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Treatment Marshes for
Runoff and Polishing
Treatment Marshes for
Runoff and Polishing

Robert H. Kadlec
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2020 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Kadlec, Robert H., author.

Title: Treatment marshes for runoff and polishing / Robert H. Kadlec.
Description: First edition. | Boca Raton, FL : CRC Press/Taylor & Francis Group, 2019.
Identifiers: LCCN 2019008603 | ISBN 9781138322622 (hardback : acid-free paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Constructed wetlands. | Water–Purification–Biological treatment. | Sewage–Purification–Biological
treatment. | Marsh ecology.
Classification: LCC TD756.5 .K333 2019 | DDC 628.1/682–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019008603

Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

www.taylorandfrancis.com
and the CRC Press website at
www.crcpress.com

ISBN: 978-1-138-32262-2 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-0-429-45193-5 (ebk)
Contents
Preface ................................................................................................................................. xxi
Acknowledgments............................................................................................................... xxv
Author Biography .............................................................................................................. xxvi

Chapter 1 Introduction .......................................................................................................1

1.1 Why the Word Marsh ................................................................................ 1
1.2 Scope and Context .................................................................................... 1
Relation to Restoration..............................................................................1
Predecessor Books .....................................................................................2
Exclusions..................................................................................................3
1.3 Types of Treatment Wetlands .................................................................... 4
FWS Wetland Vegetation...........................................................................4
Epiphytic and Floc Components ...............................................................6
1.4 History of FWS Treatment Wetlands ........................................................ 7
History of Treatment Marshes ...................................................................7
Water Quality Boundaries Treatment Marshes ........................................ 10
1.5 Applications of Treatment Marshes......................................................... 10
Polishing .................................................................................................. 10
Field Runoff............................................................................................. 11
Urban Stormwater................................................................................... 11
1.6 Natural Wetlands .................................................................................... 13
Natural Wetlands in the USA .................................................................. 13
Natural Wetlands in Arctic Canada......................................................... 14
1.7 Geographic Settings ................................................................................ 15
Climate Zones and Hardiness .................................................................. 15
Solar Radiation and Growing Seasons .................................................... 16
1.8 Hydrology ............................................................................................... 17
Water Depths........................................................................................... 17
Inflow Patterns......................................................................................... 17
1.9 Ecological Benefits of Treatment Marshes............................................... 20
Vegetative Diversity ................................................................................. 20
Wildlife .................................................................................................... 21
Human Use ............................................................................................. 21
1.10 Data Sources ........................................................................................... 21
A Floridian Bias ...................................................................................... 22
Avoiding Bias........................................................................................... 23
Nomenclature .......................................................................................... 23
1.11 Summary................................................................................................. 23

v
vi Contents

Chapter 2 Hydrology ..........................................................................................................25

2.1 Descriptors ................................................................................................ 26
Common Descriptors ................................................................................. 26
Averaging Periods....................................................................................... 31
2.2 Water Depth .............................................................................................. 32
System Bathymetry..................................................................................... 33
Alternate Water Depth Definitions............................................................. 35
Stage-Storage and Stage-Area Relations .................................................... 36
2.3 Components of the Mass Balance.............................................................. 36
Inflows and Outflows.................................................................................. 37
Precipitation ............................................................................................... 38
Evapotranspiration .................................................................................... 40
Seepage....................................................................................................... 43
2.4 The Wetland Water Budget ........................................................................ 47
Temporal Patterns ...................................................................................... 47
Effects on Concentrations .......................................................................... 49
2.5 Summary ................................................................................................... 51

Chapter 3 Surface Water Movement ...................................................................................53

3.1 Geometrical Setting ................................................................................... 53
Topographical Effects................................................................................. 53
Dimensionality ........................................................................................... 54
3.2 One-Dimensional Framework.................................................................... 55
A Simplified Exploratory Model ................................................................ 57
Head Loss Estimation ................................................................................ 62
Uniform Depth .......................................................................................... 63
Transients ................................................................................................... 64
3.3 Two-Dimensional Analyses........................................................................ 67
3.4 Friction Equations ..................................................................................... 67
Limiting Condition Relations..................................................................... 68
The Drag Coefficient: Small Scale Controlled Studies ................................ 70
Profiles of Drag Surfaces ............................................................................ 72
Wetland Data ............................................................................................. 74
3.5 Vertical Profiles .......................................................................................... 80
Vertical Velocity Profiles............................................................................. 80
Longitudinal Wind Effects ......................................................................... 82
Vertical Velocities ....................................................................................... 83
3.6 Wind Driven Flows.................................................................................... 85
Open Water Wind Effects ........................................................................... 85
Wind Effects in Vegetated Wetlands ........................................................... 87
3.7 Lateral Water Movement ........................................................................... 88
Contents vii

Density Driven Lateral Flows .................................................................... 89

Evapotranspiration Driven Lateral Flows .................................................. 89
3.8 Summary ................................................................................................... 90

Chapter 4 The Marsh Underground ...................................................................................93

4.1 Wetland Soils in General............................................................................ 93
Wetland Mineral Soils ................................................................................ 95
Calcitic Muds and Marl ............................................................................. 95
Wetland Organic Soils ................................................................................ 95
4.2 Components and Stratification .................................................................. 96
Root Phytomass ......................................................................................... 98
Floc and Litter ........................................................................................... 99
Antecedent Organic Soils in Agriculture .................................................. 103
Treatment Marsh Soils Development ....................................................... 103
Soils Physical Properties ........................................................................... 104
4.3 Water Movement ..................................................................................... 106
Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity............................................................ 107
Unsaturated Suction Flows ...................................................................... 108
Flows Driven by Evapotranspiration ....................................................... 110
4.4 Chemistry ................................................................................................ 111
Chemical Composition of Marsh Soils..................................................... 111
Soil Oxidation-Reduction Potential.......................................................... 112
Porewater ................................................................................................. 115
Respiration – Gas Flows .......................................................................... 117
4.5 Accretion ................................................................................................. 120
Measurement of Solids Deposition and Elevation Change....................... 121
Inference Methods.................................................................................... 122
Stable Isotopes ......................................................................................... 123
Results...................................................................................................... 123
Root and Rhizome Death......................................................................... 125
A Speculative Accretion Model ................................................................ 127
Illustrative Model Results......................................................................... 129
4.6 Summary ................................................................................................. 131

Chapter 5 Microbial and Plant Communities ................................................................... 133

5.1 General Categorization ............................................................................ 133
Macrophytes............................................................................................. 133
Mesophytes .............................................................................................. 133
Microbes .................................................................................................. 135
5.2 Microbes and Mesophytes ....................................................................... 135
Microbial Specifics ................................................................................... 135
The Mesophytes: Algae ............................................................................ 137
viii Contents

5.3 Vegetation Types and Communities ......................................................... 141

Vegetation and Oxygen............................................................................. 142
Classification and Physical Arrangement ................................................. 144
Examples.................................................................................................. 147
Succession ................................................................................................ 152
5.4 Floating Mats .......................................................................................... 157
Mat Stability and Formation.................................................................... 158
Mat Physics .............................................................................................. 159
Examples of Floating Mats in Treatment Marshes................................... 160
Floating Rafts .......................................................................................... 161
5.5 Biomass and Growth Patterns.................................................................. 162
Growth Cycles.......................................................................................... 163
Seasonal Patterns ..................................................................................... 166
Nutrient Effects ........................................................................................ 169
5.6 Standing Dead and Litter ........................................................................ 171
Standing Dead.......................................................................................... 171
Litter ........................................................................................................ 173
Models ..................................................................................................... 175
5.7 The Cycling Function of Phytomass ........................................................ 177
5.8 Physical Measures and the Substrate Function ........................................ 178
Under Water Structure ............................................................................. 179
Vegetation Canopy Structure ................................................................... 184
Vertical Distributions ............................................................................... 187
5.9 Summary ................................................................................................. 189

Chapter 6 Energy Flows and Temperature........................................................................ 191

6.1 The Underpinnings: Wetland Energy Flows ............................................ 191
Net Radiation (RN) .................................................................................. 193
Convective Losses and Gains to Air......................................................... 194
Conduction Heat Loss from Water to Ground......................................... 196
6.2 Transfer Resistances................................................................................. 198
Wind Functions........................................................................................ 199
Resistances ............................................................................................... 199
6.3 Synthesis: Evapotranspiration ................................................................. 203
Empirical Estimation Methods ................................................................ 203
Energy Balance Methods.......................................................................... 204
Potential Evapotranspiration as a Reference ............................................ 205
Size Effects on ET .................................................................................... 206
6.4 Water Temperatures ................................................................................. 207
Observed Marsh Water Temperatures ...................................................... 207
Predicting Water Temperatures ................................................................ 210
Stratification............................................................................................. 216
Contents ix

Wetland Inlet and Outlet Temperature Comparison................................. 219

Temperature Accommodation.................................................................. 220
6.5 Vegetation Effects .................................................................................... 223
Vegetation Coverage................................................................................. 225
The Split Between Evaporation and Transpiration................................... 227
6.6 Cold Climates .......................................................................................... 229
Spatial Extent and Distribution of Ice in Treatment Marshes .................. 231
Ice in Quiescent Ponds ............................................................................. 232
The Balance Condition for Under-Ice Flow ............................................. 233
6.7 Summary ................................................................................................. 235

Chapter 7 Representing Treatment Performance............................................................... 237

7.1 Fundamentals .......................................................................................... 237
Concentrations ......................................................................................... 237
Removal and Loading .............................................................................. 238
Chemical Mass Balances .......................................................................... 240
Data Folding ............................................................................................ 242
Graphical Representations ....................................................................... 242
7.2 Concepts from Reaction Engineering....................................................... 246
Bioreactors ............................................................................................... 247
Autocatalysis ............................................................................................ 247
Chemical Networks .................................................................................. 247
7.3 Processes that Contribute to Pollutant Removal ...................................... 248
Microbially Mediated Processes ............................................................... 248
Volatilization ............................................................................................ 250
Sedimentation .......................................................................................... 252
Sorption ................................................................................................... 252
Photodegradation..................................................................................... 253
Plant Uptake ............................................................................................ 253
7.4 Internal Hydraulics and Mixing............................................................... 254
Localized Phenomena .............................................................................. 256
Whole System Behavior............................................................................ 257
Models for Internal Hydraulics ................................................................ 264
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) ................................................... 267
Wetland TIS Model Parameters ............................................................... 269
7.5 Reaction Rate Models.............................................................................. 269
Intrinsic Chemistry................................................................................... 269
Zero Order ............................................................................................... 270
First Order ............................................................................................... 270
Saturation: Monod................................................................................... 270
Limiting Reactants ................................................................................... 271
Return Fluxes and Background Concentrations....................................... 271
Continuous Flow Wetlands ...................................................................... 272
7.6 Area or Volume Specificity....................................................................... 273
Removal Processes.................................................................................... 274
x Contents

Supporting Wetland Data ........................................................................ 275

Consequences ........................................................................................... 278
7.7 Adapting the TIS Model to Wetlands ...................................................... 279
Return Fluxes........................................................................................... 279
Segregated or Mixed Flow? ...................................................................... 279
More on Longitudinal Profiles ................................................................. 281
Incorporating Volumetric Efficiency......................................................... 281
Water Losses and Gains ........................................................................... 282
Mixture Weathering ................................................................................. 286
7.8 Model Utilization .................................................................................... 289
Temperature and Season .......................................................................... 289
Rate Constant Distributions..................................................................... 289
Random Variability .................................................................................. 290
Temporal Considerations ......................................................................... 292
Dangers of Extrapolation......................................................................... 294
7.9 Summary ................................................................................................. 295

Chapter 8 Suspended Solids.............................................................................................. 297

8.1 Source Characterization........................................................................... 297
Laboratory Methods ................................................................................ 297
Organic Content....................................................................................... 298
Particle Sizes ............................................................................................ 299
8.2 Particulate Processes in Marshes.............................................................. 301
Generation by Precipitation ..................................................................... 302
Biological Generation............................................................................... 303
Settling of Particulates.............................................................................. 304
Filtration .................................................................................................. 309
Resuspension............................................................................................ 311
8.3 Process Quantification ............................................................................. 316
Spatial Mass Balances .............................................................................. 316
The Inlet Settling Zone............................................................................. 317
System Mass Balances.............................................................................. 319
8.4 Observed Performance ............................................................................. 320
Input-Output Relations ............................................................................ 320
Input-Output Data and the kC* Model ................................................... 322
Variability................................................................................................. 322
Unvegetated Areas ................................................................................... 328
Accretion.................................................................................................. 331
8.5 Summary ................................................................................................. 333

Chapter 9 Nitrogen ......................................................................................................... 335

9.1 Nitrogen Forms, Storages and Processes in Marshes.............................. 335
Contents xi

Nitrogen Forms in Wetland Waters ........................................................ 335

Wetland Nitrogen Storages..................................................................... 337
Nitrogen Transformations in Wetlands................................................... 340
9.2 Wetland Nitrogen Physical Processes ..................................................... 341
Atmospheric Deposition......................................................................... 341
Ammonia Sorption................................................................................. 342
Ammonia Volatilization ......................................................................... 343
Diffusion ................................................................................................ 344
9.3 Wetland Nitrogen Microbial Processes................................................... 345
Ammonification of Organic Nitrogen..................................................... 345
Oxidation of Ammonia .......................................................................... 346
Denitrification ........................................................................................ 349
Alternative Microbial Processes.............................................................. 353
9.4 Vegetation Effects on Nitrogen Processing ............................................. 356
The Effects of Vegetation Growth and Cycling....................................... 357
A Mass Balance Framework .................................................................. 358
Accretion of Nitrogenous Residuals ....................................................... 362
9.5 Annual Nitrogen Mass Balances ............................................................ 364
Mass Balance Equations......................................................................... 365
Orlando Easterly Florida Treatment Marsh ........................................... 366
Imperial, California Treatment Marsh.................................................... 368
Variability and Implications ................................................................... 369
Limitations ............................................................................................. 372
9.6 Monthly Nitrogen Mass Balances .......................................................... 375
9.7 Organic Nitrogen Performance .............................................................. 377
Organic Nitrogen Loading ..................................................................... 377
Variability............................................................................................... 377
Rate Coefficients..................................................................................... 378
Seasonal Dependence ............................................................................. 382
9.8 Ammonia Nitrogen Performance ........................................................... 383
Ammonia Loadings and Outlet Concentrations..................................... 383
Profiles and Background Concentrations of Ammonia .......................... 384
Ammonia Loss Rate Coefficients............................................................ 385
Nitrification Rate Coefficients ................................................................ 386
Oxygen Supply ....................................................................................... 387
Temperature and Seasonal Dependence ................................................. 388
Ammonia Concentration Pulses ............................................................. 390
Open Water Zones.................................................................................. 390
Variability............................................................................................... 390
9.9 Oxidized Nitrogen Performance............................................................. 393
Loading Considerations ......................................................................... 394
Profiles and Background Concentrations of Nitrate ............................... 395
Nitrate Loss Rate Coefficients ................................................................ 395
xii Contents

Denitrification Rate Coefficients............................................................. 397

Process Modifiers ................................................................................... 400
Nitrate Removal via Infiltration ............................................................. 404
Performance Variability.......................................................................... 406
Greenhouse Gases: Nitrous Oxide.......................................................... 406
9.10 Performance for Total Nitrogen ............................................................. 407
Loading Considerations ......................................................................... 408
Profiles of Total Nitrogen ....................................................................... 408
Loss Rate Coefficients ............................................................................ 408
Seasonal and Temperature Effects .......................................................... 409
Intrasystem Variability ........................................................................... 412
9.11 Multi-Species Nitrogen Modeling .......................................................... 412
Sequential Nitrogen Models: An Illustration.......................................... 413
9.12 Summary................................................................................................ 415

Chapter 10 Phosphorus ...................................................................................................... 419

10.1 Phosphorus Forms and Storages............................................................ 422
Phosphorus Forms in Marsh Waters ...................................................... 422
Marsh Phosphorus Storages ................................................................... 423
Soils and Sediments ................................................................................ 426
10.2 Wetland Phosphorus Processing............................................................. 429
Sorption ................................................................................................. 430
Biomass Storage and Cycling ................................................................. 432
Sustainable Phosphorus Removal: Bioaccretion ..................................... 437
Sustainable Phosphorus Removal: Particulate Sedimentation ................ 439
Herbivory and Phosphorus Movement................................................... 440
Plant Harvest to Remove Phosphorus .................................................... 441
Vertical Phosphorus Movement.............................................................. 445
Atmospheric Exchanges ......................................................................... 450
10.3 Spatial and Temporal Phenomena ......................................................... 452
Phosphorus Gradients ............................................................................ 452
Marsh Startup ........................................................................................ 453
Phosphorus Movement Fronts ............................................................... 455
10.4 Phosphorus Removal ............................................................................. 457
Background Concentrations of Total Phosphorus.................................. 457
Loading Considerations ......................................................................... 459
Quantification of Rates........................................................................... 462
Effects of Wetland Variables ................................................................... 465
More Detailed Models ........................................................................... 472
Stochastic Behavior ................................................................................ 474
Longevity of P Removal Marshes........................................................... 477
10.5 Summary................................................................................................ 480
Contents xiii

Chapter 11 Event-Driven Systems ...................................................................................... 483

11.1 Source Characterization......................................................................... 484
Incoming Flows...................................................................................... 484
Incoming Concentrations and Loads ..................................................... 489
11.2 Hydraulics of Pulsed and Seasonal Systems........................................... 492
Wetland Dynamics ................................................................................. 492
Flow and Capture................................................................................... 494
11.3 Technology Status of Event-Driven Marshes ......................................... 498
Agricultural Stormwater ........................................................................ 498
Urban Stormwater ................................................................................. 502
11.4 Performance Analysis............................................................................. 510
Methods ................................................................................................. 510
Characterizing Events............................................................................. 511
Water Temperatures ............................................................................... 513
TSS in Event-Driven Marshes ................................................................ 514
Phosphorus in Event-Driven Marshes .................................................... 517
Nitrogen in Event-Driven Marshes......................................................... 525
11.5 Summary................................................................................................ 534

Chapter 12 Ancillary Substances ........................................................................................ 537

12.1 Major Ions ............................................................................................. 537
Halogens ................................................................................................ 537
Alkali Metals.......................................................................................... 538
Collective Parameters ............................................................................. 539
12.2 Hydrogen Ion......................................................................................... 541
12.3 Dissolved Oxygen................................................................................... 544
Physical Oxygen Transfers ...................................................................... 545
Open Water Zones.................................................................................. 545
Biochemical Production of Oxygen ........................................................ 545
Plant Oxygen Transfer ............................................................................ 546
Vertical Stratification.............................................................................. 547
Measurement.......................................................................................... 548
Input/Output Behavior ........................................................................... 549
Longitudinal Gradients .......................................................................... 549
Trends and Variability ............................................................................ 551
12.4 Carbon................................................................................................... 551
Wetland Carbon Speciation and Processing............................................ 552
BOD Removal in Treatment Marshes..................................................... 556
12.5 Sulfur ..................................................................................................... 558
Forms of Sulfur in Marshes.................................................................... 558
Chemical Processes................................................................................. 560
Performance of Wetlands for Sulfur Removal ........................................ 563
xiv Contents

12.6 Pathogens............................................................................................... 564

Indicator Organisms ............................................................................... 565
Sources of Pathogens.............................................................................. 567
Pathogen Processes ................................................................................. 569
Performance of Wetlands for Pathogen Removal.................................... 574
Seasonal Effects ...................................................................................... 578
12.7 Summary................................................................................................ 580

Chapter 13 Trace Metals .................................................................................................... 583

13.1 General Considerations.......................................................................... 583
13.2 Metals Processing and Storage............................................................... 583
Abiotic Metal Partitioning ..................................................................... 583
Sorption Relations.................................................................................. 584
Equilibrium Metal Chemistry Calculations ............................................ 586
Storage in Plants and Sediments............................................................. 587
The “Layer Cake” Assumption .............................................................. 588
Design Equations for Metal Removal..................................................... 589
13.3 Iron ........................................................................................................ 592
13.4 Lead....................................................................................................... 594
13.5 Nickel..................................................................................................... 596
13.6 Zinc........................................................................................................ 597
13.7 Cadmium ............................................................................................... 598
13.8 Chromium.............................................................................................. 601
13.9 Copper ................................................................................................... 602
Copper Removal Processes ..................................................................... 603
Performance of Wetlands for Copper Removal ...................................... 604
An Example Treatment Marsh for Copper Removal .............................. 605
13.10 Mercury ................................................................................................. 606
Forms and Storages of Mercury ............................................................. 606
Performance of Wetlands for Mercury Removal..................................... 608
13.11 Arsenic ................................................................................................... 610
Chemistry of Arsenic in Marshes............................................................ 611
Wetland Processing and Storage of Arsenic............................................ 611
Performance of Wetlands for Arsenic Removal ...................................... 612
13.12 Selenium ................................................................................................ 612
Chemistry of Selenium in Marshes ......................................................... 613
Marsh Processing and Storage of Selenium .......................................... 614
Performance of Wetlands for Selenium Removal .................................. 615
13.13 Summary.............................................................................................. 617
Contents xv

Chapter 14 Trace Organics ................................................................................................. 619

14.1 Generalities .......................................................................................... 619
Nomenclature ....................................................................................... 619
Source Waters and Timing.................................................................... 620
14.2 Physical Mechanisms of Removal ........................................................ 622
Volatilization ........................................................................................ 622
Adsorption/Desorption ........................................................................ 622
Sedimentation/Resuspension ................................................................ 623
Infiltration ............................................................................................ 624
14.3 Chemical Mechanisms of Removal ...................................................... 624
Photolysis ............................................................................................. 624
Hydrolysis............................................................................................. 626
Plant Uptake ........................................................................................ 627
Synthesis of Mechanisms ...................................................................... 627
14.4 Pesticides and Herbicides ..................................................................... 628
Toxic Effects ......................................................................................... 628
Source Waters for Pesticides ................................................................. 630
Pesticide Reductions in Marshes........................................................... 631
PkC* Interpretations ............................................................................ 635
14.5 Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products ...................................... 639
Sources ................................................................................................. 641
Mechanisms.......................................................................................... 642
Marsh Performance for PPCP Reduction ............................................. 643
14.6 Endocrine Disruptors........................................................................... 647
General................................................................................................. 647
Problematic Pesticides .......................................................................... 648
Endocrine Disruptors in Treatment Marshes........................................ 648
14.7 Petroleum Hydrocarbons ..................................................................... 651
BTEX Mechanisms............................................................................... 652
BTEX Wetland System Studies............................................................. 654
Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons....................................................... 655
Naphthenic Acids ................................................................................. 659
14.8 Chlorinated Hydrocarbons................................................................... 660
Chlorinated Benzenes ........................................................................... 661
Chlorinated Ethenes ............................................................................. 662
14.9 Miscellaneous....................................................................................... 666
Explosives............................................................................................. 666
Phenols ................................................................................................. 667
Surfactants ........................................................................................... 668
Cyanide ................................................................................................ 668
14.10 Summary.............................................................................................. 671
xvi Contents

Chapter 15 Ecological Perspective ...................................................................................... 673

15.1 Disappearing Dichotomies ................................................................... 673
Restoration and Treatment ................................................................... 673
Engineering and Ecology ...................................................................... 674
15.2 Measures of Ecological Value............................................................... 675
Marsh Water Quality Indices................................................................ 676
Biotic Indices and Diversity.................................................................. 677
15.3 Vegetation ............................................................................................ 679
Algal Indicators .................................................................................... 680
Macrophyte Diversity ........................................................................... 681
Temporal Development of Vegetative Biodiversity ............................... 686
Interpretation of Diversity Indices........................................................ 687
15.4 Macroinvertebrates .............................................................................. 688
Diversity Indices ................................................................................... 688
Indices of Biological Integrity............................................................... 689
Macroinvertebrate Problems................................................................. 690
15.5 Birds..................................................................................................... 692
Species Richness and Densities............................................................. 692
Threatened and Endangered Birds........................................................ 695
Problems Created by Marsh Birds ........................................................ 695
Problems for Birds in Treatment Marshes............................................. 697
15.6 Fish ...................................................................................................... 699
Fish in Treatment Marshes and Wetlands............................................. 700
Fish Conflicts with Treatment............................................................... 701
Water Quality Effects............................................................................ 702
15.7 Amphibians and Reptiles ..................................................................... 702
Anurans ................................................................................................ 703
Turtles .................................................................................................. 704
Snakes................................................................................................... 704
Crocodilians ......................................................................................... 704
15.8 Mammals ............................................................................................. 704
Muskrats .............................................................................................. 706
Beavers ................................................................................................. 708
Nutria................................................................................................... 708
Capybaras............................................................................................. 711
Predators .............................................................................................. 711
Incidental Visitors ................................................................................ 711
15.9 Human Use .......................................................................................... 712
Public Use Attributes and Facilities...................................................... 712
Consumptive Activities......................................................................... 715
Aesthetics and Wildlife Observation ..................................................... 717
Birding.................................................................................................. 720
Contents xvii

Educational Programs .......................................................................... 720

Conflicts ............................................................................................... 721
15.10 Summary.............................................................................................. 722

Chapter 16 Footprints and Performance............................................................................. 725

16.1 Historical Setting ................................................................................. 725
First-Order Modeling ........................................................................... 725
Regression Equations ........................................................................... 726
Loading Specifications.......................................................................... 726
16.2 Treatment Requirements and Goals ..................................................... 727
Requirements........................................................................................ 727
Load Reduction versus Concentration Reduction ................................ 729
16.3 Limited Space Systems ......................................................................... 730
16.4 Sizing by Area or Volume Specification................................................ 731
Percentage of the Contributing Watershed ........................................... 732
Urban Wetland BMP Specifications ..................................................... 732
16.5 Rate Coefficient Based Calculations ..................................................... 733
Water Budget........................................................................................ 734
Pollutant Mass Balance ........................................................................ 735
Modes of Implementation .................................................................... 737
Explicit Approximations....................................................................... 738
Transect Representation ....................................................................... 739
Time Period for Mass Balances ............................................................ 739
16.6 Input Variables and Parameters ........................................................... 740
Flows and Targets................................................................................. 740
Climatological and Hydrologic Factors ................................................ 742
Rate Parameters ................................................................................... 746
Water Temperature ............................................................................... 750
16.7 Integrated Implementation................................................................... 752
Rate Calculations ................................................................................. 754
Phytomass Calculations ........................................................................ 755
Mass Balance Calculations ................................................................... 757
Additional Cross-Checks ...................................................................... 761
16.8 Quantifying the Stochastic Component of Performance ...................... 762
Calculations.......................................................................................... 763
Trend Multipliers.................................................................................. 763
Implementation .................................................................................... 763
16.9 Detailed Dynamic Simulations............................................................. 765
16.10 Sizing Accompanying Features ............................................................ 765
Winter Storage...................................................................................... 766
Sedimentation Basins............................................................................ 766
xviii Contents

Buffers .................................................................................................. 769

16.11 Summary.............................................................................................. 770

Chapter 17 Interior Design and Construction .................................................................... 771

17.1 Framework for Guidance ..................................................................... 771
Metrics ................................................................................................. 771
Qualifications........................................................................................ 772
17.2 Location and Arrangement .................................................................. 773
Siting .................................................................................................... 773
Parallel Paths and Compartmentalization ............................................ 775
Cell Inlets and Outlets .......................................................................... 776
Aspect Ratio ......................................................................................... 778
Baffle Berms and Sinuosity ................................................................... 780
Bathymetry ........................................................................................... 781
Shape .................................................................................................... 786
17.3 Vegetation ............................................................................................ 788
Vegetation Type .................................................................................... 788
Vegetation Coverage and Density ......................................................... 792
Vegetation Patterns............................................................................... 793
17.4 Design for Wildlife and Humans.......................................................... 795
Design to Encourage Wildlife ............................................................... 796
Design to Discourage Incompatible Wildlife ........................................ 797
Design for Humans............................................................................... 798
Collective Consequences....................................................................... 799
17.5 Hydraulic Profiles................................................................................. 800
17.6 Dikes, Berms, and Levees ..................................................................... 802
Berm Design......................................................................................... 802
Basin Bottom Contouring; Cut and Fill ............................................... 804
17.7 Water Control Structures ..................................................................... 805
Inlet Devices ......................................................................................... 806
Outlet Devices ...................................................................................... 808
Trash Racks .......................................................................................... 809
Pumps................................................................................................... 811
17.8 Construction ........................................................................................ 811
Site Preparation .................................................................................... 812
Grading and Subgrade Preparation ...................................................... 812
Rooting Soil Placement ........................................................................ 813
Piping and Structures ........................................................................... 813
17.9 Vegetation Establishment ..................................................................... 814
Natural Recruitment............................................................................. 814
Planted Systems.................................................................................... 818
Planting Density ................................................................................... 821
Contents xix

Planting ................................................................................................ 822

Cover Establishment............................................................................. 822
17.10 Summary.............................................................................................. 823

Chapter 18 Management, Operations, and Maintenance.................................................... 825

18.1 Startup.................................................................................................. 825
Antecedent Conditions ......................................................................... 827
Vegetation Startup................................................................................ 828
18.2 Water Level and Flow Management ..................................................... 828
Flow Management................................................................................ 828
Depth Management.............................................................................. 830
18.3 Cleaning, Repairs and Replacements.................................................... 834
Structure Cleanout ............................................................................... 834
Berms and Levees ................................................................................. 834
Pumps and Structures........................................................................... 837
18.4 Control of Nuisance Animals ............................................................... 838
Birds ..................................................................................................... 838
Fish ...................................................................................................... 840
Muskrats (Ondatra Zibethicus) ........................................................... 840
Beavers (Castor Canadensis) ............................................................... 841
Nutria (Myocastor Coypus)................................................................. 843
Insects................................................................................................... 843
18.5 Vegetation Management ....................................................................... 846
General System Care ............................................................................ 847
Weeds ................................................................................................... 847
Herbiciding........................................................................................... 847
Burning................................................................................................. 849
Harvesting ............................................................................................ 851
Buffers .................................................................................................. 851
18.6 Human Use Management..................................................................... 852
18.7 Sediment Removal ................................................................................ 853
18.8 Monitoring and Reporting ................................................................... 855
Water Quality ....................................................................................... 855
Flows and Mass Balances ..................................................................... 856
Constituent Concentrations.................................................................. 856
Biological Monitoring .......................................................................... 859
Documentation..................................................................................... 860
18.9 Summary .............................................................................................. 863

Chapter 19 Economics ....................................................................................................... 865

19.1 Major Cost Elements............................................................................ 865
xx Contents

Capital Cost Components .................................................................... 865

Liners ................................................................................................... 865
Construction Cost Indices .................................................................... 866
Global Variation................................................................................... 867
19.2 Surface Water and Municipal Systems.................................................. 867
Construction Costs and Estimates ........................................................ 867
Nonconstruction Costs......................................................................... 876
Capital Cost Illustrations...................................................................... 877
Indirect Cost Estimation....................................................................... 877
Estimated Cost Illustrations ................................................................. 879
Economy of Scale ................................................................................. 880
19.3 Urban Systems ..................................................................................... 881
Urban Land Costs ................................................................................ 882
Urban Construction Costs.................................................................... 883
Urban Construction Cost Estimates ..................................................... 884
Floating Raft Retrofit Costs ................................................................. 884
19.4 Agricultural Systems ............................................................................ 885
Conservation Reserve Enhancement Program (CREP) ........................ 886
Agricultural Runoff Wetlands in Other Regions ................................... 887
19.5 Operating Costs.................................................................................... 890
Surface Water and Municipal Systems.................................................. 890
Urban and Agricultural Systems .......................................................... 892
19.6 Present Worth....................................................................................... 893
Present Worth Concepts ....................................................................... 894
Project Present Worth ........................................................................... 897
19.7 Other Values and Benefits..................................................................... 899
Categories of Values ............................................................................. 900
Mitigation Credits ................................................................................ 901
Human Use .......................................................................................... 903
Economics of Potential Harvest............................................................ 905
19.8 Summary .............................................................................................. 905

References............................................................................................................................ 909

Index.................................................................................................................................... 995
Preface
This book does not fit neatly into the compartmentalized world of publishing. It is the
third edition of Treatment Wetlands but with significant deletions and a new emphasis on
nonpoint source waters and ecological value. The focus is exclusively on surface flow wet-
lands. Subsurface flow wetlands are omitted because the sheer volume of new information
does not allow adequate coverage of both surface and subsurface flow systems in a single
volume. A third edition concerning subsurface flow wetlands and enhanced systems is in
preparation elsewhere.
This work is further restricted to water quality improvement for low source pollutant con-
centrations, thus excluding the chemical performance of wetlands treating strong wastewater
effluents. The subject source waters therefore include urban and agricultural runoff; streams,
lakes, and rivers; and highly treated municipal effluents.
The first edition of Treatment Wetlands (Kadlec and Knight, 1996) was based upon treat-
ment performance databases and the literature on general wetland science, both of which
were deemed to be significant at the time. But a study by Zhang et al. (2010) documents
the fact that, by the time the second edition of Treatment Wetlands (Kadlec and Wallace,
2009) was finalized, the number of wetlands papers had increased by a factor of 7.3. Similar
publication measures show there are now many times more publications than available to
Kadlec and Wallace. It is clear that the majority of information now available postdates
the second edition, which in turn means that this third edition covers far more than small
updates.

WHAT’S A TREATMENT MARSH?

The ecological meaning of the word wetland has been severely stretched in the broad treat-
ment wetland literature. In a broad scientific sense, natural wetlands are defined and cat-
egorized according to principles set forth by Cowardin et al. (1979). They have plants,
water and some variety of soil substrate; and they function under a variety of hydrologic
conditions. Treatment wetland is a term that has extended the meaning to include planted
gravel filters, thus encompassing all subsurface flow wetlands, which have no natural wet-
land analog. A classification system has been set forth by Fonder and Headley (2013), who
proposed that treatment wetlands have three principal features: macrophytic vegetation;
a waterlogged substrate; and inflow of contaminated water.
Because this book focuses on systems that have both ecological value and water quality
improvement benefits, the term treatment marsh is employed. Among the many classification
systems, a marsh in this book is a shallow wetland dominated by herbaceous rather than
woody plant species. It may be continuously or intermittently flooded. This name is an
attempt to bridge the gap between wetland science and lightly loaded treatment wetlands.

WHAT CONTAMINANTS ARE CONSIDERED?

Nutrients are the primary targets for most treatment marshes, including phosphorus, oxi-
dized nitrogen, and ammonia. However, wetlands receiving high loads and concentrations
of these substances often display undesirable ecological characteristics, and are here
excluded. Trace metals, trace organics and pharmaceuticals are also considered, because of

xxi
xxii Preface

potential downstream aquatic effects, and because conventional treatment processes often
cannot do the job.

ECOLOGICAL VALUES
There is growing understanding of the dichotomy between wastewater treatment wetlands
of many types, and treatment marsh polishing systems. The realm of treatment marshes
implies that they have considerable ecological value, and are part of the spectrum of restor-
ation, creation, or enhancement of wetlands. Intense biological prejudice is often accorded
to treatment wetlands by ecologists, in the mistaken belief that any system with less than
pristine water quality has negligible value for diversity and habitat. The inverse position is
often held by water quality treatment professionals (aka engineers), whereby only concen-
trations and flows have substantive meaning. Treatment marshes can provide significant
benefits, ancillary to the primary purpose of water quality improvement, in the form of
vegetative biodiversity, wildlife habitat, and human uses. Measuring such benefits is facili-
tated by biological indices, and by monetization of human uses of treatment marshes, with
both new topics now included.
There is also a growing realization that humans have only limited control of the bio-
logical character of a newly built marsh. We can provide the basin, soils, initial plants, and
water; but mother nature will decide the development of the wetland over the ensuing years.
This means that the goals of mitigation wetlands are not often fully realized. Nor can the
vegetation communities of treatment marshes be fully dictated by the designer. For the spec-
trum of wetlands between these extremes, we can only provide assistance to natural recruit-
ment. Contrary to a widely held and slowly disappearing belief, mature treatment marshes
need not be, and usually are not, monocultures of aggressive and invasive emergent species.

CORRECTING MISCONCEPTIONS
It is a purpose of this book to provide new and old knowledge about marsh functions,
a good deal of which refutes overly simplistic, historical notions. Prominent among these
are:

A. Black box descriptions of performance are sufficient. Everyone measures inlet and
outlet concentrations and flows, and so percent removals and load reductions are
easily calculated. Unfortunately, these metrics are insufficient for process under-
standing, and are inadequate for design.
B. The time scale of processes is dictated by water movement. The temptation is to
ascribe removal from the water to concentrations and conditions in the water, which
occur on a time scale of days. In reality, removal is accomplished by microbes
(days), algae (weeks); macrophytes (months); and soil accretion (years).
C. Soils are a static matrix, with the primary function of storage. In addition to sorp-
tion and accretion, top soil layers contain plant roots, and undergo a large suite of
hydrologic and microbial processes. In this book the topsoil layer is denoted as the
“action zone.”
D. Microbial conversion is the dominant treatment mechanism. A carry-over from wet-
lands treating strong wastewater, for BOD and ammonia, is a set of concepts that
attribute removals to microbial processes. In contrast, removals in treatment
marshes also involve vegetative cycles as a major pathway. Further, sorption and
burial can dominate trace contaminant removal.
Preface xxiii

E. Treatment marshes don’t work at cold temperatures. While microbial processes def-
initely do slow at cold temperatures, other marsh processes are not temperature sen-
sitive. These include particulate settling and sorption. Vegetative cycles show largest
uptakes during the cool spring season. Therefore, seasonality is often the modifier
of marsh processes.

DESIGN TOOLS
Expectations for calculational detail continue to increase. It is no longer necessary to be
given a single equation, arranged to be solved for the single variable of interest. This third
edition is predicated on the extensive use of spreadsheets, and the large array of iterative
and optimization tools that go with them. The scientific design team for a treatment marsh
must include that capability.
Physical processes, such as hydraulics, sedimentation, and energy flows, are not sensitive
to water quality. Therefore, the basis for their description includes surface flow wetlands in
general, not just treatment marshes.
In the first edition, central tendency rate coefficients were presented, along with tables detail-
ing the values for individual systems. Several investigators soon found that their results did not
match the central tendencies, and incorrectly concluded that something must be wrong. In
the second edition, and continuing in this third edition, the distributions of rate coefficients
across numerous wetlands of all types are presented, so that new results may be placed in that
spectrum, and designs may be selected with different positions across the intersystem landscape.
The scatter of wetland outlet concentrations around an often-seasonal trend is another
type of variability to be accounted. This stochastic annual pattern is accounted separately,
based on system performances, and percentile distributions are presented as a necessary
part of a design basis.

TIME AND SIZE SCALES

Treatment marshes are in-the-ground, outdoor systems. In the absence of an available full-
scale system, researchers sometimes consider marshes to be potted plants, and all manner
of tubs, tanks, and troughs, sometimes located indoors. Such mini-systems do not experi-
ence wind, sun, birds, and animals. When the size is too small, the system is subject to
severe edge effects. Although comparative results from small lab systems are useful, there is
often the unstated assumption that they would represent the treatment performance of
a full-scale wetland. Because that assumption is often unwarranted, this book avoids meso-
cosm data as much as possible.
There exist many studies based on infant or juvenile ecosystems, which have not had time
to mature into the full suite of components that occur in fully developed wetlands. Long-term
studies, involving several years of data, are much preferred, and are now fairly numerous.

WHAT’S NEW?
Of course, there is much more information available now than in 2008 when the second edi-
tion analyses were completed. The doubling time of the available data is on the order of
two or three years, because old systems continue to return new information as more and
more systems come on line in more and more application areas. As a consequence, much of
the data used in support of this book was not available at the time of the second edition. It
xxiv Preface

has been reassuring to find that most of the data and interpretations of the first and second
editions have stood up well to the test of time, but not surprising to find that some numer-
ical interpretations required updating.
Over the last decade, wetland technology has advanced considerably, as has ecological under-
standing. Treatment marsh applications have expanded worldwide, but with the majority in
developed countries. Emphasis is shifting to treatment of nonpoint sources, to control agricul-
tural and urban contamination. These are event-driven systems, which require modifications to
the quantitative descriptions that are in common usage for continuous flow marshes.
The database for wildlife and human use of treatment marshes is also growing rapidly.
Significant numbers of studies of bird and animal use of these wetlands have appeared in
recent years, which permit evaluation of ecological merit. This growing knowledge base
leads to an increased appreciation of the complexity of treatment marshes.
However, as much as things have changed, some things remain the same. The expectations
of the first and second editions, forecasting rapid growth of treatment marshes, and treatment
wetlands in general, have certainly proven true. Indications are for a continued increase.

THIS BOOK
This book has been updated to reflect the dramatic advances in wetland technology over
the last 12 years. The authors of the second edition came from different backgrounds, and
worked in different aspects of the treatment wetland field. By combining their knowledge
and experience, they endeavored to present a broad range of information regarding the sci-
ence, hydrology, hydraulics, reactor theory, applied design, implementation, cost, and oper-
ation and maintenance (O&M) of treatment wetland systems.
The format of this third edition reflects a multiple approach. The first six chapters allow
the reader to explore marsh characteristics, and the internal mechanisms by which treat-
ment wetlands operate. Hydrology, hydraulics, vegetation, and the soil action zone are dis-
cussed. Chapter 7 outlines the quantitative basis for interpreting performance.
The next three chapters explore processes and results for sediments, nitrogen and phos-
phorus. Existing projects and operating results from real-world treatment marshes are util-
ized extensively. Internal mechanisms, their influence on treatment performance, and their
effect on system variability, are explored in detail.
Chapters 11–14 concern the specifics of event driven systems, and the treatment of other
potential pollutants. For treatment marshes, some treatment wetland primary targets, such
as BOD and pathogens, are relegated to ancillary target status. Trace metals and organics
are discussed as a primary focus for treatment marshes.
Chapter 15 deals with biodiversity, including vegetation and all faunal trophic levels. It
reports what has been found about inhabitants of marshes, and the biological interpretation
of those results. The human use of treatment marshes is detailed.
Chapters 16 through 19 examine how performance data is analyzed and applied to the
design process. Like previous editions, this book adopts a performance-based approach to
design, in addition to presenting design tools such as loading charts and scaling factors.
Continuing with the theme of practical implementation, these chapters summarize current
knowledge that is key to getting wetland projects built, including construction methods,
cost information, and O&M requirements.
All topics have been nearly totally rewritten, as required by the vastly increased data
sources and understanding that have developed in the decade since the second edition.
Robert H. Kadlec
February 2019
Acknowledgments
The author wants to acknowledge the extreme patience of his wife Kelli, who put up with
over a year’s worth of working weekends and the virtual loss of a spouse.
This book expands upon many concepts advanced in the first edition, for which Robert
Knight bears a full share of credit. He was a major architect of the foundation for this
work. This book also reflects a foundation built with the shared efforts of Scott Wallace in
the second edition of Treatment Wetlands. The sheer volume of information has demanded
a bifurcation of the second edition, and Scott has elected to update the sections on subsur-
face flow and enhanced wetlands, which have been gratefully ceded to him. Nonetheless,
Scott and his colleagues contributed greatly to the second edition in general.
My formal educational training was in engineering, which provided formidable analytical
tools but zero biological and ecological understanding. However, my brother provided con-
siderable ecological education (John A. Kadlec, wildlife management), and opportunities to
learn during our joint project at the University of Michigan. I have also learned by associ-
ation with numerous colleagues formally trained in ecology, including Chris Tanner (aquatic
ecology), Hans Brix (aquatic botany), and of course Robert L. Knight (ecologist).
I have had many opportunities to learn different viewpoints from the dozens of colleagues
with whom I worked over the past four decades. The experience gained from collaborating
with other wetland scientists, engineering firms, and project owners has been a necessary
and important component of my continuing wetland education.
The author wishes to acknowledge the efforts of the hundreds of engineers and scientists
who have had the courage to create, innovate, and ultimately develop treatment wetlands as
a viable technology to solve many environmental problems. The friendly and open commu-
nication between colleagues at international conferences has made this field a pleasure to
work in, and the “lessons learned” greatly contributed to the rapid evolution of treatment
wetlands, and now to the emergence of treatment marshes.
I am very appreciative of projects that have shared data. Without the data assembled
from these diverse resources, this book could not exist. The list is long, and these hundreds
of project owners are owed heartfelt thanks for their generosity.
Robert H. Kadlec
February 2019

xxv
Author Biography

Robert H. Kadlec is Professor Emeritus of Chemical Engineering at the University of Michigan

He holds BS, MS, and PhD degrees in chemical engineering from the Universities of Wisconsin
and Michigan, 1958–1962. That era saw the culmination of the “unit operations” approach to
chemical processing, and the transition to the use of principles of transport phenomena to
describe transfer and reaction rates in a wide variety of chemical and biochemical processes.
Those techniques and analytical tools are also the foundation of today’s environmental engin-
eering. Bob began applying engineering analysis to wetland processes in 1970, with the goal of
managing wetlands for water quality improvement. The result was the Houghton Lake, Mich-
igan, wetland treatment system, which is still operating successfully.
Research on the Houghton Lake natural wetland, over 30 years of its operation for engin-
eered treatment, formed the early framework for Dr. Kadlec’s development of wetland process
characterization. The technology has grown tremendously, and so has Bob’s involvement in
treatment wetland projects. In 1993, he retired from the University of Michigan, in order to
devote full time attention to treatment wetlands as a private consultant, known as Wetland
Management Services. He provides specialty consulting services to a wide range of governmen-
tal and private organizations.
He has participated in over 300 projects, ranging from simple feasibility studies to compre-
hensive university research projects. Early university studies focused primarily on wetland
hydrology and water chemistry. In the course of many projects, a good deal of knowledge of
practical ecology was imparted by his colleagues.
Bob has worked on treatment wetlands in many states and several other countries. He has
participated in the design of over a hundred treatment wetlands. Major and long-running pro-
jects have included Houghton Lake, MI; Brighton, Ontario; Hillsdale, MI; Columbia, MO; and
the Everglades Stormwater Treatment Areas. He is past chairman of the Macrophyte Specialist
Working Group of the International Association on Water Quality. He has authored or coau-
thored over 150 publications on treatment wetlands, in addition to dozens of project reports.
He was a proposer and developer of the USEPA North American Treatment Wetland
Database.
This book is an effort to consolidate five decades of research and practical experience.

xxvi
 1 Introduction

Treatment wetlands in general are plant-soil-water systems utilized to promote water quality
improvement. This book expands and modernizes information concerning a specific type of
treatment wetland, the free water surface system, often called a marsh. It is further restricted
to waters at relatively low contaminant concentrations. As a consequence, it is positioned in
the gap between ecological desires for wetland restoration and preservation, and engineering
concerns for reliable and economical methods for water quality improvement.
The focus of this book is upon constructed marshes rather than the use of natural
marshes. Some treatment marshes will be built on former wetland sites, putting them in
a category of restoration projects. Others will be built on an existing upland sites and are
then in the category of newly constructed wetlands. In other cases, contaminated waters
may be introduced into existing wetlands. The fundamental mechanisms of water quality
improvement and ecological response are similar in all cases, and the principles of operation
and performance forecasting are not different.

1.1 WHY THE WORD MARSH

Within the community of treatment wetland practitioners, systems with exposed water came
to be known as free water surface wetlands, beginning somewhere in the late 1970s.They
are part of the larger set of treatment wetlands in general (Fonder and Headley, 2013).
Within the larger community of wetland scientists, that new terminology is not in common
use, and the much older name of marsh has remained in primary usage. Because this book
focuses upon systems that both ecological value and water quality improvement benefits,
the term treatment marsh is employed. This name is an attempt to bridge the gap between
wetland science and wastewater treatment technology, and it corresponds to the wetland
systems that will be discussed.
This choice is also driven by the wish for simplicity of terminology. Marshes have single
word designations in a variety of languages, whereas free water surface wetlands require
three to seven word names (Table 1.1).

1.2 SCOPE AND CONTEXT

RELATION TO RESTORATION
Restoration is the manipulation of the physical, chemical, or biological characteristics of
a site with the goal of returning the natural/historic functions of the wetland. Restoration is
commonly divided into re-establishment, rehabilitation, and creation. Re-establishment
refers to the goal of returning natural/historic functions to a former wetland Rehabilitation
refers to the goal of repairing natural/historic functions of a degraded wetland. Creation is
the construction of a wetland in an area that was not a wetland in the recent past. Implicit
in this terminology is the expectation that all wetland functions are to be present, including
water quality improvement, floodwater storage, fish and wildlife habitat, aesthetics, and bio-
logical productivity (U.S. EPA, 2002).
Mitigation is a term that frequently occurs in connection with restoration, and refers to
“the restoration, creation, or enhancement of wetlands to compensate for permitted wetland

1
2 Treatment Marshes for Runoff and Polishing

TABLE 1.1
Marshes and wetlands in several languages.
Language Wetland Marsh FWS Wetland
English wetland marsh free water surface wetland
Spanish humedale pantano humedal libre de la superficie del agua
German Feuchtgebiete Sumpf freie Wasseroberfläche Feuchtgebiet
French zones humides marais surface humide de l’eau libre
Czech mokřadů bažina volné vodní plochy mokřadů
Swedish våtmark kärr fri vattenyta våtmark
Danish vådområde marsk fri vandoverflade vådområde

losses” (Lewis, 1989). Under Section 404 of the Clean Water Act of the USA, wetlands
may be legally destroyed, but their loss must be compensated for by the restoration, cre-
ation, or enhancement of other wetlands.
When the word treatment is added to the wetland category, it means that the water qual-
ity improvement function has primacy, but certainly not to the exclusion of other functions.
This book does not detail the various guidance publications concerning restoration and
mitigation (e.g., Ruiz et al., 2013; Biebighauser, 2015; Craft, 2016). This subject is left to
other publication venues.

PREDECESSOR BOOKS
Third Edition?
This work builds upon concepts set forth in two predecessor books:
Kadlec and Knight (1996). Treatment Wetlands, CRC Press; and
Kadlec and Wallace (2009). Treatment Wetlands, second edition, CRC Press.
Much of the material in these two predecessor volumes will not be repeated here, either
because it is not relevant to the marsh context, or because it has receded to the level of
historical interest only. Because of their functional utility, many of the mathematical diag-
nostics are retained.
These covered a wide range of wetland types and applications. It is no longer feasible to
place the numerous modern science and technology developments in a single volume, hence
this book is restricted to treatment marshes, as further defined later in this chapter. Never-
theless, the systems covered are the large majority of all treatment wetlands, based upon
acreages and water volumes treated. The excluded treatment wetlands are more numerous,
but of hugely smaller size.

Relevant Wetland Science Books

There exists a wealth of published information about general wetland science. The reader
may consult any of several texts, prominently including:

• Biogeochemistry of Wetlands: Science and Applications, KR Reddy and R DeLaune,

(2008). CRC Lewis Publishers; Boca Raton, Florida.
• Wetland Ecology Principles and Conservation, PA Keddy (2010). Cambridge
University Press; Cambridge, United Kingdom.
• The Biology of Freshwater Wetlands, A van der Valk (2012). Oxford University Press,
Oxford, England.
Another random document with
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prayers once more, and went to bed. I was restless the first
of the night, but toward morning I fell asleep and had a
most sweet dream. Methought I stood at the gate of a most
lovely and well-ordered garden, full of flowers, surpassing
all I had ever seen for beauty and sweetness, and bathed in
a light such as I never saw in this world of ours. Therein I
could see many spirits, walking, talking and singing, clothed
all in white, some of them with crowns of radiant stars. I
looked eagerly for some one I knew, and saw Sister Bridget
among the brightest, and then Amice; but they did not see
me nor could I attract their notice. At last my mother came
toward me, dressed and crowned like the rest, with her
hands filled with roses. Her face was like herself, but more
full of peace than I had ever seen it in this life, when it ever
wore a shade of care.

"Dear mother," said I, "will you tell me what I shall do?"

"Honor thy father and thy mother!" said she, in her old
voice of gentle command.

"But, mother, you did give me to the cloister!" I said,

trembling, I knew not why.

"I gave you to God!" said she, and smiled upon me.

"And is not this the same?" I asked.

Her answer was, "They have made the word of God of none
effect, through their tradition."

"Can I not come in to you, dearest mother?" I asked,

feeling an inexpressible longing to enter that fair Paradise.

"Not yet. Thy place is prepared, but thou hast yet much
work to do. See here are roses for thy bridal crown. Go
home to thy house and wait thy Lord's time."
She held out the flowers to me, as she spoke; a most
wonderful sweetness filled the air, and seemed to steal into
my very soul, bringing I know not what of calm and
quietness. Then I awoke, and behold, it was but a dream;
yet was it wonderful clear and real to me, and I seem as if I
had indeed seen my mother.

I had gone to sleep all tossed and undecided; but lying

awake in the clear early dawn, all seemed to be made plain
to me. How could I return to the convent, where half our
duties consisted in prayers offered to the saints and our
Lady—in dressing up images and the like? What should I do
there? Either I must live a life wholly false and hypocritical,
or I must expose myself to I know not what, of persecution,
and perhaps a fearful death. And here came to my mind the
niches I had seen, bricked up in the chapel vault, and the
nameless neglected graves in that corner, I can't think it is
our Lord's will that we should seek the crown of martyrdom,
though many I know have done so; for He expressly bade
his disciples, when they were persecuted in one city, to flee
to another. No, I can never go back! My mind is made up,
and I have told my father, who received my decision with
joy. I am no more Rosamond the postulant, but plain
Rosamond Corbet. My only trouble is for dear Mother
Superior, who I know will grieve over me as a lost soul. Oh,
that she also might come to see the light!

I have announced my decision to my father and mother,

and I see they are both pleased. In recounting my motives,
I was led to tell them what had happened in respect to
Amice, and how that I had been secluded so long. I saw
them exchange glances.

"So that was the beginning of your fever!" said my father,

striking his hand on the table. "Had I known you were so
mewed up, I would have had their crows' nest down about
their ears."

I assured him earnestly, that I had not been ill-treated, but

quite the contrary; adding that I did not think Mother
Superior had any choice in the matter.

"There is the mischief!" said my father. "Nobody is

personally responsible. Every one is a puppet whose strings
are pulled by some other puppet, and his again by some
one else. 'Tis an utter and miserable slavery from the
beginning to the end, and the superiors are perhaps as
much to be pitied as any one."

"I cannot but feel that our Rosamond hath had a great
escape," said Madam.

"Do you think that there is any truth in what we have

heard, of nuns that have been built up alive in their tombs?"
I asked, remembering those grisly niches I had seen in the
chapel vault.

"I cannot say for certain, but I have little doubt of it; and
indeed 'tis only very lately that the thing has ever been
denied," answered my father. "I know that in the Low
Countries it has been a common punishment for heresy. Old
Will Lee saw a woman buried alive, and said she sung
joyfully till the earth stopped her breath; and I know that in
Spain and Italy, far worse things have been done by the
Inquisition. 'Tis not easy to get at the truth about what goes
on in convent walls. A nun has no refuge and no help. She
is away from her own family, who can only see her now and
then. By-and-by they are told that she is dead, but who
knows how and where she died? They might have told us
when we came to see you, that you had died weeks before,
of the sickness, and we should have taken their word for it,
and all the time you might have been shut up in some
prison."

"I can't think any such thing ever happened at our house," I
said. "Dear Mother Superior is too kind and generous. Alas I
fear her heart will be sorely wounded."

"I fear so," answered my mother, sighing, "and also many

another. 'Tis a part of the cross that these days of shaking
and separation lay upon us, that we must ofttimes seem to
desert those who are nearest and dearest to us. It is a
woeful necessity."

And here the conversation ended. My father is to send

letters to Mother Superior, to acquaint her with the matter,
and I have also written. My heart is sore grieved, but what
can I do?

CHAPTER XXX.
 June 30.

MASTER HAWKINS, Harry's captain, hath been to see us.

He's a rough sea dog, as my father says, but yet kind and
good, as it seems to me, and with a clear, honest face that I
felt disposed to trust. Harry took to him greatly, and is more
than ever confirmed in his resolution of sailing. Master
Hawkins says Harry is like a young bear, with all his troubles
to come; but he adds very sensibly that troubles come
everywhere, and reminded my mother of her young cousin
whose father would not let him go to sea because he was
the only son, and who was drowned in a pond in his father's
orchard. The ships do not sail till the last of August, so we
shall have Harry for two good months yet.

Something happened this morning which has vexed me

more than I believe it is worth. I was down at Freshwater,
to carry some baby clothes and a bottle of sack to Meg Yeo,
who is not getting up well from her lying-in. I noticed that
two or three people stared at me curiously, and methought
there was something odd in Meg's own manner, which,
however, melted away under the influence of the baby linen.
While I was there, Dame Lee, Meg's mother, came in.

"So, Mistress Rosamond, you are looking fine and stout

again," said she, and then to her daughter: "Did I not tell
you, Meg, they were but idle tales yonder woman told?
Does our young lady look like one haunted by spectres, or
hunted by a cruel step-dame?"

Her words were spoken aside, but not so low as that I did
not hear them.
"What do you mean, dame?" said I. "Why should I look
otherwise than well, or like one haunted by spectres?"

"For no reason that I know, Mistress," answered the old

woman: "only fools will tell tales and other fools believe
them. Nay, Meg, thou need not be making signs to me. 'Tis
right Mistress Rosamond should know."

"Know what?" I asked. "You are all as mysterious as a

miracle play this morning."

"There is no great mystery in the case," said Dame Lee.

"The whole matter is this. The woman Patience Hollins,
whom Madam Corbet sent away, has been telling
everywhere that your step-dame obliged you to leave off
your convent dress, and break your vows, that she might
wed you to a needy kinsman of her own, and also that the
very night the change was made your honored mother's
spirit appeared to you, all surrounded with flames and
burning sulphur, and reproached you with your
disobedience, and declared that it had taken away her last
hope of salvation. Patience says she saw herself the boards
where the spirit had stood, and they were all burned black—
and that she saw the ghost also at a distance, and smelled
the sulphur."

"She saw the ghost as near as any one," said and with that
I told them the tale as it was.

"Lo, did I not tell you as much!" said the dame, turning to
her daughter. "The wicked wretch! She deserves to be
hung! But is it true, Mistress Rosamond, that you are not
going to be a nun, after all?"

"'Tis quite true," said I. "You know my brother is going to

sea, and my father and mother naturally want me at home,
and there are other reasons. But there was neither force
nor persuasion in the case. It was left to myself to decide,
and I have, as I believe, decided rightly."

"And I am glad on't with all my heart!" said Dame Lee,

heartily. "I am no believer in shutting up young maids in
convent walls. They may do for those who have no other
home. But what can Patience mean by telling such tales?"

"She means to hide her own disgrace and dismissal, no

doubt," said I. "She is a wicked woman, and I dare say will
work me all the harm she can. I suppose the whole village
is ringing with this absurd tale."

"I shall tell the truth about it wherever I go, you may be
sure," said Dame Lee. "Mrs. Patience is not now my Lady's
bower-woman, that I should dread her anger. She used to
abuse my late Lady's ear with many a false tale, as she did
about Meg here, because, forsooth, Meg would not wed her
nephew. But I shall let people know what her legends are
worth."

"Do so," said I.

And I doubt not she will; for besides that, the Lees have
always been attached to our family from the earliest times,
the good gammer dearly loves a gossip, and nuts to her to
be able at once to contradict Patience and to have the story
at first hand. Yet, such is the love of all people for the
marvellous, that I should not wonder if the ghost story
should continue to be believed, and that for many
generations. *

* She was right. It has been one of the family ghost

stories ever since. There are enough of them to make a
chronicle by themselves.—D. C.
 CHAPTER XXXI.

June 30.

A GREAT event has happened, so unexpected that I don't

believe it even yet.

Three days ago, as we were all sitting at supper, comes in

Thomas and says, "Here is a gentleman from Cornwall to
see you, Sir Stephen."

"Have him in, man!" says my father. "Would you keep him
waiting?"
"Nay, but he is so bespattered with his journey," says
Thomas, "and wearied as well. He says his name is
Penrose."

"Penrose—Penrose—the name hath a familiar ring;" said my

father, musingly, and then: "Bid him never mind his
spatters, but bring him in. He must needs be sore wearied
and wet too, riding in this storm."

The gentleman presently entered—an elderly man and thin

—his riding dress plain, almost to shabbiness. My father
rose courteously to receive him.

"You do not know me, Stephen," says the stranger: "yet we

have been playmates many a day at Tremador Court—"

"Joslyn Penrose!" exclaimed my father, and then ensued a

cordial greeting enow.

"And how is my good aunt?" asked my father presently.

"She is an old lady by this time."

"She is gone where are neither old nor young," answered

the stranger, sadly. "My good old friend and patroness was
buried more than ten days ago. You should have been
bidden to the funeral, but the weather was warm, and we
had to hasten matters."

"'Tis just as well!" said my father. "I don't believe she would
have asked me if she had had her way, for I was never in
her good graces since the day I was so maladroit as to kill
her cat with my cross-bow. 'Twas a mere piece of ill-luck,
for I would not have hurt a hair of poor puss if I had only
seen her. Well, she is gone, and peace to her soul! I hope
she has made thee her heir, after all these years, Joslyn!"
"Nay, that she has not!" answered Master Penrose. "'Tis
even that which has brought me here."

"The old cat!" exclaimed my father.

"Wait till you hear, before you condemn!" answered our

guest.

But here my mother interposed. The gentleman was surely

too weary and hungry to be kept discoursing of business.
He should be shown to his chamber, and then come to
supper with us, before he said another word.

"And so she has kept Jos Penrose waiting on her like a slave
all these years, managing for her, and serving her more like
a servant than a kinsman, only to bilk him at last," said my
father.

"I would not have been kept waiting!" said Harry. "I would
have struck out something for myself."

"You would not if you had been Joslyn," answered my

father. "He was not one to do so. He could manage well
enough for others, but never could keep two groats
together for himself. Besides that his life was spoiled by a
woman, as many another man's life has been, and will be.
Take care, Harry, my son, that you pay him all due kindness
and deference."

By this time our guest had come back, and was soon seated
at the table, each of us being presented to him in turn.
When my turn came, Master Penrose looked earnestly at
me, as if he had some special interest in me.

"So this is the young lady," said he, smiling somewhat

sadly. "In truth, though favor may be deceitful and beauty
vain, as the wise man said, Mistress Rosamond hath that in
her face that makes me rejoice in her good fortune."

"Rosamond is a good maiden, as maidens go," said my

father: "but what mean you, Joslyn? What good fortune
hath befallen her? Has my aunt left her guardian of her
popinjay, or given her the reversion of that black damask
gown, I remember so well?"

"More than that!" answered Master Penrose. "Mistress

Rosamond is sole heir to Tremador, and all its
appurtenances. 'Tis a fine estate, for our part of the world—
not less than an hundred and fifty a year, though saddled
with a life annuity of twenty pounds a year to myself. Also, I
am to have my nest for life in the old tower where I have
lived so long, and a seat at table and in hall, unless Mistress
Rosamond objects."

"Mistress Rosamond is no child of her father's if she does!"

said Sir Stephen. "But are you sure? 'Tis passing strange! I
thought she would make you her heir, or else leave all to
the convent yonder. Rosamond was her namesake, 'tis true,
but she has never taken any more notice of the child than
to send her some old-fashioned gewgaws once on a time.
'Tis not right nor fair, Joslyn! You should have been the heir,
and not my daughter."

"Nay, I am well content!" answered Master Penrose. "My

wants are few, and if Mistress Rosamond will let me live
where I have lived so long, I shall not trouble her many
years."

My mother looked at me, and made me a sign to speak;

and though I was so covered with confusion that I could
hardly find words, I did manage to say that, so far as I had
any voice in the matter, I hoped Master Penrose would
always make my aunt's house his home. Then Master
Penrose kissed my hand and made me a pretty old-
fashioned compliment; and I was so confused and stunned
with it all, that I think, like a fool, I should have burst out
crying, only that my mother, seeing my trouble, came to my
aid and rose from the table.

"We will leave you to talk over matters by yourselves," said

she, courteously. "Rosamond is somewhat overcome, and
no wonder."

When I was alone with my Lady, I soon recovered myself.

She does not like to have me weep, and I am learning self-
control. We talked the matter over, and I said what I felt;
that I could not think my aunt had done right—that she
should have made Master Penrose her heir, and not a
stranger, whom she had never even seen.

"People, even very good people, often make very strange

and unjust wills," said my Lady; and with that she sighed
somewhat sadly. "But we will not conclude that your aunt's
will is of this kind, till we know something more of the
circumstances. She may have had good reasons for the
arrangement. You heard what your father said about Master
Penrose, that though a good manager for others, he could
never keep too groats together for himself. Some notion of
this kind may have governed my old Lady Tremador in
leaving him only an annuity."

"I am sorry about this, for one reason," said I, presently.

"People will say I chose a secular life, because I had this
fortune left me."

My mother smiled. "Shall I tell you a motto I saw once in

Scotland?" said she. "'Twas graven over a door, and ran
thus—'They haf said—What said they? Let them say!' 'Twas
an odd motto for such a place, was it not? But it may serve
well enough for us. Many things will be said about your
choice, without doubt, but what matter? Let them say."

"Yet one cannot be indifferent to what folks say of one,"

quoth I: "and I hardly know if it is right to be so."

"It is not right to be so indifferent as to provoke comment

needlessly," answered my Lady; "but when we know that
we have done right, we must be content to leave the rest."

My Lady then saying that I looked weary, sent me to bed,

and I saw our guest no more that night.

I feel well acquainted and at ease with him now, however,

and shall, I hope, be more so. 'Tis settled that next week
we are all—that is my father, mother, Harry and myself—to
go to Tremador to take possession, and see what is to be
done in the way of repairs and the like. Master Penrose
journeys with us. My father would gladly have taken Master
Ellenwood, on whose judgment he relies greatly in business
matters, but Master Ellenwood expects his brother from
Amsterdam to make him a visit. Master Jasper is said to be
a wonderful scholar, a friend of Erasmus, and very deep in
the new learning, both Greek and Latin.

My mother, who has been in Amsterdam with her first

husband, says she fears our housekeeping will seem very
rough and sluttish to Master Jasper's Dutch notions. She
tells me that in Holland they strew no rushes on the floors
even of their dining-halls, but that the floors are made of
fine inlaid woods or stones, and the same are washed or
rubbed with fine sand every day, and then waxed till they
shine like glass. Madam herself is counted over particular by
our men and maids because she will have all the rushes
renewed and the rooms thoroughly swept every week
instead of every month, as used to be the way. Also, we will
have no rushes in her chamber or mine, saying that they
breed fleas and other vermin, and hide the dust. Certainly
the air in our house is far sweeter than I remember it
formerly. But it seems a great deal of trouble to wash floors
every day, and I should think would be damp and
unwholesome. Probably in Holland a little water more or
less does not matter.

My Lady has told me much of the comfort and splendor in

which the Dutch merchants live, of their beautiful pictures,
presenting flowers and other objects in all the hues of life,
of their noble collections of books, and the quantities of fine
house linen, garments, and other things which their wives
lay up and provide against the marriage of their daughters.
I remember Mother Monica telling Amice and me that in her
day the merchants of London lived in far more comfort than
the nobles and courtiers.

This journey into Cornwall, which seems like a perilous

adventure to me, my Lady makes nothing of, save as she
seems to enjoy the thoughts of it. My father is going to stop
on the way at the house of Sir John Carey, who hath long
owed him a sum of money. He is a kinsman of our
neighbors at Clovelly, but they know little of him, save that
he last year lost his only son in some very sad way, that I
did not clearly understand. Sir John is now old and feeble,
and hath more than once sent asking my father to come
and see him, but it hath not been convenient hitherto.
 CHAPTER XXXII.

July 20, Tremador, in Cornwall.

HERE we are, at this grim, sad old house, which yet hath a
wonderful charm to me, maybe because it is my house. It
seems such a surprising thing to call a house mine. We have
been here three or four days, and I am not yet weary of
exploring the old rooms, and asking questions of Mistress
Grace, my aunt's old bower-woman. The good soul took to
me at once, and answers all my queries with the most
indulgent patience. Albeit I am sometimes sore put to
understand her. Mistress Grace, it is true, speaks English,
though with a strong Cornish accent; but some of the
servants and almost all the cottagers speak the Cornish
tongue, which is as unknown as Greek to me. Master
Penrose, or Cousin Joslyn, as he likes best to have me call
him, who is very learned, says the language is related to
the Welsh.
Mistress Grace has also been very much interested in
dressing up poor Joyce. She has made the child a nice suit
out of an old one of her Lady's, combed and arranged her
tangled hair, and so forth, and 'tis wonderful how different
Joyce looks. She is really very lovely. She seems to like me
well, but clings most to my Lady, whom she would fain
follow like a little dog, I think. I wish she would get over
that way of shrinking and looking so scared when any one
speaks to her; but I dare say that will come in time, poor
thing. My mother says 'tis a wonder she hath any sense left.
But what a way is this of writing a chronicle! I must begin,
and orderly set down the events of our journey as they
happened.

It took some days to make our preparations, for my mother

would have me in suitable mourning before setting out. She
said it was no more than due respect to our aunt's memory,
seeing what she had done for me. 'Twas like putting on my
old convent weeds again; and strange to say, seemed as
new to me as if I had not worn black all my life long. Dick
(who has been away on some business of my Lord's,)
coming in upon me in the twilight, started as if he had seen
a ghost.

"I thought we had seen the last of that!" said he.

"Rosamond, I thought you had done with the convent
forever!"

"And so I have!" I answered; and told him how it was.

Methought he did not seem so well pleased as I should have
been, had such a piece of good luck befallen him.

"They will be more loth than ever to give you up!" said he.
"The estate of Tremador would be a fine windfall for them!
Rosamond, you have need to be on your guard! They will
not let you go without a struggle. Pray be careful and do not
wander away by yourself, especially while you are on the
journey, or in Cornwall."

"Why, what do you fear for me?" I asked. "You are not used
to be so timid." I wished the words unsaid in a moment, for
I saw that they hurt him.

"'Tis not for myself, if I am timid!" he answered me, with a

look of reproach; "but I suppose plain Dick Stanton, the son
of a younger son, must not be too free with the heiress of
Tremador!"

A year ago, I suppose, we should have had our quarrel out

and made it up again in our old childish fashion; but I did
not feel like that now.

"Richard," says I, "did you learn that fashion of speech out

of the book you would not lend me that day in the maze?
For I too have been studying it, and I have found no such
thing, but on the contrary a good deal about thinking no
evil," says I.

He had turned to go, but was back at my side in a moment.

"Forgive me, Rosamond!" he whispered; "I am very wrong!"

"That indeed you are!" said I. "Why should my aunt's will

make any difference between us, who have been playmates
from the time we were little children?"

"But we are not little children now!" he answered me, with a

strange break in his voice. "We are not children now, and
never can be again: and oh, Rosamond, I have been
cherishing such sweet hopes ever since I heard that you
had given up being a nun!"

I don't know what more he might have said, but my father

came in just then, and would have all the news of Dick's
journey; and we were not alone again.

"Richard and my Lord rode one stage with us beyond

Biddeford. My Lord and my father were deep in converse
(the roads being good for the first stage, we were able to
ride two abreast), and Richard rode by my side, Harry as
usual being close to my mother. But there was little chance
for any private converse, and I think we were both very
silent. My Lord would send one of his own men with us as
an additional guard, though methinks our own three, with
my father and Harry, should be enough.

"I would loan you Dick here, but that he is my right-hand

man—I cannot spare him," said my Lord, as we parted.
"Take care of your heart, my fair cousin, and do not lose it
to any of the Cornish knights. Remember, 'Better a poor
neighbor than a rich stranger.'"

"Aye, my Lord, but there is another proverb—'Better kind

strangers than strange kin,'" I answered.

"What, have you and Dick quarrelled? Nay, I shall not have
that!" whispered my Lord in mine ear, as he gave my cheek
a parting salute. "Be kind to him, my Rose of May! He was
faithful to you when he had many a temptation to be
otherwise."

Richard kissed my cheek, as usual, at parting, but there

was that in his look and the pressure of his hand—

[I don't know why I should have drawn my pen through

this, as it seems I did. I suppose I could not yet feel that
'twas no sin to think of my cousin. I knew then that Dick
loved me, and from my Lord's whisper, I could guess well
enough that he was no ways averse to the match, and yet I
felt, I know not how, as if I had committed a mortal sin for
which yet I could not repent. The truth was, I could not yet
quite come to feel that I was a free woman, at least under
no law but my father's will. I know I rode in a kind of dream
all the rest of that day.]

We reached the end of our stage about four of the clock,

tired and wearied enough, yet with no adventures more
than those which I believe befall all travellers, of tired
beasts and men, plentiful splashes of mud, and once or
twice a horse stuck fast in the mire and hardly got out
again. Cousin Joslyn being with us, we were in no danger of
missing the road, as we should otherwise have been, and
our numbers were great enough to keep in awe any bands
of robbers that we were likely to meet in these parts.

We stayed the first night at a farm-house, where the good

yeoman and his wife made us heartily welcome to the best
they had of fowls, bacon, clotted cream, and I know not
what country dainties, and we in return for their hospitality
told them the last news from London and the Court. They
had heard something even in this odd corner of the world of
the good Queen's disgrace, and the women were eager for
particulars.

"'Tis all the fault of the new doctrines—those pestilent

heresies that crawl over the land like palmer worms," said a
begging friar, a guest like ourselves, but methought scarce
so welcome. "'Tis they have put these maggots in the King's
head."

"Nay, I think you are wrong there," answered my father.

"'Tis true, Mistress Anne is reported for a Lutheran, and
maybe some of the same sort may build hopes on her
advancement; but Luther himself has lifted his voice
manfully against the divorce, and Tyndale—he who has set
forth this new translation of the Gospels—"
"The curses of Mother Church and all the saints upon him!"
interrupted the friar, spitting in token of his abhorrence. "He
is the arch fiend of them all—worse than Luther himself,
even!"

"Be that as it may, he hath written a letter against the

divorce, and that of the sharpest!" answered my mother.
"'Tis said his Majesty's wrath was aroused far more by the
letter than it was even by the translation of the Gospels."

"Aye, have they got the Gospels in English again?" said a

very old man, who had been sitting in a great chair,
apparently unmindful of all that was going on. (I had seen
with pleasure how neat and clean he was, and how careful
the good woman was to prepare his mess of food, serving
him with the best on the board.) "Well, well, the world goes
on, but methinks it goes back as well—"

"How so, good father?" asked my mother.

"Oh, 'tis but an old man's tale now, my lady; but when I
was very young—younger than your son yonder—there was
great stir about one Wickliffe, who, 'twas said, made an
English Bible. Our parish priest had one, and read it out to
us in the church many a Sunday, marvellous good words,
sure—marvellous good words. But they stopped him at last
and hied him away to some of their convent prisons. 'Twas
said that he would not recant, and they made way with him.
They said 'twas rank heresy and blasphemy—but they were
marvellous good words—I mind some of them now—'Come
unto me, and I will refresh you, ye weary and laden.' It ran
like that, as I remember: 'God loved the world so that he
gave his Son—that he who believed should have—should
have'—what was that again?"