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Futoshi Kurisu
AL. Ramanathan
Absar Ahmad Kazmi
Manish Kumar Editors

Trends in Asian Water

Environmental Science
and Technology
Trends in Asian Water Environmental Science
and Technology
Futoshi Kurisu • AL. Ramanathan
Absar Ahmad Kazmi • Manish Kumar
Editors

Trends in Asian Water

Environmental Science
and Technology
Editors
Futoshi Kurisu AL. Ramanathan
Research Center for Water Environment School of Environmental Sciences
University of Tokyo Jawaharlal Nehru University
Tokyo, Japan New Delhi, India

Absar Ahmad Kazmi Manish Kumar

Department of Civil Engineering Department of Environmental Science
Indian Institute of Technology Tezpur University
Roorkee, India Tezpur, Assam
India

Co-published by Springer International Publishing, Cham, Switzerland, with Capital

Publishing Company, New Delhi, India.

Sold and distributed in North, Central and South America by Springer, 233 Spring Street,
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Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka—sold and distributed by Springer, Haberstrasse 7,
D-69126 Heidelberg, Germany.

In SAARC countries—Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan

and Sri Lanka—printed book sold and distributed by Capital Publishing Company, 7/28,
Mahaveer Street, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi 110 002, India.

ISBN 978-3-319-39257-8 ISBN 978-3-319-39259-2 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-39259-2

Library of Congress Control Number: 2016953346

© Capital Publishing Company, New Delhi, India 2017

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
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from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
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Printed on acid-free paper

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The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG Switzerland
Foreword

Climate change, population growth, and urbanization create new challenges that
professionals must address to reduce negative impacts on water resources. Over the
past several decades, humans concerned with the environment have embraced the
notion that one of the most important indicators of the health of natural resources is
the quality of the water. It follows that when the quality of rivers, lakes, streams,
ponds, and wetlands is improved and protected, there will be more healthy lands,
wildlife, and overall environment. The integration, coordination, and management
of human activities within the natural boundaries of a watershed to protect or
improve water quality include a number of activities, such as river basin manage-
ment, water quality monitoring and assessment, water withdrawal, hydropower
production, wastewater discharge permit, control of nonpoint source pollution,
critical-area protection, and wetland restoration and protection.
Water recycling technologies can significantly reduce net water abstraction from
the environment, but many of those technologies require an increase in the con-
sumption of other resources, especially energy. In our resource-constrained world,
increasing the consumption of any resource, even for necessary functions such as
water management, must be carefully considered. However, with the growing water
demand, the rate of using reclaimed water is gaining pace in the Asian markets.
Water recycling involves a combination of technologies to treat the wastewater and
make it reusable or attain a safe standard for discharge. Technologies such as
nanotechnology and membrane technology have been widely used for water and
wastewater treatment depending upon the required quantity and quality and the
applicable cost as per the specific use.
The scientists and practitioners should develop the following environmental
skills and competencies for proper management of the environment such as ana-
lyzing or interpreting environmental samples and data; liaising and partnering with
stakeholders; presenting expert information on environmental matters; developing
sustainable development indicators, plans, or strategies; implementing or monitor-
ing sustainable development strategies or programs; conducting environmental

v
vi Foreword

assessments; and developing or implementing environmental communications and

awareness programs.
The chapters in this book provide a platform for scientists and practitioners to
discuss issues ranging from cutting-edge to practical levels on water environment
technologies in Asian context. The scientists and practitioners exchange their
knowledge on water environment technology, both in terms of local, region-
specific, and general aspects. This volume tries to address the various contemporary
issues such as wastewater treatment and monitoring, water quality problems, and
groundwater contamination, with particular emphasis on integrated scientific strat-
egies for management of these issues.
I would like to congratulate the great efforts of the editorial team of this volume
which will serve as a scientific information base for addressing the different water
quality issues in Asian context among the scientists, water quality practitioners,
researchers, and engineers for the effective dissemination of knowledge in the field
of water environment technology.

Research Center for Water Hiroaki Furumai

Environment Technology
Graduate School of Engineering
The University of Tokyo
Tokyo, Japan
Preface

Asia, as a whole region, faces severe stress on water availability, primarily due to
high population density. Many regions of the continent suffer from severe problems
of water pollution on local as well as regional scale. Water, environment, and
pollution together constitute a three axial problem that all concerned people in
the region would like to focus on. This book will attract a number of researchers,
policy makers, and graduate students who will get an invaluable knowledge
concerning environmental issues on water in Asia. This book aims to liven up the
discussion by scientists and practitioners to discuss issues ranging from cutting-
edge to practical levels on water environment technologies in Asian context.
It is a multidisciplinary book focused on global human health consequences of
exposure to water pollution in natural environment. The book provides a unique
platform for scientists from various fields including engineering, biogeochemical
sciences, hydrogeochemistry, social sciences, and public policy to exchange ideas
and share information on research for the possible solutions to water pollution.
Water, being the most important factor required for life, needs proper attention
in terms of uses as well as treatments. The scientists and engineers working in the
field of water have to encounter new challenges, where the effective use of new
techniques, such as tracers and modeling simulation, is becoming inevitable. The
purpose of this book is to define the emerging water problems and to provide
possible technical solutions to the arising problems. The research works included
in this book explore the various water research domains with relevant techniques
and the subject matter that deals with the concurrent “Emerging Water Quality
Issues.” This book gives emphasis on topics like (i) emerging water problems in
Asian countries, (ii) pollution dynamics in water environment, (iii) water quality
and risk, (iv) water and wastewater treatment and monitoring, (v) sociological
approach, and so forth.
The chapters included in this book comprise topics dealing with the subject
mentioned above and are intended for the students, professionals, researchers, and
engineers working on various aspects of water quality issues. The book seeks its
impact from its diverse topic coverage revealing situations of different

vii
viii Preface

contemporary issues, such as water quality problems, drinking water and wastewa-
ter treatment, metal contamination in water using isotope tracers, biological treat-
ment techniques, and sociological approach.
It is worth mentioning that all the chapters have been prepared by individuals
who are experts in their field. Honest effort has been made to check the scientific
validity, depth of study, and justification of each chapter through several iterations.
The editors, and hardworking water professionals, have put together a comprehen-
sive reference work with a belief that this book will be of immense use for present
and future colleagues who teach, study, research, and/or practice in this particular
field.

Tokyo, Japan Futoshi Kurisu

New Delhi, India AL. Ramanathan
Roorkee, India Absar Ahmad Kazmi
Tezpur, Assam, India Manish Kumar
Contents

Part I Wastewater Treatment and Monitoring: Physico-Chemical

Treatment
1 RSM and ANN-GA Experimental Design Optimization
for Electrocoagulation Removal of Chromium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Manpreet S. Bhatti, Ashwani K. Thukral, Akepati S. Reddy,
and Rajeev K. Kalia
2 Sunlight-Assisted Photo-Fenton Process for Removal
of Insecticide from Agricultural Wastewater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Amrita Dutta, Sanjukta Datta, Mahua Ghosh, Debasish Sarkar,
and Sampa Chakrabarti
3 Catalytic Reduction of Water Contaminant ‘4-Nitrophenol’
over Manganese Oxide Supported Ni Nanoparticles . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Pangkita Deka, Debajyoti Bhattacharjee, Pingal Sarmah,
Ramesh C. Deka, and Pankaj Bharali
4 Simulation of Nitrate Removal in a Batch Flow
Electrocoagulation-Flotation (ECF) Process by Response
Surface Method (RSM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
E. Nazlabadi and M.R. Alavi Moghaddam

Part II Wastewater Treatment and Monitoring: Biological

Treatment
5 Decolourization Studies of a Novel Textile Dye Degrading
Bacterium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
S. Menaka and S. Rana
6 Preliminary Study of Rapid Enhanced Effective Micro-organisms
(REEM) in Oil and Grease Trap from Canteen Wastewater . . . . . 71
T. Kornboonraksa

ix
x Contents

7 Step-Feed Technology in SBR to Enhance the Treatment

of Landfill Leachate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
K.B.S.N. Jinadasa, T.I.P. Wimalaweera, H.M.W.A.P. Premarathne,
and S.M.A.L. Senarathne
8 Response Surface Optimization of Phosphate Removal from
Aqueous Solution Using a Natural Adsorbent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Prangya Ranjan Rout, Puspendu Bhunia, and Rajesh Roshan Dash
9 Removal of Pharmaceuticals from Water Using Adsorption . . . . . . 105
V. Arya and Ligy Philip

Part III Hydrological and Quality Issues: Surface Water

10 Hydrological Regimes and Zooplankton Ecology at Tempe
Floodplains, Indonesia: Preliminary Study Before
the Operation of the Downstream Barrage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Reliana Lumban Toruan and Fajar Setiawan
11 Organics and Heavy Metals Content in River Receiving
the Effluent of Municipal Landfill Leachate Treatment . . . . . . . . . 127
Indah R.S. Salami and Dimas K. Rizaldi

Part IV Hydrological and Quality Issues: Groundwater

Contamination
12 Tracing the Significance of River for Arsenic Enrichment
and Mobilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Manish Kumar, Nilotpal Das, and Kali Prasad Sarma
13 Evaluation of Groundwater Quality in 14 Districts in Sri Lanka:
A Collaboration Research Between Sri Lanka and Japan . . . . . . . . 151
S.K. Weragoda and Tomonori Kawakami
14 Arsenic Contamination in Groundwater Affecting Holocene
Aquifers of India: A Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Babar A. Shah
15 Water Quality Evaluation in a Rural Stretch of Tezpur, Assam
(India) Using Water Quality Index and Correlation Matrix . . . . . . 169
K.U. Ahamad, N. Medhi, V. Kumar, and N. Nikhil

Part V Hydrological and Quality Issues: Water Resource

in Changing Paradigm
16 Meltwater Quality and Quantity Assessment in the Himalayan
Glaciers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Virendra Bahadur Singh and AL. Ramanathan
Contents xi

17 Delineation of Point Sources of Recharge in Karst Settings . . . . . . 195

Gh. Jeelani and Rouf A. Shah
18 Identify the Major Reasons to Cause Vulnerability to Mekong
Delta Under the Impacts of Drought and Climate Change . . . . . . . 211
Bui Viet Hung
19 Multi-pathway Risk Assessment of Trihalomethanes Exposure
in Drinking Water Supplies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Minashree Kumari and S.K. Gupta
20 The Study of Water Losses Using Knowledge Based System
Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Nassereldeen A. Kabbashi, Mohd A. Hasif, and Mohammed E. Saeed

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
About the Editors

Futoshi Kurisu is an associate professor at the Research Center for Water Envi-
ronment Technology (RECWET), the University of Tokyo. He has received awards
for the excellent paper for young scientists from the Japan Society of Civil
Engineers in 2001. He has also won the Takeda Techno-Entrepreneurship Award
and Kurita Excellent Research Award for Water and Environmental Studies, in
2002 and 2010, respectively. He has more than 70 papers in peer-reviewed journals.
He is member of the Japan Society on Water Environment, Japan Society of
Microbial Ecology, Japan Society of Civil Engineers, Japan Society for Environ-
mental Biotechnology, Japan Society of Water Treatment Biology, International
Water Association, and International Society of Microbial Ecology. His current
research interests are microbial enhancement of soil/groundwater bioremediation,
microbial analysis of biological water/wastewater treatment processes, and water
quality evaluation of water resources for reuse.

AL. Ramanathan a PhD in sedimentary geochemistry, is currently a professor in

the School of Environmental Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi,
India. He is engaged in coastal research in different parts of the world, such as
nutrient dynamics, paleoenvironment, source identification, etc., with a number of
universities and research organizations in India, Australia, Russia, the USA, etc.
He has guided several PhDs in the above subject and published more than
60 papers in referred reputed journals. He has also published 5 books and several
chapters in many books. He has got three times IFS Sweden (Project) Awards for
his work on mangrove biogeochemistry besides working in national and interna-
tional projects from Indo-Australian, Indo-Russian, DST, MoEF, MoWR, etc. He
was a postdoctoral fellow under the STA Japan program, UGC-Russian Academy
of Science program, CSIR, INSA, DST, etc. He is chief editor of the Journal of
Climate Change and a member of the editorial board in the Indian Journal of
Marine Sciences and served as referee for many national and international
journals as well.

xiii
xiv About the Editors

Absar Ahmad Kazmi is a professor of environmental engineering in the Depart-

ment of Civil Engineering, IIT Roorkee. He obtained his doctorate of engineering
from the University of Tokyo in 1999. After working as a project engineer in
Nishihara Environment Technology, Tokyo, during 1999–2004, he is actively
involved in teaching, research, consultancy, and continuing education programs
in IIT Roorkee. He has received many awards and published more than 150 papers
in peer-reviewed journals, book chapters, and conferences. He is a member and
chairman of several committees of national and state governments most notable are
the Ministry of Urban Development on the preparation of design and O&M
manuals of sewage treatment, Research Advisory Committee of the Ministry of
Environment and Forests, and National Green Tribunal. He chaired several confer-
ences, delivered expert lectures, did several sponsored research projects, and was
involved with various consultancy projects from various companies and
organizations.

Manish Kumar a PhD in environmental engineering from the University of

Tokyo, Japan, is a faculty member at Tezpur Central University, Assam, India.
He has four book publications to his credit. A well-proven publication record (>50)
with 12 years of experience in hydrology and water management and working
experience at prestigious institutes like the University of Tokyo, Japan Kunsan
National University, S. Korea Uppsala University, Sweden and Jawaharlal Nehru
University (JNU), Delhi, is credited to his name. He is the recipient of the research
grant award from the Kurita Water Environment Foundation (KWEF), Japan
(ID P:14009) major research project grant from the University Grants Commission
(UGC), India (2012–2015) uranium research grant by the Bhabha Atomic Research
Centre (BARC), Mumbai (2015) Water Advanced Research and Innovation
(WARI) Fellowship, USA (2016–2017) two best poster awards as coauthor of the
paper Best Research Award 2013 at the 4th Asia-Pacific Water Young Profes-
sionals (APWYP) conference at Tokyo by the International Water Association
(IWA) initiative DST Young Scientist Award (2012–2015) JSPS Foreign
Researcher Fellowship (2010–2012) COE Young Researcher Fund (2007) and
Linnaeus-Palme stipend from SIDA, Sweden (2005). He is on the editorial board
of the Journal of Groundwater for Sustainable Development (Elsevier Journal) and
International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering.
 Part I
Wastewater Treatment and Monitoring:
Physico-Chemical Treatment
Chapter 1
RSM and ANN-GA Experimental Design
Optimization for Electrocoagulation
Removal of Chromium

Manpreet S. Bhatti, Ashwani K. Thukral, Akepati S. Reddy,

and Rajeev K. Kalia

1 Introduction

Heavy metal removal from industrial wastewater is affected using conventional

treatment technologies such as chemical precipitation, ion-exchange, reverse osmo-
sis and biological treatment etc. (Adhoum et al. 2004). Electrocoagulation removal
of heavy metals is a fast process on account of quick start up, compact treatment
facility, reduced sludge formation and better removal efficiencies, thus becoming a
more common technology. Chromium is widely used in electroplating, metallurgi-
cal and refractory industries for chrome plating, chrome alloys, tanning, pigment
production and as corrosion inhibitor etc. CPCB (2001) prescribed wastewater
discharge standards of 2 mg/L for total chromium and 0.05 mg/L for hexavalent
chromium. Untreated effluents of electroplating, leather and textile industries have
high chromium concentration of 140 mg/L, 10–50 mg/L and 5–20 mg/L respec-
tively (Abassi et al. 1997). Wastewaters containing chromium, designated as a
priority pollutant by USEPA, have to be treated before being discharged into the
environment (Metcalf and Eddy 2003). Chromium speciation in effluent mainly
depends upon pH, redox potential and its kinetics along with presence/absence of
reducing agents (WHO 1996). A two-step chemical precipitation (reduction at pH
<3 followed by precipitation at pH ~8) of chromium is most widely used treatment
technology at industrial scale with precipitants of hydroxide, carbonates and sulfide

M.S. Bhatti (*) • A.K. Thukral

Department of Botanical and Environmental Sciences, Guru Nanak Dev University, Amritsar,
Punjab, India
e-mail: mbhatti73@gmail.com
A.S. Reddy
School of Energy and Environment, Thapar University, Patiala, Punjab, India
R.K. Kalia
GGS Super Thermal Power Plant, Ropar, Punjab, India

© Capital Publishing Company, New Delhi, India 2017 3

F. Kurisu et al. (eds.), Trends in Asian Water Environmental Science and
Technology, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-39259-2_1
4 M.S. Bhatti et al.

(Eckenfelder 2000). This technique produces huge quantity of hazardous sludge

with poor process control. Whereas, electrocoagulation removal of chromium was
studied by various researchers in the recent past (Akbal and Camci 2011, 2012; Al
Anbari et al. 2012; Arroyo et al. 2009; Beyazit 2014; Bhagawan et al. 2014; Cataldo
et al. 2012; Dermentzis et al. 2011; Espinoza-Qui~nones et al. 2012; Liu et al. 2014;
Hamdan and El-Naas 2014; Heidmann and Calmano 2008; Odongo and McFarland
2014; Sarahney et al. 2012; Shahriari et al. 2014; Vasudevan et al. 2012; Verma
et al. 2013 and Zongo et al. 2009). Response surface methodology (RSM) based
optimization for electrocoagulation was studied by Bhatti et al. 2009, 2011a;
Espinoza-Qui~ nones et al. 2012; Liu et al. 2014; Olmez 2009; Xu et al. 2014;
Zaroual et al. 2009 and artificial neural network (ANN) approach by Aber
et al. 2009 and Bhatti et al. 2011a, b. The present work aims at multiple response
optimization for maximizing chromium removal efficiency while minimizing
energy consumption for iron electrodes under different process conditions viz.,
chromium concentration, pH, current density and treatment time. Experimental
results were analyzed using RSM and artificial neural network-genetic algorithm
to optimized electrocoagulation of Cr(VI) from K2Cr2O7 solution.

2 Materials and Methods

A stock solution of K2Cr2O7 (Spectrochem, India) containing 500 mg/L of Cr

(VI) was prepared in deionized water. The stock solution was diluted to obtain
desired concentration. The pH was set using 0.01 M H2SO4 or 0.01 M NaOH.
Conductivity of the solution was maintained around 2000
100 μS/cm using KCl.
AR grade reagents and chemicals were used in the present study.

2.1 Experimental Setup and Procedure

Experimental setup for electrocoagulation is given in Fig. 1.1. Cr(VI) solution

(32.5 mg/L to 72.5 mg/L) was used in the present study using iron-iron pair of
electrodes at 15 mm electrode spacing. EDX (Quanta F-200 FEI, Netherland)
spectrum of the iron electrode gave its composition as 93.55 % iron with C
(4.25 %) and minor impurities (<1 %) for Mg and Si. Regulated DC power supply
(specifications 0–32 V and 0–10 A) was procured from Aplab, Mumbai (L-3210).
Current intensity was recorded using digital panel meter, and the energy consumed
was recorded and average of amperage at the start and at the end of the experiment.
A 540 ml of desired strength of Cr(VI) solution was taken in the electrocoagulation
reactor. The electrodes were submerged up to a depth of 20 cm in the solution, to
give 100 cm2 of effective electrode area. Treated wastewater was allowed to settle
for 2 h, and the supernatant analyzed for Cr(VI) and total chromium concentration.
Chromium removal efficiency and energy consumption were determined as
follows:
1 RSM and ANN-GA Design Optimization for Removal of Chromium 5

Power Regulated DC Power Supply

on
off
7 cm
8.88 V 8.88 A
4 cm
Range: 0-32 V Range: 0-10 A R
Coarse Fine Coarse Fine
E
Water level
A
E
L C
E
Digital Timer 30 cm
C T
Min
T
8.88 O
Sec R
Reset
O
D
R
E

Magnetic bar
Main Supply
AC

On
Magnetic Stirrer
Off RPM

Fig. 1.1 Electrocoagulation experimental setup (Reprinted with permission from ref. Bhatti
et al. (2009). Copyright 2009 Elsevier)

CrðVIÞ removal efficiency ð%Þ ¼ ðCi  Cf Þ=Ci  100

Energy consumption ðWhÞ ¼ V  I  h
Energy consumption ðkWh m3 Þ ¼ Wh  1000=Vol:

Energy consumption ðkWh=kgÞ ¼ ½V I h  1000= ðCi  Cf Þ  Vol:

where Ci and Cf represent the initial and final concentrations of Cr(VI) in mg/L,
V (voltage), I (amperage) and h (electrolysis time in hours) and Vol. (volume of
solution in litres).

2.2 Analytical Techniques

Cr(VI) and total chromium was determined colorimetrically as per method

no. 3500-Cr (APHA 1998). 1,5-diphenylcarbazide, MW 242.28 procured from
Central Drug House, Mumbai was used as complexometric reagent for Cr
(VI) estimation at 540 nm. Total chromium was determined after oxidizing Cr
(III) to Cr(VI) using KMNO4 under acidic conditions. The difference in Cr(VI) and
6 M.S. Bhatti et al.

total chromium was negligible (<0.1 mg/L) in many of the random samples. Thus,
chromium removal efficiency is reported instead of Cr(VI) removal efficiency.

2.3 Electrocoagulation Process

The process of electrocoagulation involves a sequence of several chemical and

physical phenomena. The in situ production of ions involves formation of coagu-
lants by electrolytic oxidation of sacrificial electrodes, destabilization of colloidal
contaminants, breaking of emulsion and flocculation. Generally, aluminum and iron
electrodes are employed for in situ generation of coagulating agents. A potential
difference is maintained across the electrodes with the help of external power
supply. In this process, the anode is sacrificed for the dissolution of electrolytic
coagulating ions as follows:On anode

FeðsÞ ! FeðIIÞ þ 2 e

On cathode

2H2 O þ 2 e ! 2OH ðaqÞ þ H2ðgÞ

Overall reaction in bulk solution (pH between 6 and 8) is as follows:

CrO4 2 ðaqÞ þ 8Hþ ðaqÞ þ 6FeðIIÞðaqÞ ! CrðIIIÞðaqÞ þ 6FeðIIIÞðaqÞ þ 4H2 O

Cr2 O7 2 ðaqÞ þ 14 Hþ ðaqÞ þ 6FeðIIÞðaqÞ ! 2CrðIIIÞðaqÞ þ 6 FeðIIIÞðaqÞ þ 7H2 O
CrðIIIÞðaqÞ þ 3OH ðaqÞ ! CrðOHÞ3ðsÞ

2.4 Experimental Design

Preliminary screening was done to determine significant process variables and

treatments were selected on the basis of significant differences in Cr(VI) removal
efficiency (>20 %) for further studies. Working standards of each selected param-
eters were decided on the basis of preliminary experimentation. Factorial design
(24) was used for screening and determining the relative importance of the
independent process variables. The design was augmented to centre composite
design (CCD). The process variables were initial Cr(VI) concentration, pH,
current density and treatment time.
1 RSM and ANN-GA Design Optimization for Removal of Chromium 7

2.4.1 Response Surface Methodology

RSM employs polynomial models for data fitting. CCD, the most widely used
experimental, is given as follows:

X
v X
v X
v
Y ¼ bo þ bn X n þ bnm X2n þ bnm Xn Xm ;
n¼1 n¼1 n<m

where bo is fixed response at the central point of the experiment; bn, bm and bnm are
linear, quadratic and cross product coefficients, respectively, and v is number of
variables.
Each variable was defined at five different levels (–α, –1, 0, +1 and +α) for
developing second order models (Anderson and Whitcomb 2004). ANOVA was
performed to determine the significance differences (p  0.05) in responses under
different conditions. Cr(VI) removal efficiency (%) was used as a response. To
guard against systematic bias, the experimental runs were conducted in a random-
ized manner. The experiments were performed at optimum conditions to validate
and confirm the model. Generally, the experimental data was fit into second order
quadratic model with the help of multiple regression technique. Model fitting and
graphical analyses were carried out using Design-Expert 8.0.7.1 software (Stat-
Ease Inc., Minneapolis, MN, USA). Sequential model sum of squares table gives
cumulative improvement in the model fit with addition of model terms. ANOVA
table was generated for fitted model and model lack of fit was checked to compare
the residual error with the pure error obtained from the replicated runs.
Non-significant lack of fit was assessed from the tabulated F-values. Significant
model terms were identified at p ¼ 0.95 and model reduction was done by elimi-
nating non-significant model terms, thereby improving predicted R2. Model good-
ness of fit was evaluated from coefficient of determination (R2) and coefficient of
variation (CV) to check the variability explained and robustness of the fitted model.
Signal to noise (S/N) was estimated from adequacy precision ratio, with S/N ratio
>4 being satisfactory for the model. Model selection and model building are
depicted in Fig. 1.2. Before moving to graphical analysis, diagnostic plots like
normal probability plots and actual vs. predicted plot were observed to eliminate
any outlier in the data. Regression equations for chromium removal efficiency and
energy consumption are simultaneously optimized for energy efficient chromium
removal using desirability function (Bhatti et al. 2011b).

2.4.2 Artificial Neural Network-Genetic Algorithm

ANN modelling is a non-linear technique for data fitting. ANN model (three layers)
was generated from the experimental data and the fitted model was integrated with
GA toolbox using MATLAB software (The Mathworks, Inc. v7.6). Pareto front was
generated for two conflicting goals (maximizing Cr(VI) removal efficiency and
8 M.S. Bhatti et al.

Actual responses

Selection of model viz. Linear, 2 factor

Model
interaction, quadratic and cubic model.
selection

Analyse model significance based on

ANOVA
F-value and p -value.

Check Normal probability plot,

Model diagnostic
Max. to min response, Model
checking
Lack of fit.
Data
transformation if
recommended
by Box-Cox plot
Checking highly influencing
responses through residue, Response
Leverage, DFFITS and Cook’s sensitivity testing Check
distance highly
influencing
responses
Process understanding through
Graphical analysis
response surface plots.

Using desirability function Process optimization

Fig. 1.2 Flow chart of model selection, model building and response optimization (Reprinted
with permission from ref. Bhatti et al. (2011a). Copyright 2011 Elsevier)

minimizing energy consumption). A fully connected three-layer feed-forward net-

work with the input, hidden and output layers was generated through optimum
selection of hidden layer neurons. Each node in the input layer (five nodes)
represents the value of one independent variable while the output layer (two
nodes) indicates the dependent variables. ANN model (neural network toolbox
v6) was trained using ‘TRAINBR’ function. This algorithm also computes the
number of effective network parameters (weights and biases) used by the network.
The convergence of effective number of network parameters was chosen as a
decision tool to allocate optimum number of neurons in the hidden layer, in this
case seven nodes. A number of training runs were performed to look out for the best
1 RSM and ANN-GA Design Optimization for Removal of Chromium 9

possible weights in error back-propagation (BP) framework and the final selected
network architecture was trained.
The trained network was checked for mean square error (MSE) and correlation
coefficient. GA based multi-objective optimization achieves maximizing or mini-
mizing of an objective function. ANN model was integrated with GA (direct search
toolbox v2.3) to get the non-dominated Pareto optimal front using ‘gamultiobj’
function. Multi-objective optimization is the simultaneous optimization of chro-
mium removal efficiency and energy consumption. Multi-objective optimization
provides a set of equally good solutions called as non-dominated or Pareto optimal
solutions. Pareto front resolves the trade-offs between the competing objectives,
and identifies those solutions which are non-dominated. MATLAB’s ‘gamultiobj’
function uses a controlled elitist genetic algorithm which ranks the individuals in
objective function space on the basis of degree of non-domination or dominance
depth. Elitist selection mechanism selects the current best solutions in subsequent
generations without applying any operators to them. Controlled elitism maintains a
balance between exploration and exploitation of the objective function space. The
input decision variables corresponding to each of the Pareto optimal solutions are
tabulated.

2.5 Path Analysis

Path analysis reveals the structured relationships between a set of independent

variables, and is studied using the decomposition and interpretation of direct,
indirect and total effects of independent process variables on the response variables.
Chromium removal efficiency was taken as response variable and five process
variables as independent variables. In the present work an attempt is made to
separate the effect of five process variables—chromium concentration, pH, current
density, treatment time and effective reactor volume of 150 ml (electrode distance
of 15 mm) and 250 ml (electrode distance of 25 mm) in to direct and indirect
effects.

3 Results and Discussion

Four independent factors (chromium concentration, pH, current density and treat-
ment time) at two-level factorial design were used for conducting the experiments.
Responses monitored were chromium removal efficiency and energy consumption.
Then, additional experiments (axial runs) were also conducted to fit second order
model as per CCD. The results obtained for Fe-Fe electrode combinations is given
in Table 1.1.
10 M.S. Bhatti et al.

Table 1.1 Experimental design with observed responses for chromium removal efficiency and
energy consumption for iron electrode combination
Process variables Response 1 Response 2
Current Treatment Cr removal Energy
Exp. Cr conc. pH density time efficiency consumed
no. mg/L – A/m2 min (%) (Wh)
1a 32.5 4.89 20 6.5 66.4 0.023
2 72.5 4.94 20 6.5 58.2 0.023
3 32.5 6.21 20 7.2 60.7 0.026
4 72.5 6.64 30 6.5 53.9 0.035
5 32.5 5.44 40 6.5 80.6 0.047
6 72.5 5.25 40 6.5 70.5 0.047
7 32.5 6.7 40 6.5 80.6 0.047
8 72.5 6.72 50 6.5 66.5 0.058
9 32.5 5.44 60 6.5 95.9 0.124
10 72.5 4.94 60 7.2 76.0 0.138
11 32.5 6.21 60 6.5 91.7 0.124
12 72.5 6.64 60 6.5 66.4 0.124
13 32.5 5.26 90 6.5 99.5 0.187
14 72.5 5.25 100 6.5 94.2 0.207
15 32.5 6.7 80 6.5 98.9 0.166
16 72.5 6.72 100 6.5 89.4 0.207
17 32.5 4.89 20 11.5 93.4 0.041
18 72.5 4.94 20 11.5 73.2 0.041
19 32.5 6.21 20 11.5 86.4 0.041
20 72.5 6.64 30 11.5 69.1 0.062
21 32.5 5.44 40 11.5 99.3 0.083
22 72.5 5.25 40 11.5 89.7 0.083
23 32.5 6.7 40 11.5 97.9 0.083
24 72.5 6.72 50 11.5 91.7 0.104
25 32.5 5.44 60 11.5 99.7 0.221
26 72.5 4.94 60 11.5 97.2 0.221
27 32.5 6.21 60 11.5 98.7 0.221
28 72.5 6.64 60 11.5 92.9 0.221
29 32.5 5.26 80 11.5 99.5 0.295
30 72.5 5.25 100 11.5 99.2 0.369
31 32.5 6.7 80 11.5 99.1 0.295
32 72.5 6.72 100 11.5 99.4 0.369
33 52.5 5.65 60 9.0 86.1 0.135
34 52.5 5.61 60 9.0 76.7 0.135
35 52.5 5.61 60 9.0 73.4 0.135
36 52.5 5.61 60 9.0 71.41 0.135
37 52.5 5.76 60 9.0 78.38 0.135
38 52.5 5.76 60 9.0 68.04 0.135
39 52.5 5.65 40 9.0 77.87 0.090
(continued)
1 RSM and ANN-GA Design Optimization for Removal of Chromium 11

Table 1.1 (continued)

Process variables Response 1 Response 2
Current Treatment Cr removal Energy
Exp. Cr conc. pH density time efficiency consumed
no. mg/L – A/m2 min (%) (Wh)
40 52.5 5.65 40 9.0 72.90 0.090
41 52.5 2.82 50 9.0 83.75 0.113
42 52.5 7.81 60 9.0 75.80 0.135
43 52.5 5.64 60 9.0 89.72 0.135
44 52.5 5.67 10 9.0 48.66 0.008
45 52.5 5.65 100 9.0 99.87 ND
46 52.5 5.65 60 3.0 69.77 0.045
47 52.5 5.65 60 15.0 99.50 0.225
a
Exp. no. 1–40 are used in factorial modelling and Exp. no. 1–47 are used for CCD

3.1 RSM Modelling and Optimization

Experimental data for Fe-Fe electrode combination along with actual responses is
given in Table 1.1. Half probability plot predicted that current density, treatment
time and chromium concentration had the highest effects on Cr(VI) removal effi-
ciency (Fig. 1.3a). Pareto chart revealed that current density, treatment time and
chromium concentration have a significant effect on chromium removal efficiency
since it crossed the bonferroni limit. Similarly, 2FI between current density and
treatment time had a possible significant effect as it crossed t-value limit (Fig. 1.3b).
The fitted model was significant at 99.99 % level of significance (F-value ¼ 47.29 at
degree of freedom df ¼ 4) with not-significant lack of fit ( p ¼ 0.461). Final equation
in terms of unit-less regression coefficients and actual process conditions is given in
Table 1.2. The regression coefficients in coded equations were used to find the
relevant importance of individual terms on normalized scale. The current density
had the highest positive contribution in the chromium removal efficiency followed
by treatment time. The solution pH has no effect on chromium removal efficiency,
and has to be maintained within the range, preferably in slightly acidic conditions.
This minimises the use of acidic conditions for chromium reduction. Modelling of
energy consumption has current density and treatment time along with 2FI between
current density and treatment time as significant process conditions. ANOVA
model was significant at 99.99 % level of significance (F-value ¼ 287.41 at
df ¼ 3) with R2 ¼ 0.965.

3.2 Centre Composite Design

CCD is the most widely used model development strategy. Fitted ANOVA model
was highly significant at 99.99 % level of significance (F-value ¼ 36.6 at df ¼ 7)
12 M.S. Bhatti et al.

a Half-Normal Plot b Pareto Chart

Design-Expert® Software Design-Expert® Software C
Cr removal eff. (%) Cr removal eff. (%) 10.04
Error estimates 99 A: Conc
C 9.04
Shapiro-Wilk test B: pH
Half-Normal % Probability
W-value=0.945 C: CD 8.03
p-value=0.577 95 D D: Time
A 7.03 D

t-Value of |Effect|
A: Conc Positive Effects A
B: pH 90 CD
Negative Effects 6.02
C: CD
80
D: Time 5.02
70
Positive Effects
4.02
Negative Effects 50 Bonferroni Limit 3.18881
3.01 CD
30
20 t-Value Limit 2.04227
10 2.01
0
1.00
0.00
0.00

2.22

4.45

6.67

8.90

11.12

13.35

15.57

17.80

20.02
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
|Standardized Effect| Rank

c Normal Plot of Residuals d

Design-Expert® Software
Design-Expert® Software
Cr removal eff. (%)
Factor Coding: Actual
Color points by value of
Cr removal eff. (%)
Cr removal eff. (%): 99
100 100
Normal % Probability

99.87 95

Cr removal eff. (%)

48.66 90 49 90
80
70 X1 = C: CD 80
X2 = D: Time
50 70
Actual Factors
30 A: Conc = 72.5
20 60
B: pH = 4.89
10 50
5
1 6.5
100
80 7.7
9.0 in)
60
m e (m
10.3 ti
−3.00 −2.00 −1.00 0.00 1.00 2.00 Current density (A/sq. m) 40 20 11.5 ent
Internally Studentized Residuals r e atm
T

e Perturbation f
Design-Expert® Software
Design-Expert® Software
Factor Coding: Actual100 C
Factor Coding: Actual
Cr removal eff. (%) A Desirability
Actual Factors
90 1.00 0.90
A: Conc = 72.5
B: pH = 4.89 0.80
Cr removal eff. (%)

0.00
C: CD = 32
DA B 0.70
Desirability

D: Time = 11.52 80 X1 = C: CD
B X2 = D: Time 0.60
C
Actual Factors 0.50
A: Conc = 72.5 0.40
70
B: pH = 4.89 0.30
D 0.20
60
20
6.5
7.7 40 m)
50 .
9.0 60
A /sq
80 it y(
−2.000 −1.000 0.000 1.000 2.000 10.3 ns
Treatment time (min) 11.5 100 de
Deviation from Reference Point (Coded Units) nt
u rre
C

Fig. 1.3 (a) Half-Normal plot showing significant process variables in chromium removal
efficiency. (b) Pareto chart showing significant levels in chromium removal efficiency. (c) Normal
plot of residuals as per CCD. (d) 3D contour plot for current density and treatment time vs.
chromium removal efficiency. (e) Perturbation plot showing the effect of each process variable
while holding other process conditions at optimized process conditions for chromium removal
efficiency. (f) Desirability plot showing the effect of treatment time and current density on
chromium removal efficiency

with not-significant lack of fit ( p ¼ 0.3319) (Table 1.3). The proposed model has all
the linear terms, one 2-factor interaction (2FI) between current density and treat-
ment time, and squared terms for chromium concentration and current density. The
model lack of fit was not-significant, which is indicative of a strong signal as
compared to model noise. The data passed the Normal % probability test
1 RSM and ANN-GA Design Optimization for Removal of Chromium 13

Table 1.2 Empirical models for predicting chromium removal efficiency

Experimental design Empirical model
Coded equations1
Factorial Y ð%Þ ¼ 87:27  6:26A þ 15:35C þ 6:95D  4:41C  D
CCD Y ð%Þ ¼ 80:15  6:07A  2:53B þ 16:04C þ 6:70D  4:59C  D
þ 9:73A2  4:59C2
Actual equations2
Factorial Y ð%Þ ¼ 32:266  0:313A þ 0:777C þ 5:383D  0:043C  D
CCD Y ð%Þ ¼ 96:502  2:865A  2:764B þ 1:154C þ 5:389D  0:0454
C  D þ 0:024A2  2:867  103 C2
valid for A ¼ 5–100 mg/L, B ¼ 2.8–7.8, C ¼ 10–100 A/m2, D ¼ 3–15 min
1
Coded equation: Y Chromium removal efficiency, A Chromium concentration, C Current density
and D Treatment time are in coded units
2
Actual equation: Y Chromium removal efficiency, A Chromium concentration (mg/L), B pH,
C Current density (A/m2), D Treatment time (min)

Table 1.3 ANOVA statistics for chromium removal efficiency using iron electrode as per CCD
Sum of Degree of Mean p-value
Source squares (SS) freedom df squares (MS) F-value Prob. > F
Model 8244 7 1178 36.61 <0.0001*
A– 1148 1 1148 35.69 <0.0001*
Chromium conc.
B – pH 219 1 219 6.82 0.0128*
C – Current 3988 1 3988 123.96 <0.0001*
density
D – Treatment 1844 1 1844 57.32 <0.0001*
time
CD 276 1 276 8.58 0.0056*
A2 877 1 877 27.27 <0.0001*
C2 166 1 166 5.16 0.0287*
Lack of Fit 1175 35 34 1.68 0.3319
(NS)
Model statistics
Std. Dev. 5.7 R2 0.868
Mean 83.1 Adj. R2 0.844
C.V. % 6.8 Pred. R2 0.819
PRESS 1722 Adeq. 23.7
Precision
* Significant at p < 0.05
NS ¼ Not significant at p < 0.05

(Fig. 1.3c) and could be used for graphical plotting of the regression equations. The
unit-less regression equation for coded factors and actual regression equation is
given in Table 1.3. The unit-less regression equation indicated that current density
14 M.S. Bhatti et al.

has the highest positive contribution in linear terms. But, 2FI showed antagonist
interaction between current density and treatment time. The model revealed that
beyond 100 A/m2, there was no appreciable increase in Cr(VI) removal efficiency.
But, lowering treatment time had beneficial effect on energy consumption. By
keeping the treatment time around 6.5 min, the Cr(VI) removal efficiency was
96 %. Thus, there was marginal reduction in Cr(VI) removal efficiency (~3 %) if
treatment time was set at lower values (Fig. 1.3d). The perturbation plot showed
that three of the process variables, Cr(VI) concentration, current density and
treatment time, have significant effect on Cr(VI) removal efficiency (Fig. 1.3e).
Mild pH affect was observed and affected Cr(VI) removal efficiency by 5 %
maximum. Current density had positive effect on chromium removal efficiency,
but rate of increase decreased for current density above 40 A/m2. Model for energy
consumption comprised two linear terms (current density and treatment time) and
one 2FI between current density and treatment time. The reduced 2FI model
explained 95.5 % variance in the data. Multiple response optimization for maxi-
mizing chromium removal efficiency while minimizing energy consumption gave a
removal efficiency of 82 % for 72.5 mg/L Cr(VI) concentration, pH of 4.9, current
density of 30 A/m2 and treatment time of 11.5 min with energy consumption of
0.065 Wh. Desirability plot revealed that lower current density favours chromium
removal efficiency, whereas on the higher side (100 A/m2), the chances of achiev-
ing desired efficiency was substantially reduced (Fig. 1.3f). It is inferred that
current density should be in the range of 40 A/m2 to 60 A/m2 and treatment time
9 min to achieve the maximum Cr(VI) removal efficiency. The other process
factors should be maintained as per influent wastewater characteristics.

3.3 ANN-GA Modelling and Optimization

Experimental data as given in Table 1.1 along with additional experimental runs
obtained by varying distance between the electrodes from 15 to 25 mm was Fused
for fitting ANN model. The electrode distance is confounded in current density,
thus adding additional experimental runs at reduced current density to be incorpo-
rated in ANN model building. The fitted model had 77 optimum training runs and
trained network along with its biases as given in Table 1.4. The trained network
have mean sum of square errors (MSE) of 0.75 with correlation coefficient of 0.987.
The regression plot of the trained network is depicted in Fig. 1.4a. For multi-
objective optimization, ANN model was coupled with genetic algorithm. The
weighted average change in the fitness function value over 50 generations was
used as the criterion to stop the algorithm. The optimized Pareto front achieved
after 115 iterations is depicted in Fig. 1.4b and the corresponding decision variables
were taken from Table 1.5. Algorithm options were set at population size of
80, 0.75 with scattered crossover function, forward with migration fraction set to
0.2. The selection function was tournament of size two, adaptive feasible mutation
function and distance measure function set as distance crowding. From the Pareto
Table 1.4 Network weights and biases for the ANN model
Input layer to hidden layer weights (Wi)
W1 (Cr conc.) W1 (pH) W1 (Current density) W1 (Treatment time) W1 (Effective reactor volume) Bias
PE1a 0.2163 0.1342 1.0506 0.4085 0.61409 0.4070
PE2 1.6945 0.2031 0.2421 0.0710 0.1055 0.3292
PE3 0.2893 0.3388 1.0173 0.6210 0.4551 0.3959
PE4 0.0846 0.2127 1.6124 0.0876 0.1800 0.2392
PE5 0.1650 0.1067 0.7472 0.5330 0.0934 0.6932
PE6 0.0258 0.1660 0.5996 1.1670 0.0135 0.4301
PE7 0.7667 0.0679 0.86928 1.6170 0.0638 0.6901
Hidden layer to output layer weights (Wi)
W2 PE1 W2 PE2 W2 PE3 W2 PE4 W2 PE5 W2 PE6 W2 PE7 Bias
Output 1 0.7891 0.9028 1.0829 0.8137 1.0043 0.5949 0.91083 0.7920
Output 2 0.3153 0.0061 0.1940 0.7271 0.9745 0.7934 0.1841 0.6654
1 RSM and ANN-GA Design Optimization for Removal of Chromium

a
PE Processing elements, Output 1 Cr(VI) removal efficiency, Output 2 Energy consumption
15
16 M.S. Bhatti et al.

Fig. 1.4 (a) Regression plot (Actual vs. Predicted) using ANN model. (b) Pareto front showing
multi-objective optimization of chromium removal efficiency and energy consumption

front, maximum chromium removal efficiency (99.6 %) was achieved consuming

0.244 Wh of energy, whereas minimum chromium removal efficiency (78.7 %)
consumed 0.085 Wh of energy. This reduction in Cr(VI) removal efficiency from
99.6 to 78.7 % decreases energy consumption by 65 %. Minimizing energy con-
sumption to lowest values reduces removal efficiency around 80 %. The best
1 RSM and ANN-GA Design Optimization for Removal of Chromium 17

Table 1.5 Process decision variables corresponding to each of the Pareto-optimal solutions
depicted in Fig. 1.4b and chromium removal per unit energy consumption for iron electrode
(Chromium concentration ~40 mg/L, pH between 4.5 and 5.2)
Process variables Response variables Cr(VI) removal per
Current Treatment Cr(VI) removal unit energy
density time efficiency Energy consumption
A/m2 min % Wh Actual Normalized
1 70 10.0 99.6 0.244 408 1.00
2 69 10.0 98.8 0.240 411 1.01
3 66 10.0 97.8 0.226 434 1.06
4 64 10.0 97.1 0.214 453 1.11
5 63 10.0 96.6 0.208 464 1.14
6 61 10.0 95.9 0.199 482 1.18
7 59 10.0 95.1 0.188 505 1.24
8 58 9.9 94.0 0.178 527 1.29
9 57 9.9 93.4 0.172 542 1.33
10 55 10.0 93.0 0.163 570 1.40
11 54 9.9 92.5 0.158 586 1.43
12 53 10.0 92.3 0.156 592 1.45
13 52 9.9 90.9 0.148 613 1.50
14 51 10.0 90.4 0.142 638 1.56
15 48 9.9 89.4 0.131 682 1.67
16 48 9.9 89.0 0.128 696 1.70
17 46 9.9 88.0 0.120 733 1.80
18 45 9.8 87.1 0.116 749 1.83
19 46 9.7 86.6 0.115 753 1.84
20 45 9.6 85.7 0.111 769 1.88
21 45 9.6 84.8 0.110 770 1.89
22 46 9.3 85.6 0.111 771 1.89
23 45 9.1 83.4 0.104 798 1.95
24 45 8.9 82.6 0.103 803 1.97
25 45 8.7 81.5 0.098 829 2.03
26 45 8.6 80.9 0.097 834 2.04
27 45 8.1 79.2 0.088 899 2.20
28 45 8.0 78.7 0.085 922 2.26

operating conditions were obtained when normalized values of chromium removal

efficiency per unit energy consumption are around 1.67 (Table 1.5). This gives
corresponding input variables as pH of 4.6, current density of 48 A/m2 and 10 min
of treatment time to get 89.4 % Cr(VI) removal efficiency consuming 0.131 Wh of
energy (Fig. 1.4b).
Another random document with
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Thus the Pawnees, too, though in actual want themselves, showed
their good will towards us by preparing for us the best they could
afford. One chief placed before us, besides dried buffalo meat, a
small dish of marrow, which by them is considered a great delicacy.
Labor.—The more enlightened a people has become through the
benign influence of religion, and the cultivation of the arts and
sciences, the more the weaker sex attains to that rank in society,
which the Creator intended for them; but the more debased and sunk
in heathenism a Nation lies, the more is woman enslaved, and held
in subjection. So among the Pawnees, too, the men are the lords,
who, while they themselves are not disposed to do any work, and
generally consider it a shame to labor, direct the women, as inferior
beings, how everything must be done. The females, besides
attending to the housework, generally incumbent upon their sex, are
obliged to cut and carry all the fire-wood; prepare the fields for
cultivation with their hoes, plant the corn, weed it, and finally, when
ripe, gather it in; and take care of the horses of their lords, when not
used by them.
The most difficult labor, however, that falls to their lot, is the
erecting of their lodges. As the upper village had been burnt by their
enemies during their absence, the labor of rebuilding of course
devolved upon the poor women, and in the course of about two
months, when we visited them, they had completed nearly 150
lodges. When we observed that the nearest timber to the site of the
village was two or three miles off, and that they have no beasts of
burden, but that all the building material, much of which is very
heavy, was carried so great a distance on the shoulders of the
women, it seemed almost incredible to us. We noticed even girls of
12 to 14 years bearing baskets on their backs, filled with wet turf, to
cover or repair their lodges, which must have been very heavy. Thus
early the females are trained to carry burdens (either at home or
while travelling), which inures them to hardships, but at the same
time deforms them, rendering them low and bent in stature, and
pitiable objects to the beholder. While the men, trained to no work
whatever, are erect, tall and well-proportioned in their form, and
almost feminine in their features, the women are short and low, with
stooping gait, downcast looks, harsh features, and hair dishevelled;
and dirty, ragged, and filthy in their appearance. Such is a picture of
heathenism! Have we not cause to be grateful for the benign
influence of the gospel upon our land, so that we are elevated far
above such a miserable state of heathenism? Unto the Lord be all
the praise!
Though it is generally a feature among heathen nations, that it is
considered a shame for the men to labor, while all the work devolves
upon the females, still the Pawnees seem not altogether indisposed
to be instructed. Mr. Sharpee, who has been acquainted with them
and other Indians in these parts for nearly 20 years, told us that the
Pawnee men were unlike those of other tribes, since they were
willing to lay hold of a plough or any other farming utensil, and only
the instruction was wanting to make them industrious. Mr. Allis, too,
who has been acquainted with them for the last 20 years, and has
lived among them a great portion of this period, informed us that
when the missionaries were formerly living among them, several of
the Pawnees had already commenced the use of the plough. The
good beginning was, however, interrupted by their missionaries
having to leave them.
Dress.—The dress of the men consists in nothing but a small
piece of cloth, fastened around the middle. This, we observed, was
generally the only covering they had on, when in their lodges. When
abroad, they had a buffalo robe or blanket wrapped around them.
The females are more decently clothed than the men. Their dress
consists of leggings, generally made of scarlet cloth, over which a
piece of blue or brown woolen cloth is tied around the waist, the
ends lapping over each other and extending a little below the knees.
The upper dress consists of a shirt, or short gown, made of calico,
reaching to the middle. Over the whole a blanket or robe is slung,
above which, on the back, may frequently be discovered the black
sparkling eyes of a little “papoose” peering forth.
Intoxicating Drink.—It is somewhat remarkable that the
Pawnees are not so fond of “fire water” as other tribes, who are fast
dwindling away from the demoralizing and debasing effects of
intoxicating drink. Nothing, perhaps, has aided more in diminishing
the population of different Indian tribes, than spirituous liquors. To
the missionary it is always gratifying and encouraging to observe,
when a tribe takes a bold stand against the introduction of this
destructive poison. The Pawnees allow none to be brought into their
villages.
Burying Their Dead.—On the highest mounds in the prairie, we
often observed little hillocks of earth, which we were informed were
the places of sepulture of their chiefs and others of their tribe. A tall
bush was frequently stuck in the ground, to designate the spot. We
were also informed, that among the Pawnees and other wild tribes
the cruel practice prevails, when they are on their hunt, and their old
people get so feeble, that they can no longer accompany them, of
leaving them behind, and even burying them alive.—In allusion to
this fact Mr. Allis, pointing to their old and feeble chief, addressed the
other chiefs as follows: “I have learned that you intend to put aside
your old chief, because he is now feeble and sickly, and perhaps you
will even think of burying him, when he can no longer follow you; but
I want you to take care of him. He has been like a father to you.
When he was yet strong, you know his kettle was always over the
fire with plenty. He has always been a friend of the whites, and you
ought to esteem him for the services he has rendered your nation,
and not to bury him before he is dead.”
More might be added, to show the wretchedness of their present
state, but we should fear to become too tedious. Sufficient, however,
has been said to prove that these poor people need the assistance
of missionaries to better them in their outward condition. But, when
we consider their spiritual destitution—their ignorance, darkness and
superstition—

“Shall WE whose souls are lighted

With wisdom from on high,
Shall WE to men benighted
The lamp of life deny?”

“Whosoever shall call on the name of the Lord, shall be saved.”

But “how shall they call on him, in whom they have not believed?
and how shall they believe in him of whom they have not heard? and
how shall they hear without a preacher?” (Rom. 10:13, 14). In the
face of all difficulties, let us not be deterred from bringing the glad
tidings of Salvation to these benighted savages; thereby perhaps
paving the way for still more extensive operations among the
aborigines of our country; and thus, by breaking unto them the bread
of life, proving the means of repairing, in part, the numberless
wrongs inflicted upon this poor abject race, by people who call
themselves christians.
Transcriber’s Notes:
Missing or obscured punctuation was silently
corrected.
Typographical errors were silently corrected.
Inconsistent spelling and hyphenation were
made consistent only when a predominant form
was found in this book.
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