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 Transceiver and
System Design for
Digital Communications
4th Edition
This applied engineering reference covers a wide
range of wireless communication design techniques;
including link budgets, error detection and correction,
adaptive and cognitive techniques, and system
analysis of receivers and transmitters. Digital
modulation and demodulation techniques using
phase-shift keyed and frequency hopped spread
spectrum systems are addressed. The title includes
sections on broadband communications and home
networking, satellite communications, and global
positioning systems (GPS). Various techniques and
designs are evaluated for modulating and sending
digital signals, and the book offers an intuitive
approach to probability plus jammer reduction
methods using various adaptive processes. This title
assists readers in gaining a firm understanding of the
processes needed to effectively design wireless digital
communication systems.
SciTech Publishing an imprint of the IET
www.theiet.org
ISBN 978-1-61353-203-4
Bullock-TSDDC 4e 254x178 2b.indd 3
Communications 4th Edition
Transceiver and System Design for Digital
Scott R. Bullock holds a BSEE and an MSEE degree
in RF and wireless communications. He has worked,
consulted, and held positions at Texas Instruments,
Omnipoint, E-Systems, has been a Technical Fellow
for Raytheon, Consultant Engineer and Manager for
Northrop Grumman, Senior Director for MKS/ENI,
VP of Engineering for Phonex, and VP of Engineering
for L3 Communications. He specializes in wireless
communications designs and system analysis. He
currently holds 18 patents in wireless spread spectrum
communications, and published two books and written
several articles for various trade magazines. His analysis
and designs include the first handheld PCS wireless
telephone, a wireless spread spectrum replacement
for the TOW Missile, has set the standard wireless
communications data link for SCAT-I landings, and has
designed adaptive and cognitive filters and systems.
Transceiver and
System Design for
Digital Communications
Bullock
4th Edition
Scott R. Bullock
14/04/2014 18:19
Transceiver and System Design
for Digital Communications
Transceiver and System Design
for Digital Communications
4th edition

Scott R. Bullock

Edison, NJ
theiet.org
Published by SciTech Publishing, an imprint of the IET.
www.scitechpub.com
www.theiet.org

Copyright ’ 2009, 2014 by SciTech Publishing, Edison, NJ. All rights reserved.

Third edition 2009

Fourth edition 2014

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, except as permitted under Sections
107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or
authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood
Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 646-8600, or on the web at copyright.com. Requests to the
Publisher for permission should be addressed to The Institution of Engineering and Technology,Michael Faraday
House, Six Hills Way, Stevenage, Herts, SG1 2AY, United Kingdom.

While the author and publisher believe that the information and guidance given in this work are correct, all parties
must rely upon their own skill and judgement when making use of them. Neither the author nor publisher
assumes any liability to anyone for any loss or damage caused by any error or omission in the work, whether such an
error or omission is the result of negligence or any other cause. Any and all such liability is disclaimed.

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

ISBN 978-1-61353-203-4 (hardback)

ISBN 978-1-61353-204-1 (PDF)

Typeset in India by MPS Limited

Printed in the UK and USA by Lightning Source
 To my loving wife, Debi;
to Crystal, Cindy, Brian, Andy, and Jenny;
and to my mother, Elaine.
Contents

Preface xix
Acknowledgments xxiii
About the Author xxv

1 Transceiver Design 1
1.1 Frequency of Operation 1
1.2 Transmitter 4
1.2.1 Power from the Transmitter 4
1.2.2 Transmitter Component Losses 8
1.2.3 Transmitter Line Losses from the Power Amplifier to the Antenna 8
1.2.4 Transmitter Antenna Gain 9
1.2.5 Transmitter Antenna Losses 11
1.2.6 Transmitted Effective Isotropic Radiated Power 11
1.3 Channel 12
1.3.1 Free-Space Attenuation 13
1.3.2 Propagation Losses 13
1.3.3 Multipath Losses 14
1.4 Receiver 15
1.4.1 Receiver Antenna Losses 16
1.4.2 Receiver Antenna Gain 16
1.4.3 Receiver Line Losses from the Antenna to the LNA 17
1.4.4 Receiver Component Losses 17
1.4.5 Received Signal Power at the Output to the LNA 18
1.4.6 Receiver Implementation Loss 19
1.4.7 Received Power for Establishing the Signal-to-Noise
Ratio of a System 20
1.4.8 Received Noise Power 20

vii
viii Contents

1.4.9 Noise Figure 20

1.4.10 Received Noise Power at the Detector 22
1.4.11 Receiver Bandwidth 22
1.4.12 Received Eb/No at the Detector 24
1.4.13 Receiver Coding Gain 24
1.4.14 Required Eb/No 24
1.5 The Link Budget 24
1.5.1 Spread Spectrum Systems 26
1.5.2 Process Gain 26
1.5.3 Received Power for Establishing the Signal-to-Noise Ratio
for a Spread Spectrum System 26
1.5.4 Link Budget Example 27
1.6 Summary 29
References 29
Problems 29
2 The Transmitter 31
2.1 Basic Functions of the Transmitter 31
2.1.1 Transmit Antenna 31
2.1.2 Transmit/Receive Device 32
2.1.3 RF Power Amplifier 33
2.1.4 Upconverter 34
2.1.5 Sum and Difference Frequencies Generated in the
Upconversion Process 36
2.1.6 Modulator 37
2.2 Voltage Standing Wave Ratio 38
2.2.1 Maximum Power Transfer Principle 39
2.3 Digital Communications 40
2.3.1 Digital versus Analog Communications 41
2.3.2 Software Programmable Radios and Cognitive Radios 41
2.4 Digital Modulation 42
2.4.1 Binary Phase-Shift Keying 43
2.4.2 Differential Phase-Shift Keying 45
2.4.3 Quadrature Phase-Shift Keying 45
2.4.4 Offset QPSK 46
2.4.5 Higher Order PSK 46
2.4.6 p/4 Differential QPSK 47
2.4.7 Differential 8-Level PSK 48
2.4.8 16-Offset Quadrature Amplitude Modulation 48
 Contents ix

2.4.9 Phasor Constellations and Noise Immunity 49

2.4.10 BPSK versus QPSK Constellation Comparison 51
2.4.11 Variations in PSK Schemes 51
2.4.12 Continuous Phase PSK 53
2.4.13 Spectral Regrowth 53
2.4.14 Minimum Shift Keying 53
2.4.15 Frequency-Shift Keying 55
2.4.16 Sidelobe Reduction Methods 57
2.4.17 Ideal Shaping Filter 57
2.5 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum 58
2.5.1 Frequency-Hopping Spread Spectrum 59
2.5.2 Spread Spectrum 60
2.5.3 Jammer Resistance 60
2.5.4 Despreading to Realize Process Gain in the Spread
Spectrum System 62
2.5.5 Maximal Length Sequence Codes 64
2.5.6 Maximal Length PN Code Generator 64
2.5.7 Maximal Length PN Code Taps 65
2.5.8 Gold Codes 65
2.5.9 Other Codes 65
2.5.10 Spectral Lines in the Frequency Domain 67
2.6 Other Forms of Spread Spectrum Transmissions 67
2.6.1 Time Hopping 68
2.6.2 Chirped-FM 68
2.7 Multiple Users 69
2.7.1 Other Methods for Multiuser Techniques 71
2.7.2 Orthogonal Signals 71
2.7.3 Quadrature Phase Detection of Two Signals 72
2.7.4 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing 73
2.7.5 Other OFDM Techniques 76
2.8 Power Control 76
2.9 Summary 77
References 77
Problems 77
3 The Receiver 79
3.1 Superheterodyne Receiver 79
3.2 Basic Functions of the Receiver 80
3.3 Receiver Antenna 80
x Contents

3.4 Transmit/Receive Device 81

3.5 Image Reject Filter 81
3.6 Low-Noise Amplifier 81
3.7 RF Downconverter 83
3.8 Mixers 83
3.8.1 High-Level or Low-Level Mixers 83
3.8.2 High-Side or Low-Side Injection 85
3.8.3 Mixer Spur Analysis—Level of Spurious Responses
and Intermods 85
3.8.4 Sixth-Order Analysis 86
3.9 Automatic Gain Control 87
3.10 IF Downconverter 87
3.11 Splitting Signals into Multiple Bands for Processing 88
3.12 Phase Noise 88
3.13 Bandwidth Considerations 89
3.14 Filter Constraints 90
3.15 Group Delay 91
3.16 Analog-to-Digital Converter 94
3.17 Sampling Theorem and Aliasing 94
3.18 Anti-Aliasing Filter 95
3.19 Dynamic Range/Minimum Detectable Signal 96
3.20 Types of DR 98
3.20.1 Amplitude DR 98
3.20.2 Frequency DR 98
3.20.3 Single-Tone Frequency DR 99
3.20.4 Two-Tone Frequency DR 99
3.21 Second- and Third-Order Intermodulation Products 100
3.22 Calculating Two-Tone Frequency DR 101
3.23 System DR 103
3.24 Tangential Sensitivity 105
3.25 Digital Signal Processor 106
3.26 Summary 106
Reference 106
Problems 106
 Contents xi

4 AGC Design and PLL Comparison 109

4.1 AGC Design 109
4.2 AGC Amplifier Curve 111
4.3 Linearizers 112
4.4 Detector 113
4.5 Loop Filter 115
4.6 Threshold Level 115
4.7 Integrator 116
4.8 Control Theory Analysis 117
4.8.1 AGC Design Example 119
4.9 Modulation Frequency Distortion 122
4.10 Comparison of the PLL and AGC Using Feedback
Analysis Techniques 123
4.11 Basic PLL 123
4.12 Control System Analysis 124
4.13 Detector 125
4.14 Loop Filter 125
4.15 Loop Gain Constant 125
4.16 Integrator 125
4.17 Conversion Gain Constant 126
4.18 Control Theory Analysis 126
4.19 Similarities between the AGC and the PLL 129
4.20 Feedback Systems, Oscillations, and Stability 129
4.21 Summary 130
References 130
Problems 130
5 Demodulation 133
5.1 Carrier Recovery for Suppressed Carrier Removal 133
5.1.1 Squaring Loop 134
5.1.2 Costas Loop 137
5.1.3 Modified Costas Loop and Automatic Frequency
Control Addition 138
5.2 Demodulation Process to Remove Spread Spectrum Code 139
xii Contents

5.2.1 Sliding Correlator 139

5.2.2 Pulsed Matched Filter 142
5.3 Pulse Position Modulation 144
5.4 Code Division Encoding and Decoding 147
5.5 Coherent versus Differential Digital Modulation
and Demodulation 148
5.5.1 Coherent Demodulation 149
5.6 Symbol Synchronizer 150
5.7 The Eye Pattern 150
5.8 Digital Processor 151
5.9 Intersymbol Interference 153
5.10 Scrambler/Descrambler 154
5.11 Phase-Shift Detection 154
5.12 Shannon’s Limit 156
5.13 Summary 156
References 157
Problems 157
6 Basic Probability and Pulse Theory 159
6.1 Basic Probability Concepts 159
6.2 The Gaussian Process 161
6.3 Quantization and Sampling Errors 163
6.4 Probability of Error 165
6.5 Probability of Detection and False Alarms 167
6.6 Pulsed System Probabilities Using the BDF 169
6.7 Error Detection and Correction 169
6.7.1 Error Detection 170
6.7.2 Error Detection Using Parity 170
6.7.3 Error Detection Using Checksum 171
6.7.4 Error Detection Using CRC 171
6.7.5 Error Correction 172
6.7.6 Error Correction Using Redundancy 173
6.7.7 Forward Error Correction 174
6.7.8 Interleaving 174
6.7.9 Types of FEC 175
 Contents xiii

6.7.10 Viterbi Decoder 182

6.7.11 Turbo and Low-Density Parity Check Codes 183
6.8 Theory of Pulse Systems 185
6.9 PN Code 187
6.10 Summary 188
References 188
Problems 188
7 Multipath 189
7.1 Basic Types of Multipath 189
7.2 Specular Reflection on a Smooth Surface 190
7.3 Specular Reflection on a Rough Surface 191
7.4 Diffuse Reflection 192
7.5 Curvature of the Earth 193
7.6 Pulse Systems (Radar) 195
7.7 Vector Analysis Approach 195
7.8 Power Summation Approach 196
7.9 Multipath Mitigation Techniques 197
7.9.1 Antenna Diversity 197
7.10 Summary 198
References 198
Problems 198
8 Improving the System against Jammers 201
8.1 Burst Jammer 201
8.2 Adaptive Filter 204
8.3 Digital Filter Intuitive Analysis 205
8.4 Basic Adaptive Filter 206
8.5 Least Mean Square Algorithm 207
8.6 Digital/Analog ALE 209
8.7 Wideband ALE Jammer Suppressor Filter 213
8.8 Digital Circuitry 214
8.9 Simulation 215
8.10 Results 216
xiv Contents

8.11 Amplitude and Phase Suppression Results 218

8.12 Gram-Schmidt Orthogonalizer 218
8.13 Basic GSO 221
8.14 Adaptive GSO Implementation 222
8.15 Intercept Receiver Comparison 224
8.16 Summary 226
References 226
Problems 227
9 Cognitive Systems 229
9.1 The Environment 229
9.1.1 Jammers 229
9.1.2 Channel Degradation 231
9.2 Basic Cognitive Techniques 231
9.2.1 Dynamic Spectrum Access 231
9.2.2 Adaptive Power/Gain Control 233
9.2.3 Cognitive Techniques Using Modulation Waveforms 238
9.2.4 Spread Spectrum for Increased Process Gain against Jammers 240
9.2.5 Adaptive Error Correction 242
9.2.6 Adaptive Filter for Jammer Mitigation 242
9.2.7 Dynamic Antenna Techniques Using AESAs 242
9.2.8 Multipath Communications 244
9.2.9 Multiple Antennas 245
9.2.10 Network Configurations 247
9.2.11 Cognitive MANETs 248
9.3 Cognitive System Solution 250
9.4 Summary 257
References 257
Problems 257

10 Broadband Communications and Networking 259

10.1 Mobile Users 259
10.1.1 Personal Communications Services 260
10.1.2 Cellular Telephone 262
10.1.3 Industrial, Scientific, and Medical Bands 262
10.2 Types of Distribution Methods for the Home 263
10.2.1 Power Line Communications 263
10.2.2 Home Phoneline Networking Alliance 264
 Contents xv

10.2.3 Radio Frequency Communications 264

10.2.4 IEEE 802.11 265
10.2.5 Bluetooth 266
10.2.6 WiMAX 268
10.2.7 LTE 271
10.3 LMDS 273
10.4 MMDS 277
10.5 Universal Mobile Telecommunications System 277
10.6 4G 277
10.7 Mobile Broadband Wireless Access IEEE 802.20 278
10.8 MISO Communications 278
10.9 MIMO Communications 279
10.10 QoS 280
10.11 Military Radios and Data Links 282
10.11.1 The Joint Tactical Radio System 282
10.11.2 SDRs 283
10.11.3 Software Communications Architecture 284
10.11.4 JTRS Radios (Clusters) 284
10.11.5 Waveforms 285
10.11.6 JTRS Network Challenge 285
10.11.7 Gateway and Network Configurations 288
10.11.8 Link 16 291
10.11.9 Link 16 Modulation 292
10.11.10 TDMA 292
10.11.11 ‘‘Stacked’’ Nets 292
10.11.12 Time Slot Reallocation 293
10.11.13 Bit/Message Structure 293
10.12 Summary 294
References 294
Problems 294

11 Satellite Communications 295

11.1 Communications Satellites 295
11.2 General Satellite Operation 295
11.2.1 Operational Frequencies 296
11.2.2 Modulation 297
11.2.3 Adaptive Differential Pulse Code Modulation 298
11.3 Fixed Satellite Service 298
xvi Contents

11.4 Geosynchronous and Geostationary Orbits 298

11.5 Ground Station Antennas 300
11.6 Noise and the Low-Noise Amplifier 301
11.7 The Link Budget 303
11.7.1 EIRP 304
11.7.2 Propagation Losses 304
11.7.3 Received Power at the Receiver 304
11.7.4 Carrier Power/Equivalent Temperature 305
11.8 Multiple Channels in the Same Frequency Band 307
11.9 Multiple Access Schemes 307
11.10 Propagation Delay 308
11.11 Cost for Use of the Satellites 308
11.12 Regulations 308
11.13 Types of Satellites Used for Communications 308
11.14 System Design for Satellite Communications 309
11.15 Summary 310
References 310
Problems 310
12 Global Navigation Satellite Systems 311
12.1 Satellite Transmissions 311
12.2 Data Signal Structure 312
12.3 GPS Receiver 313
12.3.1 GPS Process Gain 313
12.3.2 Positioning Calculations 313
12.4 Atmospheric Errors 315
12.5 Multipath Errors 315
12.6 Narrow Correlator 316
12.7 Selective Availability 317
12.8 Carrier Smoothed Code 318
12.9 Differential GPS 319
12.10 DGPS Time Synchronization 320
12.11 Relative GPS 320
12.12 Doppler 321
 Contents xvii

12.13 Kinematic Carrier Phase Tracking 322

12.14 Double Difference 323
12.15 Wide Lane/Narrow Lane 324
12.16 Other Satellite Positioning Systems 324
12.17 Summary 325
References 325
Problems 326
13 Direction Finding and Interferometer Analysis 327
13.1 Interferometer Analysis 327
13.2 Direction Cosines 327
13.3 Basic Interferometer Equation 329
13.4 Three-Dimensional Approach 331
13.5 Antenna Position Matrix 332
13.6 Coordinate Conversion Due to Pitch and Roll 333
13.7 Using Direction Cosines 334
13.8 Alternate Method 335
13.9 Quaternions 337
13.10 Summary 337
References 337
Problems 338

Appendix A Coordinate Conversions 339

Appendix B True North Calculations 341
Appendix C Elevation Effects on Azimuth Error 343
Appendix D Earth’s Radius Compensation for Elevation
Angle Calculation 345
Answers 347
Index 359
Preface

This book covers basic communications theory and practical implementation of transmitters
and receivers. In so doing, the focus of this book is on digital modulation, demodulation
methods, probabilities, detection of digital signals, spread spectrum system design and
analysis, and cognitive system processes. This book was written for those who want a good
understanding of the basic principles of digital wireless communication systems, including
spread spectrum techniques. It also provides an intuitive and practical approach to digital
communications. Therefore, it is a valuable resource for anyone involved in wireless com-
munications and transceiver design for digital communications. The reader will gain a broad
understanding of basic communication principles for transceiver design, digital communica-
tions, spread spectrum, and cognition, along with examples of many types of commercial and
military data link systems.
Chapter 1 describes transceiver design using a link budget to analyze possible trade-offs.
This includes tracking of signal power and noise levels in the system, calculation of the noise
figure, the gains and losses of the link, and the required signal level with respect to noise,
including the link margin to provide the specified probability of error. This chapter also
discusses frequency band designations along with the definitions and uses of decibels.
Spread spectrum techniques and process gain, as well as coding gain, are discussed. The
chapter concludes with an example of a link budget and a transceiver design that coincides
with it.
Chapter 2 evaluates the basic functions of the transmitter, including antennas, transmit/
receive (T/R) control, classes of power amplifiers, the upconversion process, sum and dif-
ference frequencies and the requirement to eliminate one of the conversion products, voltage
standing wave ratio, and maximum power transfer principle. This chapter discusses advan-
tages of digital versus analog communications, digital modulation techniques including
phase-shift keying (PSK) and frequency-shift keying, phasor constellations and noise
immunity, and error vector magnitude as a quality metric of the transmission. This chapter
also addresses the advantages of continuous PSK modulation and spectral regrowth. Shaping
filters for the digital waveforms are discussed, with ideal and practical solutions. Direct
sequence spread spectrum systems are addressed, along with the advantages of using spread
spectrum, including process gain and antijam with jamming margin. Maximal length
sequence codes, including Gold codes and others, are included, along with spectral lines that
are generated in the frequency domain. Several digital modulation techniques using PSK are

xix
xx Preface

provided, along with block diagrams and phasor diagrams to help analyze the different types
of PSK systems that are used today. Variations of PSK systems and other types of spread
spectrum systems are also discussed, such as frequency hopping, time hopping, and chirped
frequency modulation. In addition, multiuser techniques are explained, including time, code,
and frequency access systems. Finally, orthogonal techniques including orthogonal fre-
quency division multiplexing are considered, along with power control to reduce near–far
problems.
Chapter 3 covers the basic functions of the receiver, including the antenna, T/R control,
image-reject filter, low-noise amplifier, downconversion process, third-order intercept,
and various methods to determine dynamic range. Phase noise, mixers, spur analysis,
bandwidths, and filters are also addressed. The discussion of digital processing includes
principles such as group delay, sampling theorem and aliasing, anti-aliasing filters, and
analog-to-digital converters (ADCs) including piecewise linear ADCs.
Chapter 4 discusses the design and analysis of automatic gain control (AGC). The main
elements of a good AGC design are provided, including the amplifier curve, linearizer,
detector, loop filter, threshold level, and integrator for zero steady-state error for a step
response. Control theory is used to define the stability characteristics of the AGC to design
the optimal AGC for the system. Chapter 4 also details the phase-locked loop (PLL), parti-
cularly for the lock condition, and compares the similarities between the AGC and the PLL.
Feedback systems and oscillations, including the Barkhausen criteria, are reviewed, along
with Bode diagrams to determine both gain and phase margin.
Chapter 5 describes the demodulation process portion of the receiver, which includes the
different methods of correlating the incoming digital waveform, such as the matched filter,
coherent sliding correlator, pulse position modulation and demodulation, code tracking loops
like early-late gate analysis, and the autocorrelation function. The advantages and dis-
advantages of coherent versus differential demodulation techniques are discussed. Chapter 5
also contains different types of carrier recovery loops, including the squaring loop, Costas
loop, and modifications of the Costas loop. The chapter concludes with a conversation about
the symbol synchronizer, the eye pattern, intersymbol interference, scrambler–descrambler
methods, phase-shift detection for intercept receivers, and Shannon’s limit for information
channel capacity.
Chapter 6 contains a basic discussion of the principles of digital communications. This
includes an intuitive and analytical approach to understanding probability theory, which is
used in designing and analyzing digital communications. The explanation shows the basic
Gaussian distribution and how to apply it to probability of error. Quantization and sampling
errors, as well as the probability of error for different types of spread spectrum systems,
along with the curves and how to apply them in a design, are evaluated for the system. Also
examined is the probability of false alarm and probability of detection and methods for
detecting errors, including parity, checksum, and cyclic redundancy check. Error correction
using forward error correction is assessed, including topics such as interleaving, block codes,
convolutional codes, linear block codes, and hamming codes. The Viterbi algorithm, multi-h,
low-density parity check codes, and turbo codes are also discussed. Chapter 6 also provides
basic theory on pulsed systems, which includes spectral plots of the different pulse types.
Chapter 7 focuses on multipath. This chapter discusses the basic types of multipath,
including specular reflection of both smooth and rough surfaces and diffuse reflections of a
 Preface xxi

glistening surface as well as the Rayleigh criteria for determining if the reflections are
specular or diffuse. The curvature of the earth is included for systems such as those used for
satellite communications. The advantages of using leading edge tracking for radars to miti-
gate most of the multipath present are discussed. Several approaches to the analysis of
multipath are provided, including vector analysis and power summation. Included are dis-
cussions on several different multipath mitigation techniques and information on antenna
diversity.
Chapter 8 describes methods that improve the system operation against jamming
signals. Discussed are burst clamps to minimize the effects of burst jammers, adaptive fil-
tering to reject narrowband signals, and a Gram-Schmidt orthogonalizer that uses two
antennas to suppress the jamming signal. An in-depth analysis is provided on the adaptive
filter method using the adaptive filter configured as an adaptive line enhancer using the least
mean square algorithm. A discussion of the suppression results due to amplitude and phase
variations is included as well. An actual wideband system, providing simulation and hard-
ware results of the adaptive filter, is discussed. In addition, many different types of intercept
receivers for detection of signals in the spectrum are included.
Chapter 9 deals with cognitive and adaptive techniques in making a ‘‘Smart’’ cognitive
system. This shows the various ways to monitor the environment and then to adapt to the
changing environment to provide the best solution using the available capabilities. The basic
cognitive techniques covered are dynamic spectrum allocation, which changes frequencies;
adaptive power and gain control; techniques using modulation waveforms, spread spectrum,
adaptive error correction, and adaptive filters; dynamic antenna techniques using active
electronically scanned arrays such as multiple-in, multiple-out capabilities; and adapting
networks using multi-hop for meshed network like mobile ad hoc networks.
Chapter 10 covers broadband communications and networking, including high-speed
data, voice, and video. Many generations of mobile wireless communication products have
evolved through the years and are designated as 1G through 4G. Broadband is also used in
the home to connect to the outside world without having to run new wires using power line
communications, phone-line networking alliance, and radio frequency such as IEEE 802.xx
and Bluetooth. Along with the distribution of information, networking plays an important
role in the connection and interaction of different devices in the home. Worldwide Inter-
operability for Microwave Access is another radio frequency wireless link based on the IEEE
802.16 standard, and LTE has emerged as a viable solution for the next generation of
wireless products. The military is investigating several networking techniques to allow
multiple users for communications, command, control, and weapon systems, including the
Joint Tactical Radio System and Link 16. Software-defined radio; cognitive techniques;
software communications architecture; five clusters development; the network challenge
including gateways; and different network topologies including Star, Bus, Ring, and Mesh
are all discussed in this chapter.
Chapter 11 covers satellite communications for various applications in both the com-
mercial and military sectors. The infrastructure for distributing signals covers the widest
range of methods of communications. The most remote places on the earth have the means
for communication via satellite. The infrastructure, bandwidth, and availability of satellite
communications, along with combining this technology with other types of communications
systems, makes this method an ideal candidate for providing ubiquitous communications to
xxii Preface

everyone worldwide. This chapter discusses frequency bands, modulation such as quadrature
phase-shift keying and adaptive differential pulse code modulation, geosynchronous and
geostationary orbits, and different types of antennas such as primary focus, Cassegrain, and
Gregorian. Noise, equivalent temperature, and gain over temperature are discussed as well as
how they are used to evaluate different systems and the link budget. Multiple channels and
multiple access techniques are discussed for increased capacity. Propagation delay; the cost
of use depending on the types of transmission, which includes permanently assigned multiple
access, demand assigned multiple access, or occasional; and the different types of satellites
used for communications are addressed, including low earth orbit satellites, geosynchronous
earth orbit satellites, and medium earth orbit satellites.
Chapter 12 discusses the global positioning system (GPS), which uses a direct sequence
spread spectrum binary phase-shift keying data link. This chapter includes coarse acquisition
code, precision code, data signal structure, receiver characteristics, errors due to the atmo-
sphere, multipath, Doppler, and selective availability, which has been turned off. It also
discusses the pros and cons of using narrow correlation, carrier smoothing of the code
(integrated Doppler), differential GPS, and relative GPS. Kinematic carrier phase tracking,
the double difference, and wide lane versus narrow lane techniques are also discussed. In
addition, other satellite positioning systems are discussed, including the Global Navigational
Satellite System from the Soviet Union commonly known as GLONASS, and the Galileo
In-Orbit Validation Element in Europe.
Chapter 13 discusses direction finding and interferometer analysis using direction
cosines and coordinate conversion techniques to provide the correct solution. This chapter
provides information on the limitations of the standard interferometer equation and details
the necessary steps to design a three-dimensional interferometer solution for the yaw, pitch,
and roll of antennas.
Each of the chapters contains problems, with answers provided in the back of the book.
The appendices contain the definitions of heading, roll, pitch, and yaw for coordinate
conversions; true north calculations; phase ambiguities for interferometers; elevation effects
on azimuth error; and Earth’s radius compensation for elevation angle calculation.
If you have any suggestions, corrections, or comments, please send them to Scott
Bullock at scottrbullock@gmail.com.
Acknowledgments

Special thanks to Larry Huffman, senior scientist and system engineer, for thoroughly
reviewing this text and enhancing the book with his experience and expertise.
Thanks to Don Shea, a recognized expert in the field of antennas and interferometers, for
providing the technical expertise and consulting for Chapter 13.
Thanks to Brian Adams, Tom Ashburn, and Bill Brettner for providing technical input in
their fields of expertise.
Thanks to James Gitre for his thorough review, providing questions and suggestions
from the standpoint of an end user of the book.

xxiii
About the Author

Scott R. Bullock received his BSEE degree from Brigham Young University in 1979 and his
MSEE degree from the University of Utah in 1988. Mr. Bullock worked in research and
development for most of his career developing a radar simulator, a spread spectrum micro-
scan receiver, and a new spread spectrum receiver, for which he applied for a patent and was
awarded company funds as a new idea project to develop the concept. Mr. Bullock also
developed a spread spectrum environment simulator for a spread spectrum wideband coun-
termeasures receiver using binary phase-key shifting, quadrature phase-shift keying, offset
quadrature phase-shift keying, minimum-shift keying, frequency hopper, hybrids, amplitude
modulation, frequency modulation, voice generator, jammers, and noise. He also designed a
high-frequency adaptive filter used to reduce narrowband jammers in a wideband signal; a
broadband, highly accurate frequency hop detector; an instantaneous Fourier transform
receiver; a chopper modulated receiver; a Ku-band radio design for burst spread spectrum
communications through a troposcatter channel; a Gram-Schmidt orthogonalizer to reduce
jammers; an advanced tactical data link; radio frequency analysis of an optical receiver
study; a portable wideband communications detector; and an acoustic-optic spectrum ana-
lyzer photodiode array controller.
Mr. Bullock developed the first handheld PCS spread spectrum telephone with Omni-
point in the 902–928 MHz ISM band. He also received a patent for his work on reducing
spectral lines to meet the Federal Communications Commission power spectral density
requirements.
He was responsible for various types of spread spectrum data links for the SCAT-1
program related to aircraft GPS landing systems. He was an active participant in the RTCA
meetings held in Washington D.C. for the evaluation and selection of the D8PSK data link to
be used as the standard in all SCAT-1 systems. He also worked on the concepts of the Wide
Area Augmentation System, low probability of intercept data link, DS/FH air traffic control
asynchronous system, JTRS, and Link-16.
Mr. Bullock developed several commercial products such as wireless jacks for tele-
phones, PBXs, modems, wireless speakers, and other various wireless data link products.
He has designed directional volume search, tracking algorithms, and cognitive systems
and networks for both the commercial and military communities. In addition, he designed,
assembled, and successfully field tested a network of common data links from multiple
vendors using a multibeam active electronic steerable array.

xxv
xxvi About the Author

Mr. Bullock has held many high-level positions, such as vice president of engineering
for Phonex Broadband, vice president of engineering for L-3 Satellite Network Division,
senior director of engineering for MKS/ENI, engineering fellow for Raytheon, and engi-
neering manager and consulting engineer for Northrop Grumman. He specializes in wireless
data link design, cognitive systems, and system analysis and directs the design and devel-
opment of wireless products for both commercial and military customers.
Mr. Bullock holds numerous patents in the areas of spread spectrum wireless data links,
adaptive filters, frequency hop detectors, and wireless telephone and data products. He has
published several articles dealing with spread spectrum modulation types, multipath, AGCs,
PLLs, and adaptive filters. He is the author of this book and another book titled Broadband
Communications and Home Networking. He is a licensed professional engineer and a
member of IEEE and Eta Kappa Nu, and he holds an Extra Class Amateur Radio License,
KK7LC.
He has performed data link communications work and taught in multiple seminars for
Texas Instruments, L-3, BAE, Omnipoint, E-Systems, Phonex, Raytheon, Northrop Grum-
man, CIA, SAIC, MKS/ENI, and Thales for over 15 years. He is currently an instructor for
Besser Associates, ATI courses, and K2B International. He has taught an advanced com-
munication course at ITT, an engineering course at PIMA Community College, and was a
guest lecturer on multiple access systems at PolyTechnic University, Long Island, New
York. He has also taught his course for IEEE Smart Tech Metro Area Workshop in both
Baltimore and Atlanta.
 CHAPTER 1

Transceiver Design

A transceiver is a system that contains both a transmitter and a receiver. The transmitter from
one transceiver sends a signal through space to the receiver of a second transceiver.
After receiving the signal, the transmitter from the second transceiver sends a signal back to
the receiver of the first transceiver, completing a two-way communications data link system,
as shown in Figure 1-1.
There are many factors to consider when designing a two-way communications link.
The first one is to determine what the frequency is going to be for this design. Several
considerations need to be evaluated to select the frequency that is going to be used.

1.1 Frequency of Operation

In a transceiver design, we first determine the radio frequency (RF) of operation. The fre-
quency of operation depends on the following factors:
● RF availability: This is the frequency band that is available for use by a particular system
and is dependent on the communications authority for each country. For example, in
the United States it is specified by the Federal Communications Commission (FCC), and
in the United Kingdom it is specified by the British Approvals Board for Tele-
communications (BABT). These two groups have ultimate control over frequency band
allocation. Other organizations that help to establish standards are the International
Telecommunications Union Standardization Sector (ITU-T), the European Conference
of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations (CEPT), and the European Tele-
communications Standards Institute (ETSI).
● Cost: As the frequency increases, the components in the receiver tend to be more
expensive. An exception to the rule is when there is a widely used frequency band, such
as the cellular radio band, where supply and demand drive down the cost of parts and
where integrated circuits are designed for specific applications. These are known as
application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs).
● Range and antenna size: As a general rule, decreasing the frequency will also decrease
the amount of loss between the transmitter and the receiver. This loss is mainly due to
free-space attenuation and is calculated using the frequency or wavelength of the

1
2 CHAPTER 1 ● Transceiver Design

Antenna Antenna

Transceiver Propagating Transceiver

Transmitter/ Wireless Signal Transmitter/
Receiver Receiver

Figure 1-1 Two-way wireless transceiver block diagram.

transmission. This results in an increase in range for line-of-sight applications or a

decrease in the output power requirement, which would also affect cost. However,
another factor that affects range is the ability of the signal to reflect or bounce off
the atmosphere, mainly the ionosphere and sometimes the troposphere. For specific fre-
quencies, this can increase the range tremendously. Amateur radio operators use
frequencies that can bounce off the atmosphere and travel around the world with less than
100 watts of power. Also, the size of the antenna increases as the frequency decreases.
Therefore, the size of the antenna might be too big for practical considerations and could
also be a factor in the cost of the design.
● Customer specified: Oftentimes the frequency of operation is specified by the customer.
If the application is for commercial applications, the frequency selection must follow the
rules currently in place for that specific application to obtain the approval of the FCC and
other agencies.
● Band congestion: Ideally, the frequency band selected is an unused band or serves very
little purpose, especially with no high-power users in the band. This also needs to be
approved by the FCC and other agencies. Generally the less used bands are very high,
which increases the cost. Many techniques available today allow more users to operate
successfully in particular bands, and some of these techniques will be discussed further in
the book.
The frequency of operation is then selected by taking into consideration the aforementioned
criteria.
A listing of the basic frequency bands is shown in Table 1-1 with some applications
specified. More detailed frequency allocations can be obtained from the FCC website or in
the literature.
The frequency bands are all allocated to different users, which makes it virtually
impossible to obtain a band that is not already allocated. However, some band reorganizing
and renaming have occurred; for example, some of the old existing analog television bands
have been reallocated to use for multiple digital wireless applications.
Another random document with
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The Project Gutenberg eBook of Childhood's
happy home, and other verses
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away
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included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you
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laws of the country where you are located before using this
eBook.

Title: Childhood's happy home, and other verses

Author: Lemuel Kayhart

Release date: December 20, 2023 [eBook #72456]

Language: English

Original publication: East Orange: The Abby Printshop, 1921

Credits: Richard Tonsing, Charlene Taylor, and the Online

Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
(This file was produced from images generously made
available by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK

CHILDHOOD'S HAPPY HOME, AND OTHER VERSES ***
Transcriber’s Note:
New original cover art included with this eBook is
granted to the public domain.
Childhood’s

Happy Home

AND

OTHER VERSES

LEMUEL KAYHART
 Copyright, 1921
By LEMUEL KAYHART
 CHILDHOOD’S HAPPY HOME

LEMUEL KAYHART
Oh home, sweet home, my childhood’s home,
To thee my heart holds near,
No other place in this wide world,
To me, is half so dear.

When daisies decked the green clad fields,

And fragrance filled the air,
I loved to roam the shady dell,
And never dreamed of care!

And when I’d lay my weary head

On mother’s loving breast,
No mortal danger could I fear,
While there I’d calmly rest.

And when the twilight hours came,

The stars began to peep,—
She’d take me to my little couch
And lay me down to sleep.

And in the morning, when I’d wake,

Oh what heavenly bliss!
She’d take me in her loving arms,
And greet me with a kiss.

But now old age is coming on,

These locks are turning gray,—
Like millions passed and gone, I feel
I’m passing fast away.

Oh that I were a child again

To lean on mother’s breast;
Free from trouble, care and strife
 This weary form might rest.

When earth and friends I bid adieu,

Yon golden streets to roam,—
I may forget,—but not till then,
MY CHILDHOOD’S HAPPY HOME!
 GENESIS ANALYZED

LEMUEL KAYHART
’Twas man who first came on the earth,
Without a sin or shame;
He knew nothing but joy and mirth,
And Adam was his name.

In Eden’s garden he was placed,

And lovely were the scenes;
All fitted up with God’s own taste,
Among the evergreens.

How happy then he must have been,

From toil and labor free;
From sickness, sorrow, death and sin,—
In Nature’s charming glee!

In God’s own image he was made,

Without a single care;
He never used a hoe nor spade,
’Till woman was put there.

’Twas woman first broke God’s command,

Then tempted man to sin;
’Twas her first brought shame in the land,
And raised this awful din.

Through woman, Christ with grief did mourn,

For her He bled and died;
For her He wore a crown of thorns,
Was hung and crucified.

If Adam had reserved his bone,

’Tis true he’d had no wife;
’Tis better far to live alone,
 Than live in war and strife.

But now, you know, since Adam’s time,

That things are all made new,—
And now to end my little rhyme,
I’ll call her Kind and True!
 THE GREEN SHADY WOODS

LEMUEL KAYHART
Oh! give me the place where
I roamed when a child,
Where beauty and nature
Enchantingly smiled;
Where at twilight we heard
The sweet whippoorwill,
In the green shady woods
On the slope of the hill.

’Twas there in my childhood

I rambled with glee;
’Twas there in my youth that
I longed so to be;
The place that I loved, with
A hearty good will,
Was the green shady woods
On the slope of the hill.

I’d go in the morning,

So happy and free,
And linger till twilight
Approaching I’d see;
With brothers, and sisters,
I played with a will,
In the green shady woods
On the slope of the hill.

Where the songs of the birds

Re-echo and die;
Where the cool, fresh breezes
So playfully sigh;
Where we listened with joy,
To the rippling rill,
In the green shady woods
On the slope of the hill.

And there to that clear, cool,

Crystal spring we’d go,
And down on our knees to
Its fountain bow low,
Like the waters of life
Our souls it would thrill,
In the green shady woods
On the slope of the hill.

I’ve roamed over landscapes,

Through country and town,
I’ve wandered through cities
The streets up and down;
But no place do I find,
Though quiet and still,
Like the green shady woods
On the slope of the hill.

Oh! give me the place where

I wantonly strayed;
Where in hot summer days
My weary head laid;
Oh! give me the place where
All’s quiet and still,
In the green shady woods
On the slope of the hill.

And this be my wish,

In my last fleeting breath,
When this mortal body
Is stricken in death:—
Oh! lay me ’neath the turf,
All quiet and still,
In the green shady woods
On the slope of the hill.

And there though my body

Lies wrapped in green sod,
My spirit will go
To the keeping of God;
Till Gabriel’s last trumpet
Shall blow loud and shrill,
May I sleep ’neath the woods
On the slope of the hill.
 TOAST[1]

LEMUEL KAYHART
Here’s to the ladies, more precious than gold,
Here’s to the modest and likewise the bold,
Here’s to the aged, old grandmother, dear,
Here’s to the maid who’s old and grown queer.

Here’s to the maiden who’s happy and gay,

Here’s to the girl who will dance night and day,
Here’s to the maid with a bosom of ice,
Here’s to the girl who will kiss a man twice.

Here’s to the brunette, the freckled and fair,

Here’s to the blonde with blue eyes and white hair,
Here’s to the maid with complexion like snow,
Here’s to old Dinah as black as a crow.

Here’s to the lady and here’s to the lass,

Here’s to the lady who’s greener than grass,
Here’s to the sweetheart, and here’s to the beau,
Here’s to the lad who can reap, plough or sow.

Here’s to the maiden who’s rosy and fat,

Here’s to the miser, more like a starved cat,
Here’s to the lean, stout, long, slim and tall,
God bless their dear hearts, we’ll toast to them all.

Here’s to the maiden who’s dimples we prize,

Here’s to the girl with a pair of black eyes,
Here’s to the housewife all cumbered with care,
Here’s to the girl with the bonny red hair.

Here’s to the servant and here’s to the king,

Here’s to the ladies that happiness bring,
Here’s to the dandy and here’s to the queen,
I’ll toast to you all, I’ll not go it mean.

Here’s to the aged and here’s to the young,

Here’s to the maid with a little short tongue,
Here’s to the gossip though feeble and frail,
Tongue on a swizel and long as a rail.

Here’s to the widow and here’s to the maid,

Here’s to the woman of work not afraid,
Here’s to the girl who can laugh, sing or sigh,
Here’s to the maid with false teeth and one eye.

Here’s to the lady who’s over-refined,

All banged in the head and bustle behind,
God bless them, we love them, they’re handsome and fair,
Even when made up with cotton and hair.

Here’s to the mother of one little boy,

Here’s to his papa who’s filled full of joy,
Here’s to the man who’s nary a son,
Here’s to the father of twenty and one.

Here’s to the babies, the sweet little dears,

Here’s to their parents who shed silent tears,
Here’s to the maid with a heart full of woe,
Here’s to the lass who can say yes or no.

Here’s to our cousins, our uncles and aunts,

Here’s to the boy with his first pair of pants,
Here’s to the youth whom many boys know,
Who looks in the glass to see his hair grow.

Here’s to the man, too honest to cheat,

Here’s to the butcher who sells us good meat,
May he live long and happy with plentiful store,
And when we’re all hungry, stop at our door.

Here’s to our parents, we speak it with cheer,

Of all of our kindred we love them most dear,
They nursed and they watched us in childhood and youth,
They guided our footsteps in justice and truth.

Here’s to the man without any wife,

May he soon take a partner to comfort his life,
Here’s to his children whenever they come,
They’ll make him more noise than Hessey’s big drum.
Here’s to the man with his millions of cash,
Here’s to the beggar who begs for his hash,
Here’s to the man who has plenty to give,
Here’s to the man who works hard to live.

Here’s to the doctor and here’s to the priest,

Here’s to the heathen far out in the east,
Here’s to the lawyer and here’s to the judge,
Here’s to the devil who owes them a grudge.

Here’s to the statesman who’s honest and true,

Here’s to the sheriff who hung old Guiteau,
Here’s to the Giant and Commodore Dot,
Here’s to the people whom I’ve forgot.

Here’s to the pilgrims—our father’s band,—

Who crossed the wide ocean to free us a land,
Here’s to their courage, the world it outstrips,
Here’s to the heroes of Seventy-six.

Here’s to the soldiers who battled the foe,

And death, death to treason as you all know,
Here’s to the sailors, those noble jack tars,
So nobly they fought for the stripes and the stars.

Here’s to the boys who fell in the strife,

To save us a nation each gave his own life;
Here’s to the sailors who bleach on the surf,
Here’s to the soldiers who sleep ’neath the turf.

Here’s to our Lincoln—although he is dead,

And calmly he rests in his green, mossy bed,—
His earthly career, although it is passed,
On history’s pages forever will last.

Here’s to our country, sweet land of the free,

Here’s to our nation’s great liberty tree,
Here’s to our banner to freedom unfurled,
Here’s to our eagle, king bird of the world.

Here’s to our Union, as firm as the hills,

Here’s to the rivers that turn the great mills,
Here’s to our mountains of silver and gold,
Our riches and power can never be told.

Here’s to our party—our friends with the rest,—

 And here’s to the people we each love best,
May we live in the future like lambs of one flock,
And all work together like the works of a clock.

And now I will stop, I’ve toasted to all,

Our country, our banner, the great and the small,
So now I will bid you a friendly adieu,
Three roaring cheers for the Red, White and Blue!

1. Spoken by Lemuel Kayhart at the twentieth wedding anniversary of Mr. and

Mrs. Lemuel Kayhart, on Monday, August 12, 1889, at Montville, N. J.
 BEYOND THE SKIES

LEMUEL KAYHART
There is a land beyond the skies,
Where joy and pleasure never dies;
A land from sin and sorrow free,
Oh! how I long that land to see.

I fain would leave this world of woe,

And to that happy land I’d go;
I’d bid adieu to earthly ties
And reign with Him beyond the skies.

Who made this world, the shining sun,

And bid the stars their courses run?
Who formed the land, who made the trees,
The mighty oceans and the seas?

Who reared the mountains crowned in green,

The winding rivers roll between;
And all that’s seen by human eyes,
And all beyond the bright blue skies?

Who scattered countless worlds through space

To onward plod their weary race,
Till God shall stand on sea and shore,
Declaring time shall be no more?

Oh! great Jehovah, faithful friend,

On Thee our fainting souls depend;
Guide us with unerring eye,
To realms of bliss beyond the sky.

Beautiful land, enchanted land,

Where angels to me beckoning stand,
To call me from this earth away
To reign with Christ in endless day.

By faith I see that happy land,

The vacant seat at Christ’s right hand;
The place that waits me till I rise
To reign with Him beyond the skies.

By faith those pearly gates I see,

Those gates stand open wide for me;
The angels there in waiting stand
To pass me to that happy land.

The dear ones in that happy land,

Methinks I see them hand in hand;
A sister and a darling boy,
And oh! it thrills my soul with joy—

To think of meeting them again,

Beyond this world of care and pain;
Glorious anthems there will rise,
When I get home beyond the skies.

Beautiful land, land of light,

The angels robed in pearly white;
My very soul within me sighs,
To gain that land beyond the skies.

No troubles there will mar our peace,

Our pleasures there will never cease;
No tears of grief will dim our eyes,
In that bright land beyond the skies.

Beautiful land with streets of gold,

Thy splendors half can ne’er be told;
When shall my soul to thee arise—
Jehovah’s throne beyond the skies.

This life is but a troubled dream;

When shall I cross cold Jordan’s stream?
Oh! hasten death, my soul replies,
To waft me home beyond the skies.