser powder bed fusion, Procedia CIRP 93 (2020) 114–119, https://doi.org/ org/10.1016/j.vacuum.2017.12.034.
10.1016/j.procir.2020.03.090. [73] D. Ding, Z. Pan, S. van Duin, H. Li, C. Shen, Fabricating superior NiAl bronze
[47] D.D. Gu, W. Meiners, K. Wissenbach, R. Poprawe, Laser additive manufacturing of components through wire arc additive manufacturing, Materials 9 (2016) 652,
metallic components: materials, processes and mechanisms, Int. Mater. Rev. 57 https://doi.org/10.3390/ma9080652.
(2012) 133–164, https://doi.org/10.1179/1743280411Y.0000000014. [74] T. He, S. Yu, Y. Shi, A. Huang, Forming and mechanical properties of wire arc
[48] J. Guo, Y. Zhou, C. Liu, Q. Wu, X. Chen, J. Lu, Wire arc additive manufacturing of additive manufacture for marine propeller bracket, J. Manuf. Process. 52 (2020)
AZ31 magnesium alloy: grain refinement by adjusting pulse frequency, Materials 96–105, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2020.01.053.
9 (2016) 823, https://doi.org/10.3390/ma9100823. [75] T.A. Rodrigues, V. Duarte, J.A. Avila, T.G. Santos, R.M. Miranda, J.P. Oliveira,
[49] H.P. Tang, M. Qian, N. Liu, X.Z. Zhang, G.Y. Yang, J. Wang, Effect of powder Wire and arc additive manufacturing of HSLA steel: effect of thermal cycles on
reuse times on additive manufacturing of Ti-6Al-4V by selective electron beam microstructure and mechanical properties, Addit. Manuf. 27 (2019) 440–450,
melting, JOM 67 (2015) 555–563, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11837-015-1300-4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2019.03.029.
[50] P. Moghimian, T. Poirié, M. Habibnejad-Korayem, J.A. Zavala, J. Kroeger, [76] S.W. Williams, F. Martina, A.C. Addison, J. Ding, G. Pardal, P. Colegrove, Wire +
F. Marion, F. Larouche, Metal powders in additive manufacturing: A review on arc additive manufacturing, Mater. Sci. Technol. 32 (2016) 641–647, https://doi.
reusability and recyclability of common titanium, nickel and aluminum alloys, org/10.1179/1743284715Y.0000000073.
Addit. Manuf. 43 (2021), 102017, https://doi.org/10.1016/j. [77] J. Gu, J. Ding, S.W. Williams, H. Gu, J. Bai, Y. Zhai, P. Ma, The strengthening
addma.2021.102017. effect of inter-layer cold working and post-deposition heat treatment on the
[51] F. Martina, S. Williams, Wire+ Arc Additive Manufacturing vs. Traditional additively manufactured Al–6.3Cu alloy, Mater. Sci. Eng. A. 651 (2016) 18–26,
Machining from Solid: A Cost Comparison. , 2015 Cranfield University., (n.d.). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2015.10.101.
[52] C.R. Cunningham, J.M. Flynn, A. Shokrani, V. Dhokia, S.T. Newman, Invited [78] W. Rosie, F. Beck, New stainless steel without nickel or chromium for marine
review article: Strategies and processes for high quality wire arc additive applications, Met. Prog. 123 (4) (1972) 74–76 (n.d.).
manufacturing, Addit. Manuf. 22 (2018) 672–686, https://doi.org/10.1016/j. [79] C. Shen, Z. Pan, D. Cuiuri, J. Roberts, H. Li, Fabrication of Fe-FeAl functionally
addma.2018.06.020. graded material using the wire-arc additive manufacturing process, Metall. Mater.
[53] S. Pattanayak, S.K. Sahoo, Gas metal arc welding based additive Trans. B. 47 (2016) 763–772, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11663-015-0509-5.
manufacturing—a review, CIRP J. Manuf. Sci. Technol. 33 (2021) 398–442, [80] Y. Zhou, G. Qin, L. Li, X. Lu, R. Jing, X. Xing, Q. Yang, Formability, microstructure
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cirpj.2021.04.010. and mechanical properties of Ti-6Al-4V deposited by wire and arc additive
[54] P. Dickens, M. Pridham, R. Cobb, I. Gibson, G. Dixon, Rapid prototyping using 3- manufacturing with different deposition paths, Mater. Sci. Eng. A. 772 (2020),
D welding, in DTIC Document, (1992). https://doi.org/http://hdl.handle.net/ 138654, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2019.138654.
2152/64409. [81] B. Wu, Z. Pan, S. Li, D. Cuiuri, D. Ding, H. Li, The anisotropic corrosion behaviour
[55] J.D. Spencer, P.M. Dickens, C.M. Wykes, Rapid prototyping of metal parts by of wire arc additive manufactured Ti-6Al-4V alloy in 3.5% NaCl solution, Corros.
three-dimensional welding, Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part B J. Eng. Manuf. 212 Sci. 137 (2018) 176–183, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.corsci.2018.03.047.
(1998) 175–182, https://doi.org/10.1243/0954405981515590. [82] X. Bai, P. Colegrove, J. Ding, X. Zhou, C. Diao, P. Bridgeman, J. roman Hönnige,
[56] Z. Pan, D. Ding, B. Wu, D. Cuiuri, H. Li, J. Norrish, Arc Welding Processes for H. Zhang, S. Williams, Numerical analysis of heat transfer and fluid flow in
Additive Manufacturing: A Review, in: 2018: pp. 3–24. https://doi.org/10.1007/ multilayer deposition of PAW-based wire and arc additive manufacturing, Int. J.
978–981-10–5355-9_1. Heat. Mass Transf. 124 (2018) 504–516, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
[57] H. Nagamatsu, H. Sasahara, Y. Mitsutake, T. Hamamoto, Development of a ijheatmasstransfer.2018.03.085.
cooperative system for wire and arc additive manufacturing and machining, [83] D. Ding, Z. Pan, D. Cuiuri, H. Li, A practical path planning methodology for wire
Addit. Manuf. 31 (2020), 100896, https://doi.org/10.1016/j. and arc additive manufacturing of thin-walled structures, Robot. Comput. Integr.
addma.2019.100896. Manuf. 34 (2015) 8–19, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rcim.2015.01.003.
[58] S. Zhang, Y. Zhang, M. Gao, F. Wang, Q. Li, X. Zeng, Effects of milling thickness [84] Z. Pan, D. Ding, B. Wu, D. Cuiuri, H. Li, J. Norrish, Arc welding processes for
on wire deposition accuracy of hybrid additive/subtractive manufacturing, Sci. additive manufacturing: a review, Trans. Intell. Weld. Manuf. (2018) 3–24,
Technol. Weld. Join. 24 (2019) 375–381, https://doi.org/10.1080/ https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-5355-9_1.
13621718.2019.1595925. [85] P. Singh, D. Dutta, Multi-direction slicing for layered manufacturing, J. Comput.
[59] J. Shi, F. Li, S. Chen, Y. Zhao, H. Tian, Effect of in-process active cooling on Inf. Sci. Eng. 1 (2001) 129–142, https://doi.org/10.1115/1.1375816.
forming quality and efficiency of tandem GMAW–based additive manufacturing, [86] D. Jafari, T.H.J. Vaneker, I. Gibson, Wire and arc additive manufacturing:
Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 101 (2019) 1349–1356, https://doi.org/10.1007/ opportunities and challenges to control the quality and accuracy of manufactured
s00170-018-2927-4. parts, Mater. Des. 202 (2021), 109471, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
[60] Y. Wang, X. Chen, S.V. Konovalov, Additive manufacturing based on welding arc: matdes.2021.109471.
a low-cost method, J. Surf. Investig. X-Ray, Synchrotron Neutron Tech. 11 (2017) [87] M.R. Dunlavey, Efficient polygon-filling algorithms for raster displays, ACM
1317–1328, https://doi.org/10.1134/S1027451017060210. Trans. Graph. 2 (1983) 264–273, https://doi.org/10.1145/245.248.
[61] D. Ding, Z. Pan, D. Cuiuri, H. Li, Wire-feed additive manufacturing of metal [88] S.C. Park, B.K. Choi, Tool-path planning for direction-parallel area milling,
components: technologies, developments and future interests, Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Comput. Des. 32 (2000) 17–25, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0010-4485(99)00080-
Technol. 81 (2015) 465–481, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-015-7077-3. 9.
[62] M. Sathishkumar, M. Manikandan, Preclusion of carbide precipitates in the [89] V.T. Rajan, V. Srinivasan, K.A. Tarabanis, The optimal zigzag direction for filling
Hastelloy X weldment using the current pulsing technique, J. Manuf. Process. 45 a two-dimensional region, Rapid Prototyp. J. 7 (2001) 231–241, https://doi.org/
(2019) 9–21, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2019.06.027. 10.1108/13552540110410431.
[63] T. Artaza, A. Suárez, F. Veiga, I. Braceras, I. Tabernero, O. Larrañaga, A. Lamikiz, [90] D. Ding, Z. Pan, D. Cuiuri, H. Li, S. van Duin, Advanced design for additive
Wire arc additive manufacturing Ti6Al4V aeronautical parts using plasma arc manufacturing: 3D slicing and 2D path planning, in: I.V. Shishkovsky (Ed.), New
welding: Analysis of heat-treatment processes in different atmospheres, J. Mater. Trends 3D Print, InTech, 2016, https://doi.org/10.5772/63042.
Res. Technol. 9 (2020) 15454–15466, https://doi.org/10.1016/j. [91] G.Q. Jin, W.D. Li, L. Gao, An adaptive process planning approach of rapid
jmrt.2020.11.012. prototyping and manufacturing, Robot. Comput. Integr. Manuf. 29 (2013) 23–38,
[64] J.P.A.L.G. Bölmsjo, Welding Robots, Springer-Verlag, London, 2006, https://doi. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rcim.2012.07.001.
org/10.1007/1-84628-191-1. [92] D. Ding, Z. Pan, D. Cuiuri, H. Li, A multi-bead overlapping model for robotic wire
[65] S. Suryakumar, K.P. Karunakaran, A. Bernard, U. Chandrasekhar, and arc additive manufacturing (WAAM), Robot. Comput. Integr. Manuf. 31
N. Raghavender, D. Sharma, Weld bead modeling and process optimization in (2015) 101–110, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rcim.2014.08.008.
hybrid layered manufacturing, Comput. Des. 43 (2011) 331–344, https://doi. [93] J.-H. Kao, F.B. Prinz, Optimal Motion Planning for Deposition in Layered
org/10.1016/j.cad.2011.01.006. Manufacturing, in: Vol. 6 18th Comput. Eng. Conf., American Society of
[66] B. Wu, Z. Pan, D. Ding, D. Cuiuri, H. Li, J. Xu, J. Norrish, A review of the wire arc Mechanical Engineers, 1998. https://doi.org/10.1115/DETC98/CIE-5699.
additive manufacturing of metals: properties, defects and quality improvement, [94] F. Ren, Y. Sun, D. Guo, Combined reparameterization-based spiral toolpath
J. Manuf. Process. 35 (2018) 127–139, https://doi.org/10.1016/j. generation for five-axis sculptured surface machining, Int. J. Adv. Manuf.
jmapro.2018.08.001. Technol. 40 (2009) 760–768, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-008-1385-9.
[67] S. Kou, Welding Metallurgy, John Wiley & Sons, Inc, Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2002, [95] Y. Zhang, Y. Chen, P. Li, A.T. Male, Weld deposition-based rapid prototyping: a
https://doi.org/10.1002/0471434027. preliminary study, J. Mater. Process. Technol. 135 (2003) 347–357, https://doi.
[68] J. Hirsch, Automotive trends in aluminium - the European perspective, Mater. org/10.1016/S0924-0136(02)00867-1.
Forum 28 (1) (2004) (n.d.). [96] G.K. Ahiale, Y.-J. Oh, W.-D. Choi, K.-B. Lee, J.-G. Jung, S.W. Nam, Microstructure
[69] J. Hirsch, Recent development in aluminium for automotive applications, Trans. and fatigue resistance of high strength dual phase steel welded with gas metal arc
Nonferrous Met. Soc. China 24 (2014) 1995–2002, https://doi.org/10.1016/ welding and plasma arc welding processes, Met. Mater. Int. 19 (2013) 933–939,
S1003-6326(14)63305-7. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12540-013-5005-3.
[70] Y. Li, Q. Han, I. Horváth, G. Zhang, Repairing surface defects of metal parts by [97] T. Artaza, A. Suárez, M. Murua, J.C. García, I. Tabernero, A. Lamikiz, Wire arc
groove machining and wire + arc based filling, J. Mater. Process. Technol. 274 additive manufacturing of Mn4Ni2CrMo steel: comparison of mechanical and
(2019), 116268, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2019.116268. metallographic properties of PAW and GMAW, Procedia Manuf. 41 (2019)
[71] H. Takagi, H. Sasahara, T. Abe, H. Sannomiya, S. Nishiyama, S. Ohta, 1071–1078, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.promfg.2019.10.035.
K. Nakamura, Material-property evaluation of magnesium alloys fabricated using
21
[98] ASTM F3187–16, Standard Guide for Directed Energy Deposition of Metals, trace boron additions, Acta Mater. 91 (2015) 289–303, https://doi.org/10.1016/
ASTM International. West Conshohocken, PA, (2016) 1–22, (n.d.). https://doi. j.actamat.2015.03.035.
org/10.1520/F3187–16. [124] R. Chen, C. Tan, Y. Yu, M. Zhang, X. Yu, C. Liu, W. Ye, S. Hui, Y. Jiang,
[99] Q. Wu, J. Lu, C. Liu, X. Shi, Q. Ma, S. Tang, H. Fan, S. Ma, Obtaining uniform Modification of α-phase of wire + arc additive manufactured Ti-6Al-4 V alloy
deposition with variable wire feeding direction during wire-feed additive with boron addition, Mater. Charact. 169 (2020), 110616, https://doi.org/
manufacturing, Mater. Manuf. Process. 32 (2017) 1881–1886, https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.matchar.2020.110616.
10.1080/10426914.2017.1364860. [125] M.J. Bermingham, D.H. StJohn, J. Krynen, S. Tedman-Jones, M.S. Dargusch,
[100] B. Wu, D. Ding, Z. Pan, D. Cuiuri, H. Li, J. Han, Z. Fei, Effects of heat Promoting the columnar to equiaxed transition and grain refinement of titanium
accumulation on the arc characteristics and metal transfer behavior in Wire Arc alloys during additive manufacturing, Acta Mater. 168 (2019) 261–274, https://
Additive Manufacturing of Ti6Al4V, J. Mater. Process. Technol. 250 (2017) doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2019.02.020.
304–312, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2017.07.037. [126] Y. Chen, C. Yang, C. Fan, Y. Zhuo, S. Lin, C. Chen, Grain refinement of additive
[101] P. Wang, H. Zhang, H. Zhu, Q. Li, M. Feng, Wire-arc additive manufacturing of manufactured Ti-6.5Al-3.5Mo-1.5Zr-0.3Si titanium alloy by the addition of
AZ31 magnesium alloy fabricated by cold metal transfer heat source: Processing, La2O3, Mater. Lett. 275 (2020), 128170, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
microstructure, and mechanical behavior, J. Mater. Process. Technol. 288 (2021), matlet.2020.128170.
116895, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2020.116895. [127] F. Yan, W. Xiong, E. Faierson, Grain structure control of additively manufactured
[102] K. Pal, S.K. Pal, Effect of pulse parameters on weld quality in pulsed gas metal arc metallic materials, Mater. (Basel) 10 (2017) 1260, https://doi.org/10.3390/
welding: a review, J. Mater. Eng. Perform. 20 (2011) 918–931, https://doi.org/ ma10111260.
10.1007/s11665-010-9717-y. [128] F.H. Froes, M. Whittaker, Titanium and its alloys, in: Encycl. Mater. Met. Allloys,
[103] J. Xiong, G. Zhang, W. Zhang, Forming appearance analysis in multi-layer single- Elsevier, 2022, pp. 287–293, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-819726-
pass GMAW-based additive manufacturing, Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 80 4.00066-1.
(2015) 1767–1776, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-015-7112-4. [129] E. Brandl, A. Schoberth, C. Leyens, Morphology, microstructure, and hardness of
[104] F. Li, S. Chen, J. Shi, Y. Zhao, H. Tian, Thermoelectric cooling-aided bead titanium (Ti-6Al-4V) blocks deposited by wire-feed additive layer manufacturing
geometry regulation in wire and arc-based additive manufacturing of thin-walled (ALM), Mater. Sci. Eng. A. 532 (2012) 295–307, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
structures, Appl. Sci. 8 (2018) 207, https://doi.org/10.3390/app8020207. msea.2011.10.095.
[105] G.K. Mohanta, A.K. Senapati, The effect of welding parameters on mild steel by [130] B. Wu, Z. Pan, D. Ding, D. Cuiuri, H. Li, Effects of heat accumulation on
MMAW, IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng. 410 (2018), 012015, https://doi.org/ microstructure and mechanical properties of Ti6Al4V alloy deposited by wire arc
10.1088/1757-899X/410/1/012015. additive manufacturing, Addit. Manuf. 23 (2018) 151–160, https://doi.org/
[106] S.P. Tewari, A. Gupta, J. Prakash, Effect of welding parameters on the weldability 10.1016/j.addma.2018.08.004.
of material, Int. J. Eng. Sci. Technol. 2 (4) (2010) 512–516. [131] R. Kolli, A. Devaraj, A Review of Metastable Beta Titanium Alloys, Metals 8
[107] AG Ortega, LC Galvan, S. Rouquette, FD Beaume, Effect of welding parameters on (2018) 506, https://doi.org/10.3390/met8070506.
the quality of multilayer deposition of aluminum alloy Advances in Materials & [132] K.S. Al-Rubaie, S. Melotti, A. Rabelo, J.M. Paiva, M.A. Elbestawi, S.C. Veldhuis,
Processing Technologies Conference. (2017) Vellore, India, (n.d.). https://doi. Machinability of SLM-produced Ti6Al4V titanium alloy parts, J. Manuf. Process.
org/https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01909063. 57 (2020) 768–786, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2020.07.035.
[108] J.F. Lancaster. Metallurgy of welding, fourth ed., Elsevier,, 1987. [133] M.S. Dargusch, G. Wang, D. Kent, M. Bermingham, J. Venezuela, J.E. Frith, Z. Yu,
[109] X. Xu, S. Ganguly, J. Ding, S. Guo, S. Williams, F. Martina, Microstructural S. Yu, Z. Shi, Comparison of the microstructure and biocorrosion properties of
evolution and mechanical properties of maraging steel produced by wire + arc additively manufactured and conventionally fabricated near β
additive manufacture process, Mater. Charact. 143 (2018) 152–162, https://doi. Ti–25Nb–3Zr–3Mo–2Sn Alloy, ACS Biomater. Sci. Eng. 5 (2019) 5844–5856,
org/10.1016/j.matchar.2017.12.002. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsbiomaterials.9b00596.
[110] X. Xu, J. Ding, S. Ganguly, C. Diao, S. Williams, Oxide accumulation effects on [134] H. Zhu, Z. Wang, O. Muránsky, J. Davis, S. Yu, D. Kent, G. Wang, M.S. Dargusch,
wire + arc layer-by-layer additive manufacture process, J. Mater. Process. The characterisation and formation of novel microstructural features in a
Technol. 252 (2018) 739–750, https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Ti− Nb− Zr− Mo− Sn alloy manufactured by laser engineered net shaping (LENS),
jmatprotec.2017.10.030. Addit. Manuf. 37 (2021), 101705, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
[111] J. Ding, P. Colegrove, F. Martina, S. Williams, R. Wiktorowicz, M.R. Palt, addma.2020.101705.
Development of a laminar flow local shielding device for wire + arc additive [135] C.H. Ng, M.J. Bermingham, D. Kent, M.S. Dargusch, High stability and high
manufacture, J. Mater. Process. Technol. 226 (2015) 99–105, https://doi.org/ strength β-titanium alloys for additive manufacturing, Mater. Sci. Eng. A. 816
10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2015.07.005. (2021), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2021.141326.
[112] P.J. Modenesi, J.H. Nixon, Arc instability phenomena in GMA welding, Weld. J. [136] P. Schmidt, A. El-Chaikh, H.J. Christ, Effect of duplex aging on the initiation and
Incl. Weld. Res. Suppl. 73 (9) (1994) 219–224. propagation of fatigue cracks in the solute-rich metastable β titanium alloy Ti 38-
[113] C. Matz, G. Wilhelm, Improved arc stability in aluminium welding by oxygen 644, Metall. Mater. Trans. A Phys. Metall. Mater. Sci. 42 (2011) 2652–2667,
doping of inert shielding gas, Weld. Int. 26 (2012) 335–338, https://doi.org/ https://doi.org/10.1007/s11661-011-0662-7.
10.1080/09507116.2011.581341. [137] T.M. Pollock, S. Tin, Nickel-based superalloys for advanced turbine engines:
[114] PL Miller, KA Lyttle, JB Neff, DA Steyer, KG Pierce, Welding gas composition and chemistry, microstructure and properties, J. Propuls. Power 22 (2006) 361–374,
method for use. (2015) US PATENT 2015/0165565 A1, (n.d.). https://doi.org/10.2514/1.18239.
[115] L.J. da Silva, F.M. Scotti, D.B. Fernandes, R.P. Reis, A. Scotti, Effect of O2 content [138] V. Dhinakaran, J. Ajith, A. Fathima Yasin Fahmidha, T. Jagadeesha, T. Sathish,
in argon-based shielding gas on arc wandering in WAAM of aluminum thin walls, B. Stalin, Wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) process of nickel based
CIRP J. Manuf. Sci. Technol. 32 (2021) 338–345, https://doi.org/10.1016/j. superalloys – a review, Mater. Today Proc. 21 (2020) 920–925, https://doi.org/
cirpj.2021.01.018. 10.1016/j.matpr.2019.08.159.
[116] Almeida PS, Williams S., Innovative process model of Ti–6Al–4V additive layer [139] B. Baufeld, Mechanical properties of INCONEL 718 parts manufactured by shaped
manufacturing using cold metal transfer (CMT). In Proceedings of the twenty-first metal deposition (SMD), J. Mater. Eng. Perform. 21 (2012) 1416–1421, https://
annual international solid freeform fabrication symposium. (2010) University of doi.org/10.1007/s11665-011-0009-y.
Texas at Austin, (n.d.). [140] L.N. Zhang, O.A. Ojo, Corrosion behavior of wire arc additive manufactured
[117] Q. Wu, J. Lu, C. Liu, H. Fan, X. Shi, J. Fu, S. Ma, Effect of molten pool size on Inconel 718 superalloy, J. Alloy. Compd. 829 (2020), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
microstructure and tensile properties of wire arc additive manufacturing of Ti- jallcom.2020.154455.
6Al-4V Alloy, Mater. (Basel) 10 (2017) 749, https://doi.org/10.3390/ [141] R.M. Kindermann, M.J. Roy, R. Morana, P.B. Prangnell, Process response of
ma10070749. Inconel 718 to wire + arc additive manufacturing with cold metal transfer, Mater.
[118] S. Wang, H. Gu, W. Wang, C. Li, L. Ren, Z. Wang, Y. Zhai, P. Ma, Study on Des. 195 (2020), 109031, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2020.109031.
microstructural and mechanical properties of an Al-Cu-Sn alloy wall deposited by [142] K.M. Chang, X. Liu, Effect of content on the mechanincal behavior of the
double-wire arc additive manufacturing process, Mater. (Basel) 13 (2020), WASPALOY alloy system, Mater. Sci. Eng. A. 308 (2001) 1–8, https://doi.org/
https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13010073. 10.1016/S0921-5093(00)02042-6.
[119] L. Wang, Y. Zhang, X. Hua, C. Shen, F. Li, Y. Huang, Y. Ding, Fabrication of γ-TiAl [143] W. Yangfan, C. Xizhang, S. Chuanchu, Microstructure and mechanical properties
intermetallic alloy using the twin-wire plasma arc additive manufacturing of Inconel 625 fabricated by wire-arc additive manufacturing, Surf. Coat.
process: Microstructure evolution and mechanical properties, Mater. Sci. Eng. A. Technol. 374 (2019) 116–123, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.surfcoat.2019.05.079.
812 (2021), 141056, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2021.141056. [144] F. Xu, Y. Lv, Y. Liu, F. Shu, P. He, B. Xu, Microstructural evolution and mechanical
[120] C. Shen, Z. Pan, Y. Ma, D. Cuiuri, H. Li, Fabrication of iron-rich Fe–Al properties of inconel 625 alloy during pulsed plasma arc deposition process,
intermetallics using the wire-arc additive manufacturing process, Addit. Manuf. 7 J. Mater. Sci. Technol. 29 (2013) 480–488, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
(2015) 20–26, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2015.06.001. jmst.2013.02.010.
[121] V.I. Murav’ev, R.F. Krupskii, R.A. Fizulakov, P.G. Demyshev, Effect of the quality [145] A. Safarzade, M. Sharifitabar, M. Shafiee Afarani, Effects of heat treatment on
of filler wire on the formation of pores in welding of titanium alloys, Weld. Int. 22 microstructure and mechanical properties of Inconel 625 alloy fabricated by wire
(2008) 853–858, https://doi.org/10.1080/09507110802650610. arc additive manufacturing process, Trans. Nonferrous Met. Soc. China 30 (2020)
[122] J.R. Kennedy, A.E. Davis, A.E. Caballero, S. Williams, E.J. Pickering, P. 3016–3030, https://doi.org/10.1016/S1003-6326(20)65439-5.
B. Prangnell, The potential for grain refinement of Wire-Arc Additive [146] J. Rams, Wrought Aluminum Alloys, in: Encycl. Mater. Met. Allloys, Elsevier,
Manufactured (WAAM) Ti-6Al-4V by ZrN and TiN inoculation, Addit. Manuf. 40 2022, pp. 132–140, https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-819726-4.00083-1.
(2021), 101928, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2021.101928. [147] C. Brice, R. Shenoy, M. Kral, K. Buchannan, Precipitation behavior of aluminum
[123] M.J. Bermingham, D. Kent, H. Zhan, D.H. StJohn, M.S. Dargusch, Controlling the alloy 2139 fabricated using additive manufacturing, Mater. Sci. Eng. A. 648
microstructure and properties of wire arc additive manufactured Ti–6Al–4V with (2015) 9–14, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2015.08.088.
22
[148] M.M. Tawfik, M.M. Nemat-Alla, M.M. Dewidar, Enhancing the properties of [172] A. Busachi, J. Erkoyuncu, P. Colegrove, F. Martina, J. Ding, Designing a WAAM
aluminum alloys fabricated using wire + arc additive manufacturing technique - based manufacturing system for defence applications, in: Procedia CIRP, 2015:
a review, J. Mater. Res. Technol. 13 (2021) 754–768, https://doi.org/10.1016/j. pp. 48–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procir.2015.08.085.
jmrt.2021.04.076. [173] W.J. Sames, F. Medina, W.H. Peter, S.S. Babu, R.R. Dehoff, Effect of process
[149] G. Campatelli, D. Campanella, A. Barcellona, L. Fratini, N. Grossi, G. Ingarao, control and powder quality on inconel 718 produced using electron beam
Microstructural, mechanical and energy demand characterization of alternative melting, in: 8th Int. Symp. Superalloy 718 Deriv. 2014, 2014: pp. 409–423. htt
WAAM techniques for Al-alloy parts production, CIRP J. Manuf. Sci. Technol. 31 ps://doi.org/10.1002/9781119016854.ch32.
(2020) 492–499, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cirpj.2020.08.001. [174] P. Edwards, A. O’Conner, M. Ramulu, Electron beam additive manufacturing of
[150] G. Saad, S.A. Fayek, A. Fawzy, H.N. Soliman, G. Mohammed, Deformation titanium components: properties and performance, J. Manuf. Sci. Eng. Trans.
characteristics of Al-4043 alloy, Mater. Sci. Eng. A. 527 (2010) 904–910, https:// Asme. 135 (2013), https://doi.org/10.1115/1.4025773.
doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2009.09.018. [175] J. Bai , H.L. Ding , J.L. Gu , X.S. Wang , H. Qui , Porosity evolution in additively
[151] V.T. Le, D.S. Mai, T.K. Doan, H. Paris, Wire and arc additive manufacturing of manufactured aluminium alloy during high temperature exposure IOP Conf. Ser.:
308L stainless steel components: optimization of processing parameters and Mater. Sci. Eng. Sanya, China 167 2016 012045.
material properties, Eng. Sci. Technol. Int. J. 24 (2021) 1015–1026, https://doi. [176] K.S. Derekar, A. Addison, S.S. Joshi, X. Zhang, J. Lawrence, L. Xu, G. Melton,
org/10.1016/j.jestch.2021.01.009. D. Griffiths, Effect of pulsed metal inert gas (pulsed-MIG) and cold metal transfer
[152] V. Laghi, L. Tonelli, M. Palermo, M. Bruggi, R. Sola, L. Ceschini, T. Trombetti, (CMT) techniques on hydrogen dissolution in wire arc additive manufacturing
Experimentally-validated orthotropic elastic model for Wire-and-Arc Additively (WAAM) of aluminium, Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 107 (2020) 311–331,
Manufactured stainless steel, Addit. Manuf. 42 (2021), https://doi.org/10.1016/j. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-020-04946-2.
addma.2021.101999. [177] X. Fang, L. Zhang, G. Chen, X. Dang, K. Huang, L. Wang, B. Lu, Correlations
[153] Y. Li, Y. Luo, J. Li, D. Song, B. Xu, X. Chen, Ferrite formation and its effect on between microstructure characteristics and mechanical properties in 5183
deformation mechanism of wire arc additive manufactured 308 L stainless steel, aluminium alloy fabricated by wire-arc additive manufacturing with different arc
J. Nucl. Mater. 550 (2021), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnucmat.2021.152933. modes, Materials 11 (2018), https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11112075.
[154] V. Muthupandi, P. Bala Srinivasan, S.K. Seshadri, S. Sundaresan, Effect of weld [178] E. Aldalur, A. Suárez, F. Veiga, Metal transfer modes for wire arc additive
metal chemistry and heat input on the structure and properties of duplex stainless manufacturing Al-Mg alloys: Influence of heat input in microstructure and
steel welds, Mater. Sci. Eng. A. 358 (2003) 9–16, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0921- porosity, J. Mater. Process. Technol. 297 (2021), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
5093(03)00077-7. jmatprotec.2021.117271.
[155] A. Rajesh Kannan, N. Siva Shanmugam, V. Rajkumar, M. Vishnukumar, Insight [179] DT Austin, The effect of process parameters on laser-deposited TI-6A1–4V,
into the microstructural features and corrosion properties of wire arc additive Dissertation, (2004) University of Louisville, (n.d.). https://doi.org/https://doi.
manufactured super duplex stainless steel (ER2594), Mater. Lett. 270 (2020), org/10.18297/etd/319.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matlet.2020.127680. [180] Y. Zhong, Z. Zheng, J. Li, C. Wang, Fabrication of 316L nuclear nozzles on the
[156] B. Mordike, T. Ebert, Magnesium, Mater. Sci. Eng. A. 302 (2001) 37–45, https:// main pipeline with large curvature by CMT wire arc additive manufacturing and
doi.org/10.1016/S0921-5093(00)01351-4. self-developed slicing algorithm, Mater. Sci. Eng. A. 820 (2021), 141539, https://
[157] L. Zheng, H. Nie, W. Liang, H. Wang, Y. Wang, Effect of pre-homogenizing doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2021.141539.
treatment on microstructure and mechanical properties of hot-rolled AZ91 [181] S.A. David, S.S. Babu, J.M. Vitek, Welding: Solidification and microstructure,
magnesium alloys, J. Magnes. Alloy. 4 (2016) 115–122, https://doi.org/10.1016/ JOM 55 (2003) 14–20, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11837-003-0134-7.
j.jma.2016.04.002. [182] C.E. Seow, J. Zhang, H.E. Coules, G. Wu, C. Jones, J. Ding, S. Williams, Effect of
[158] S.W. Xu, N. Matsumoto, S. Kamado, T. Honma, Y. Kojima, Effect of Mg17Al12 crack-like defects on the fracture behaviour of Wire + arc additively
precipitates on the microstructural changes and mechanical properties of hot manufactured nickel-base Alloy 718, Addit. Manuf. 36 (2020), https://doi.org/
compressed AZ91 magnesium alloy, Mater. Sci. Eng. A. 523 (2009) 47–52, 10.1016/j.addma.2020.101578.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2009.05.032. [183] C. Zhang, F. Chen, Z. Huang, M. Jia, G. Chen, Y. Ye, Y. Lin, W. Liu, B. Chen,
[159] S. Celotto, TEM study of continuous precipitation in Mg–9 wt%Al–1 wt%Zn alloy, Q. Shen, L. Zhang, E.J. Lavernia, Additive manufacturing of functionally graded
Acta Mater. 48 (2000) 1775–1787, https://doi.org/10.1016/S1359-6454(00) materials: a review, Mater. Sci. Eng. A. 764 (2019), 138209, https://doi.org/
00004-5. 10.1016/j.msea.2019.138209.
[160] J. Bi, J. Shen, S. Hu, Y. Zhen, F. Yin, X. Bu, Microstructure and mechanical [184] P.J. Withers, Residual stress and its role in failure, Rep. Prog. Phys. 70 (2007)
properties of AZ91 Mg alloy fabricated by cold metal transfer additive 2211–2264, https://doi.org/10.1088/0034-4885/70/12/R04.
manufacturing, Mater. Lett. 276 (2020), 128185, https://doi.org/10.1016/j. [185] C. Xia, Z. Pan, J. Polden, H. Li, Y. Xu, S. Chen, Y. Zhang, A review on wire arc
matlet.2020.128185. additive manufacturing: monitoring, control and a framework of automated
[161] X. Yang, J. Liu, Z. Wang, X. Lin, F. Liu, W. Huang, E. Liang, Microstructure and system, J. Manuf. Syst. 57 (2020) 31–45, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
mechanical properties of wire and arc additive manufactured AZ31 magnesium jmsy.2020.08.008.
alloy using cold metal transfer process, Mater. Sci. Eng. A. 774 (2020), 138942, [186] A. Ramalho, T.G. Santos, B. Bevans, Z. Smoqi, P. Rao, J.P. Oliveira, Effect of
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2020.138942. contaminations on the acoustic emissions during wire and arc additive
[162] Y. Wang, X. Chen, S. Konovalov, C. Su, A.N. Siddiquee, N. Gangil, In-situ wire- manufacturing of 316L stainless steel, Addit. Manuf. 51 (2022), 102585, https://
feed additive manufacturing of Cu-Al alloy by addition of silicon, Appl. Surf. Sci. doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2021.102585.
487 (2019) 1366–1375, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2019.05.068. [187] S.R. Singh, P. Khanna, Wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM): a new process
[163] G.P. Rajeev, M.R. Rahul, M. Kamaraj, S.R. Bakshi, Microstructure and high to shape engineering materials, Mater. Today Proc. (2021) 118–128, https://doi.
temperature mechanical properties of wire arc additively deposited Stellite 6 org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.08.030.
alloy, Materialia 12 (2020), 100724, https://doi.org/10.1016/j. [188] J.A. Spittle, Columnar to equiaxed grain transition in as solidified alloys, Int.
mtla.2020.100724. Mater. Rev. 51 (2006) 247–269, https://doi.org/10.1179/174328006X102493.
[164] L. Yu, K. Chen, Y. Zhang, J. Liu, L. Yang, Y. Shi, Microstructures and mechanical [189] B. Lan, Y. Wang, Y. Liu, P. Hooper, C. Hopper, G. Zhang, X. Zhang, J. Jiang, The
properties of NiTi shape memory alloys fabricated by wire arc additive influence of microstructural anisotropy on the hot deformation of wire arc
manufacturing, J. Alloy. Compd. 892 (2022), 162193, https://doi.org/10.1016/j. additive manufactured (WAAM) Inconel 718, Mater. Sci. Eng. A. 823 (2021),
jallcom.2021.162193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2021.141733.
[165] T.S. Senthil, S. Ramesh Babu, M. Puviyarasan, V. Dhinakaran, Mechanical and [190] R.C. Reed, Reed The superalloys: fundamentals and applications. The Superalloys:
microstructural characterization of functionally graded Inconel 825 - SS316L Fundamentals And Applications, Cambridge University Press, 2008, pp. 18–25.
fabricated using wire arc additive manufacturing, J. Mater. Res. Technol. 15 [191] L.E. Murr, Examples of Directional Crystal Structures: Gas-Turbine Component
(2021) 661–669, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2021.08.060. Applications in Superalloys, in: Handb. Mater. Struct. Prop. Process. Perform.,
[166] J. Ding, P. Colegrove, J. Mehnen, S. Ganguly, P.M.S. Almeida, F. Wang, 2015: pp. 375–401. https://doi.org/10.1007/978–3-319–01815-7_22.
S. Williams, Thermo-mechanical analysis of wire and arc additive layer [192] L. Sun, F. Jiang, R. Huang, D. Yuan, C. Guo, J. Wang, Anisotropic mechanical
manufacturing process on large multi-layer parts, Comput. Mater. Sci. 50 (2011) properties and deformation behavior of low-carbon high-strength steel
3315–3322, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.commatsci.2011.06.023. component fabricated by wire and arc additive manufacturing, Mater. Sci. Eng. A.
[167] Z. Barsoum, I. Barsoum, Residual stress effects on fatigue life of welded structures 787 (2020), 139514, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2020.139514.
using LEFM, Eng. Fail. Anal. 16 (2009) 449–467, https://doi.org/10.1016/j. [193] C. Xue, Y. Zhang, P. Mao, C. Liu, Y. Guo, F. Qian, C. Zhang, K. Liu, M. Zhang,
engfailanal.2008.06.017. S. Tang, J. Wang, Improving mechanical properties of wire arc additively
[168] M. Koichi, Analysis of Welded Structures, 1980. https://doi.org/10.1016/c201 manufactured AA2196 Al–Li alloy by controlling solidification defects, Addit.
3–0-05818–5. Manuf. 43 (2021), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2021.102019.
[169] M. Köhler, S. Fiebig, J. Hensel, K. Dilger, Wire and arc additive manufacturing of [194] B. Baufeld, E. Brandl, O. Van Der Biest, Wire based additive layer manufacturing:
aluminum components, Met. (Basel) 9 (2019), https://doi.org/10.3390/ comparison of microstructure and mechanical properties of Ti-6Al-4V
met9050608. components fabricated by laser-beam deposition and shaped metal deposition,
[170] J. Sun, J. Hensel, M. Köhler, K. Dilger, Residual stress in wire and arc additively J. Mater. Process. Technol. 211 (2011) 1146–1158, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
manufactured aluminum components, J. Manuf. Process. 65 (2021) 97–111, jmatprotec.2011.01.018.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2021.02.021. [195] F.J. Xu, Y.H. Lv, B.S. Xu, Y.X. Liu, F.Y. Shu, P. He, Effect of deposition strategy on
[171] Q. Wu, T. Mukherjee, C. Liu, J. Lu, T. DebRoy, Residual stresses and distortion in the microstructure and mechanical properties of Inconel 625 superalloy
the patterned printing of titanium and nickel alloys, Addit. Manuf. 29 (2019), fabricated by pulsed plasma arc deposition, Mater. Des. 45 (2013) 446–455,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2019.100808. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2012.07.013.
[196] J.F. Wang, Q.J. Sun, H. Wang, J.P. Liu, J.C. Feng, Effect of location on
microstructure and mechanical properties of additive layer manufactured Inconel
23
625 using gas tungsten arc welding, Mater. Sci. Eng. A. 676 (2016) 395–405, manufactured components, Scr. Mater. 135 (2017) 111–118, https://doi.org/
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2016.09.015. 10.1016/j.scriptamat.2016.10.031.
[197] Y. Ma, D. Cuiuri, H. Li, Z. Pan, C. Shen, The effect of postproduction heat [205] P.A. Colegrove, H.E. Coules, J. Fairman, F. Martina, T. Kashoob, H. Mamash, L.
treatment on γ-TiAl alloys produced by the GTAW-based additive manufacturing D. Cozzolino, Microstructure and residual stress improvement in wire and arc
process, Mater. Sci. Eng. A. 657 (2016) 86–95, https://doi.org/10.1016/j. additively manufactured parts through high-pressure rolling, J. Mater. Process.
msea.2016.01.060. Technol. 213 (2013) 1782–1791, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
[198] A. Vahedi Nemani, M. Ghaffari, S. Salahi, J. Lunde, A. Nasiri, Effect of interpass jmatprotec.2013.04.012.
temperature on the formation of retained austenite in a wire arc additive [206] Y. Hu, N. Ao, S. Wu, Y. Yu, H. Zhang, W. Qian, G. Guo, M. Zhang, G. Wang,
manufactured ER420 martensitic stainless steel, Mater. Chem. Phys. 266 (2021), Influence of in situ micro-rolling on the improved strength and ductility of hybrid
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matchemphys.2021.124555. additively manufactured metals, Eng. Fract. Mech. 253 (2021), https://doi.org/
[199] L.J. da Silva, H.N. Ferraresi, D.B. Araújo, R.P. Reis, A. Scotti, Effect of thermal 10.1016/j.engfracmech.2021.107868.
management approaches on geometry and productivity of thin-walled structures [207] T. Zhang, H. Li, H. Gong, Y. Wu, A.S. Ahmad, X. Chen, Effect of rolling force on
of ER 5356 built by wire + arc additive manufacturing, Coatings 11 (2021) 1141, tensile properties of additively manufactured Inconel 718 at ambient and elevated
https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings11091141. temperatures, J. Alloy. Compd. 884 (2021), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
[200] L.J. da Silva, D.M. Souza, D.B. de Araújo, R.P. Reis, A. Scotti, Concept and jallcom.2021.161050.
validation of an active cooling technique to mitigate heat accumulation in [208] V.R. Duarte, T.A. Rodrigues, N. Schell, R.M. Miranda, J.P. Oliveira, T.G. Santos,
WAAM, Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 107 (2020) 2513–2523, https://doi.org/ Hot forging wire and arc additive manufacturing (HF-WAAM), Addit. Manuf. 35
10.1007/s00170-020-05201-4. (2020), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2020.101193.
[201] F.M. Scotti, F.R. Teixeira, L.J. da Silva, D.B. de Araújo, R.P. Reis, A. Scotti, [209] Z. Li, C. Liu, T. Xu, L. Ji, D. Wang, J. Lu, S. Ma, H. Fan, Reducing arc heat input
Thermal management in WAAM through the CMT Advanced process and an and obtaining equiaxed grains by hot-wire method during arc additive
active cooling technique, J. Manuf. Process. 57 (2020) 23–35, https://doi.org/ manufacturing titanium alloy, Mater. Sci. Eng. A. 742 (2019) 287–294, https://
10.1016/j.jmapro.2020.06.007. doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2018.11.022.
[202] B. Wu, Z. Pan, D. Ding, D. Cuiuri, H. Li, Z. Fei, The effects of forced interpass [210] T.A. Rodrigues, V.R. Duarte, R.M. Miranda, T.G. Santos, J.P. Oliveira, Ultracold-
cooling on the material properties of wire arc additively manufactured Ti6Al4V Wire and arc additive manufacturing (UC-WAAM), J. Mater. Process. Technol.
alloy, J. Mater. Process. Technol. 258 (2018) 97–105, https://doi.org/10.1016/j. 296 (2021), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2021.117196.
jmatprotec.2018.03.024. [211] J. Vanek, J.A.G. Galicia, B. Benes, Clever support: Efficient support structure
[203] V.T. Le, D.S. Mai, H. Paris, Influences of the compressed dry air-based active generation for digital fabrication, in: Eurographics Symp. Geom. Process., 2014:
cooling on external and internal qualities of wire-arc additive manufactured thin- pp. 117–125. https://doi.org/10.1111/cgf.12437.
walled SS308L components, J. Manuf. Process. 62 (2021) 18–27, https://doi.org/ [212] R. Hu, H. Li, H. Zhang, D. Cohen-Or, Approximate pyramidal shape
10.1016/j.jmapro.2020.11.046. decomposition, ACM Trans. Graph. (2014), https://doi.org/10.1145/
[204] P.A. Colegrove, J. Donoghue, F. Martina, J. Gu, P. Prangnell, J. Hönnige, 2661229.2661244.
Application of bulk deformation methods for microstructural and material [213] B. Liu, H. Shen, Z. Zhou, J. Jin, J. Fu, Research on support-free WAAM based on
property improvement and residual stress and distortion control in additively surface/interior separation and surface segmentation, J. Mater. Process. Technol.
297 (2021), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2021.117240.
24

A Review On Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing-Processing Parameters-Defect Qualit and Recent Advances

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

A Review On Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing-Processing Parameters-Defect Qualit and Recent Advances

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Materials Today Communications 31 (2022) 103739

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Materials Today Communications

A review on wire arc additive manufacturing: Processing parameters,

GMAW- GMAW A consumable type of wire electrode is used

methodology in which a rectangular groove was made on the defect side

3. Process planning and selection in WAAM

WAAM technique has the ability to produce near-net-shape appli­

3.1. CAD model parameters

programs may not continue to be appropriate for heat accumulation

3.5. Shielding gas

An adequate quantity of shielding gas is needed to protect the region

4.3. Aluminum alloys

Fig. 14. Optical micrographs of the corresponding regions: a, b, c, d, e, f in Fig. 13 [130].

4.5. Magnesium alloys

The low density, high specific strength, and increased resistance to

Fig. 17. The microscopic appearance of the different deposited layers of IN

4.6. Other alloys Table 5

5.3. Crack and delamination

On broad levels, WAAM fabricated components suffer grain bound­

automation in real-time applications is a challenge and needs to be of the paper.

6.3. Interpass cooling

A complex thermal profile of WAAM fabricated components

Fig. 25. Schematic representation of the cooling approaches employed [200].

6.6. Ultra cold WAAM (UC-WAAM)

As discussed in Section 5 of this paper, management of high heat

You might also like

WAAM technique has the ability to produce near-net-shape appli

On broad levels, WAAM fabricated components suffer grain bound