Tutor: Ms.Dechen Lhamo.

Group five members:

1.Ugyen Wangmo.
2.Yangchen Dolkar.
3.Ugyen Drukpa.
4.Sonam Zangmo.
5.Tempa Sangay.
6.Sonam Phuntsho.
7.Sonam Jamtsho.
 PHOTODIODE
 A photodiode is a PN-junction diode that generates electric current on consuming or
receiving light energy (photons).
 It is also known as photo-detector, photo-sensor or light detector and is designed to
work only in reverse bias condition.

Construction and symbol of Photodiode

 Photodiode is a PN junction diode, which is formed by the junction P-type
semiconductor material such as Boron, Aluminum, Gallium and N-type semiconductor
material such as Arsenic, Antimony, and Phosphorous.

 The front area of the diode is divided into two types such as non-active surface which
consist of SiO2 (Silicon dioxide) and the active surface which is coated with anti-
reflection material. The active layer is coated with anti-reflection material so that the
lost of light energy is negligible and the maximum of it is converted into electric
current.

Working of Photodiode
 Photodiode works on the principle of photo-electric effect. The working principle of
the photodiode is such that when the incident light falls onto the two terminals of the
semiconductor device then electric current starts to flow through it.

VI-characteristics of Photodiode

 From the figure, it concludes that the reverse current is almost independent of the
reverse voltage. The reverse current is nearly zero when there is no illumination but
there will be a small amount of current present due to the minority charge carriers is
called dark current. The reverse current increases linearly with increase in
illumination.

Advantages

 The photodiode has better frequency response, linearity and spectral response than
Light Dependent Resistor ( LDR).
 It can be operate at high frequencies in the order of 1 MHz.
 It is highly sensitive to the light.
 It has lower noise.
 Fastest photo detector.

Disadvantages

 It has rapid increase in dark current with temperature.

 It has small active area.
 It needs offset voltage.
 Applications

 Used inside camera as a automatic shutter control , auto-focus and photographic flash
control.
 Used as a medical instruments such as CAT Scanners - X ray detection , pulse oximeters
, blood particle analyzers.
 Used as a safety equipment as a smoke detectors , flame monitors ,security inspection
equipment - airport X ray , intruder alert - security system .

 Used as an automotive : Headlight dimmer , twilight detectors , climate control -

sunlight detector.

 Used in industry as bar code scanners , light pens , brightness controls , encoders ,
position sensors, surveying instruments .

SCHOTTKY DIODE
 Is a metal - semiconductor junction diode that has less forward voltage drop than the
P -N junction diode and used in high-speed switching.
 It is also referred as schottky barrier diode or hot carrier diode

Electronic Symbol

Construction
 It is made using a metal(molybdenum, platinum, chromium or tungsten and certain
silicones) and semiconductor(n - type silicon)
 The junction that is formed between the metal and N-type semiconductor is known as
the metal-semiconductor junction or M-S junction, thus creating a schottky barrier.
The metal side acts as the anode of the diode and N-type semiconductor acts as the
cathode.
Working

 The schottky diode operates only with majority carriers and there are no minority
carriers, thus no reverse leakage current as in other types of diodes. The metal region
is heavily occupied with conduction-band electrons, and the n-type semiconductor
region is lightly doped. When forward-biased, the higher energy electrons in the n
region are injected into the metal region where they give up their excess energy very
rapidly. Since there are no minority carriers, there is no large current from the metal
to the semiconductor in the reverse bias. There is a rapid response when there is
change in bias.
VI -characteristics of Schottky diode

 The forward voltage drop of schottky barrier diode is low compared to normal PN
junction diode. The forward voltage drop increases with the increasing doping
concentration of n type semiconductor. The curve of schottky diode is steeper
compared to normal PN junction diode due to high concentration of current carriers.
Advantages
 Low turn on voltage or low forward voltage.

 Fast reverse recovery time.

 It has a very low junction capacitance.

 It has high current density.

Disadvantages
 It has a relatively high reverse current.
 It is more susceptible to leaking current when voltage is connected in reverse.
 Schottky diodes tend to have low maximum reverse voltage

Applications
 Schottky diodes are high-current diodes used primarily in high-frequency and fast-
switching applications such as in many digital circuits to decrease switching times.
 It is widely used in power supplies, to detect signals and used in logic circuits.
 The Schottky barrier diodes are widely used in the electronics industry finding many
uses as diode rectifier.

VARACTOR DIODE
 They are semiconductor, voltage-dependent, variable capacitors.

 It also known as voltage variable capacitance (VVC) or varicap or tuning diode

Symbol
Construction/ Formation of Varactor diode

Working of Varactor diode

 When the reverse bias is applied to PN junction, the width of depletion layer increases
and with the increase of reverse voltage gradually the depletion layer increases even
more. Thus, the depletion region creates transition capacitance 𝐶 .

𝐶 =𝜀
VI -characteristics of Varactor diode
 Varactor diodes do not play any significance role when operated in forward bias.
Therefore, it is always operated in reverse bias to increase capacitance of the varactor
diode with increase in reverse bias as shown in figure below.

Advantages
 Low noise.

 Portability.

 Reliability.

 Economical.

Disadvantages
 These are specially designed to work in the reverse biased mode; it possesses the least
significance when operated in forward biasing.

Applications
 Used in television and radio receivers.

 Used as a frequency multiplier.

 Used as a voltage controlled oscillator.

 Used in parametric amplifiers.

 TUNNEL DIODE (Esaki diode)
 It is a heavily doped semiconductor device which works on the principle of
tunnelling effect.

Symbol

Construction
 In tunnel diode, n-type semiconductor emits electrons so it is considered cathode and
the p-type attracts them (anode). Germanium material is commonly used to make the
tunnel diodes (also made from gallium arsenide, gallium antimonide and silicon ).
 The concentration of the dopant in tunnel is 1000 times higher than that in normal pn
junction diode. Thus the depletion layer is very narrow and small voltage is enough
to produce electric current.

Working of the tunnelling diode

It works under five different conditions as follows:
1. Unbiased tunnel diode
 No voltage is applied to the diode.
 Depletion layer is narrow due to heavy doping.
 The net current will be zero in this condition because equal number of electrons and
holes flow in opposite direction.

2. Small voltage applied

 When small voltage (lesser than in-built voltage of the diode) is applied.
 No forward current flows through the junction.
 Minimal charges flow due to tunnelling effect, and small forward current is
generated.

3. Increased voltage applied

 The number of electrons and holes in n and p-region respectively increases.
 The depletion layer become narrow, so maximum tunnel current flows.
 4. Further increased voltage.
 It causes slight misalignment of the bands and thus only small current flows.
 Hence, tunnel current decreases.

5. Largely increased applied voltage.

 Tunnel diode operates similar to pn-junction diode.
 Tunnelling current is zero when applied voltage is more than maximum.

VI-characteristics of the Tunnel diode

 Tunnel diode generates current during forward bias and is increases to its peak point
value (Ip) with corresponding peak voltage (Vp).
 Tunneling currents starts decreasing till it reaches its minimum value called valley point
current (Iv) corresponding to valley voltage (Vv) when forward bias voltage exceed Vp.

 Negative resistance on tunnel diode means the decrease in current with increase in
voltage. Tunnel diode exhibits this phenomenon and it is an important property as it
produces power instead of absorbing power.
Advantages
 Long life.
 High-speed operation.
 Low noise.
 Low power consumption.

Disadvantages
 Tunnel diodes cannot be constructed in large numbers.
 The input and output terminals are not distinctly isolated.

Applications
 Used as logic memory storage device.
 Used in oscillator circuits.
 Used as an ultra-high speed switch.
 Used in FM receivers.
References

Boylested,L.R.,&Nashelsky,L.(2006).Electronic devices and circuit theory.

(9th ed.).New Delhi: Prentine-Hall of India Pvt.Ltd.

Varactor diode.(2015).Retrieved on 20th march 2019 from https://www.physics-and-

radio-electronics.com/electronic-devices-and circuits/semiconductor-

diodes/varactordiode- construction-definition-working.html.

VI -characteristics of tunnel diode. Retrieved on 29th March 2019 from

https://www.polytechnihub.com.

Working of the photodiode. Retrieved on 25th march 2019 from

https://www.elprocus.com/photodiode-working-principle-applications/.