Feature Explanation Relevance

Totalitarianism Everything within the state, nothing outside of the state. Through this, Mussolini was able
to consolidate control of the
Individual freedom was a threat as people could counter the interests of the state. population and the engines of
government.
Democracy was a collective responsibility.
Total control of all sectors of
society gave him immense power.

Heroic Leader Change was to be brought by a strong, single, Following the period of uncertainty
central leader→ Mussolini left by WWI, Italy’s great instability
meant that people urged for a
strong figure they could trust.
He was to be responsible for transforming society.
Fascism’s proposal of a strong
Actions spoke more than words.
central leader gave people exactly
that.

Extreme Italy was to return to the former glory of the Roman Empire. This allowed Mussolini to secure
Nationalism the population’s support,
Called for an aggressive foreign policy. especially when it regarded a
strong and aggressive foreign
Sought the expansion of the Italian Empire into Africa, E.g→ Abyssinia (1935-36) policy.

At war time, the strong national

Racial superiority→ Italians superior, Slavs, Austro-Hungarians inferior. sentiment allowed Mussolini to
encourage Italians to fight.

Nationalism also made it easy for

Mussolini to regard other groups
and ideologies, like Communism,
as enemies of the state.

Militarism Change was to be brought by a strong militarisation. The push for militarisation was a
natural necessity when looking at
Paramilitary groups (Blackshirts) used to intimidate the opposition. features like the aggressive foreign
policy.
Militarism as a way of driving Italy forward
This was hence justified as a way
Militarism was enforced in education: teachers were military uniforms. of securing safety, and as a way to
show strength.
Actions aimed to show military superiority:
- Spanish Civil War (1936-1939)
- Italian invasion of Albania (1939)

Hatred of The internationalisation of Communism was a threat. Communism was portrayed as a

Communism threat to the wellbeing of Italian
Communists were loyal to the USSR rather than Italy. tradition.

Mussolini believed that violence drove history rather than economic factors. By portraying Communism as a
common enemy, Mussolini further
Class struggle opposed harmony amongst Italians. incited nationalism.

Corporativism This was a third way between capitalism and communism As an attempt to provide another
economic system, Mussolini
A corporate state was to be created utilised corporativism to secure
support and as a way to
Sought harmony between workers and employers collaborate with the private sector
in his goals of production.
Mussolini created and led the Ministry of Corporations (1926).

A negative Some Historians consider the rise of Fascism a result of it being a negative Fascism was very attractive to
movement movement. Italians, whose desire for change
meant that they sought something
Initially, the most striking feature of Fascism was what it was against, which included different.

many ideological spheres, E.g→ Communism, Capitalism, Big business, and the
 Church.

Mussolini's consolidation/maintenance of power

Act Explanation Factor

Rule by decree Parliament gave Mussolini to rule by decree for one year, which essentially allowed Mussolini to pass laws and Use of legal
(November 1922) without consulting congress. methods/
Charismatic
Mussolini claimed that this would only be a temporary measure until Italy was stabilised, yet it allowed him to leadership
execute acts as he saw fit.

He was supported by many conservatives, and prominent Liberals like Facta and Giolliti, with the main
opposition being the Communists and the Socialists.

The creation of To consolidate his position and power, Mussolini created the Grand Council of Fascism in order to obtain control Use of legal
the Grand Council of the Fascist Party. methods
of Fascism
(December 1922) He gave himself the power to make all of the appointments of the Grand Council, allowing him to control
Fascist policy.

Mussolini needed to centralise power to assert his position, as he had conflicting interests with the Ras, who
were provincial Fascits leaders in Italy:

E.g→ Mussolini wanted a monolithic Fascist state led by the Duce (himself), whereas the Ras sought a more
decentralised Fascist state.

Hence, Mussolini constantly attempted to diminish power from his enemies:

E.g2→ In January 1923 he further diminished the power of provincial Fascits leaders (Ras) by merging
individual Fascist squads into a 30,000 men national militia.

The national militia was essentially his private army which he used to continue intimidating the opposition.
 Gained the In order to secure the Church’s support, which was a very powerful body in Italian society, Mussolini offered to: Use of Persuasion/
support of the Charismatic
Church - Help the struggling Catholic bank. leadership
(1923)
- Make religious education compulsory.

- Ban contraception

Gained the Mussolini promised the confidrustia (employer’s organisation) that: Use of Persuasion/
support of big Charismatic
businesses - Tax evasion would not be investigated by the government. leadership

- Price and rent controls would be abolished.

Increased With his rule by decree coming to an end, Mussolini needed to increase his parliamentary strength in order to Use of Persuasion/
parliamentary hold a majority in parliament and pass his desired policies. Charismatic
strength leadership
(1923) To do this, he persuaded nationalists to join the Fascist Party.

This increased his political support and number of votes in parliament, which would be pivotal for his next
move: The Acerbo Law

The Acerbo Law Mussolini proposed that the political party that had received the most votes should win ⅔ of the seats in the Use of legal
(July 1923) Chamber of Deputies. methods / coercion

This essentially made it impossible for the Fascist Party , and its allies to be voted out of parliament.

Mussolini argued that the law would prevent weak government coalitions, like the ones of Liberal Italy, by
securing that the government would be supported by the majority of MPs, which would allow issues to be dealt
with decisively.

The Acerbo Law was supported by the majority of parliament.

During the vote, however; armed Fascists were patrolling the Chamber of deputies.

Mussolini had already guaranteed the support of most liberals, nationalists, and the Church. This together
with the slight fear brought about by the armed Fascists allowed the Law to be passed easily.

Truthly, however; many MPs were fond of the idea of a government that would continue to persecute the
dangerous and revolutionary left, while preventing the formation of weak coalitions in government.

The General The Acerbo law was a “set up” to the elections of April 1924, as Mussolini hoped that the Fascists would receive Use of legal
Election the majority of votes, and thus be granted ⅔ of the Chamber of Deputies. methods/ coercion/
(April 1924) Charismatic
The Fascists increased their parliamentary representation to 374, most of it being a result of Mussolini’s public leadership
popularity.

- He was adored nationwide, with his rallies seeing thousands showing up.
- He continuously propagated the Fascist ideology to increase party membership and his support base.

Yet, it was suspected that a significant proportion of the Fascist votes came from ballot-rigging and blackshirt
intimidation.

Opposition was heavily suppressed, especially the Communists and Socialists, who were completely against
Fascism; unlike the liberals & conservatives who were often lenient with Fascist policies.

Despite this, the Communist and Socialists still obtained significant votes→ E.g Milan did not show a Fascist
majority.
 The murder of On May 30th, Matteotti, a socialist, called for the election results to be declared invalid, as he claimed that the Use of violence
Giacomo Mateoti Fascists had rigged the elections.
(June 1924)
On the 10th of June he was stabbed to death.

There were some allegations of Mussolini’s involvement.

The event led to a mass public unrest with people demanding justice for Matteotti.

A few days later, in what became known as the Aventine Secession, 100 opposition MPs walked out of
parliament, as a form of protest, including some of Mussolini’s Liberal supporters, as they refused to collaborate
with a brute like Mussolini.

The MPs also hoped that this would encourage the King to revoke Mussolini from the premiership.

Mussolini ordered the arrests of the Fascist suspects, but also increased the number of Blackshirts in the
streets in order to end the opposition protests.

Destruction of In July, protests in the press and on the streets escalated. This led Mussolini to: Use of violence and
democracy repression
(Jul.1925) - Enforce press censorship

- Ban political meetings for opposition parties.

Yet, protests continued, and radical Fascists, the Ras called on Mussolini to take dictatorial action, otherwise
they would refuse to support him, and replace him with another PNF member.

In January 1925, Mussolini made a powerful speech in the Chamber of Deputies declaring that he would
increase his
personal power and take decisive action against the opposition.

This was easily done as he had the support of the King, parliament and blackshirts.

Many historians deem this moment as the start of Mussolini’s dictatorship, whereas others deem the Rule by
Decree of 1926 as the starting point.

Still in January he implemented measures make Italy a Fascist state, and suppress opposition:

- Ordered a committee to reform the constitution.

- Banned opposition political parties.

 - Banned free trade unions.

- Press censorship was tightened.

- A secret police was created (OVRA).

- Special kangaroo courts were set up to try political crimes.

- Fascist officials replaced Mayors.

Rule by decree II Having a majority in parliament, Mussolini once again passed the Rule by Decree, although this time he had the Use of legal
(January 1926) power to permanently pass laws without consulting parliament. methods

This effectively gave him dictatorial power:

- By November 1926, opposition political parties were dissolved.

- In 1928 universal suffrage was terminated and the King lost power to appoint the PM.
 Rise of Mussolini
Factor Explanation Category

Journalist Mussolini’s background as a journalist is an important part of his self promotion and the promotion of Fascism. Use of
background His understanding of the power of Mass media is also crucial to his uprising, though it will also influence the propaganda
policies of Hitler and Goebbles.

Abandonment In his early career, Mussolini was extremely Socialist, yet, as he accompanied the works of philosophers like Ideology
of Socialism Nietzsche, he steered away from Socialism.
(pre WWI)
Mussolini started to believe in integral nationalism, and in the idea that the Italians were a superior race.
He started to view war as a way of liberating the Italian people and crushing the inferior Austria-Hungarian
race.
After the War, Mussolini further increased his popularity by founding organisations such as:
- The Fascist Revolutionary Party (which still possessed many Socialist beliefs) (1915)
- The Italian Combat Squad (1919)

Appealing to Though Mussolini had the support of the working class, he needed to appeal to other Italians, so he proposed Persuasion
a wider public more radical ideas that explored the people’s fears, and hostilities. These ideas included:
- Italy had been stolen of its greatness by plutocratic nations, like Britain and France.
-
1. Throughout most of the 18th, 19th and 20th century, these powers expanded their empires
becoming major world superpowers, while Italy was not able to take its fair share of the world.

2. Italy had seen a mutilated victory following the end of WWI, especially due to the unjust
concessions of the Treaty of Versailles.

- Italians were a superior race (as shown by its high birth rate).

- The Slavs were an inferior race.

- He wished to double the population to 60 million in order to properly militarise Italy as a strong,
independent power.

Goal→ To expand Italy throughout the Mediterranean and subjugate non Italian speaking people.

The Mythic Past Mussolini created the notion of a “mythic past” by establishing connections between modern Italy and the Ideology
Roman Empire, in which he embraced tradition, and argued that by returning to its roots, Italy’s greatness
would be restored. He proposed ideas like:
- Embraces traditional gender values
- Folklore
- A return to “true” Italian traditions
- Further militarisation so Italy may achieve its goes foreignly and domestically
- The abandonment of capitalism, and incorporation of corporatism syndicalism (corporatism) to appeal
to workers.

A strong leader In order for Italy to achieve all of the goals he had claimed, a single, strong leader should be in power, which he Ideology
would certify that it would be him.

Creating an Mussolini blamed Britain and France specifically for Italy’s mutilated victory, and used this as a way to power. Persuasion
enemy
Later he blamed the Communist/Socialists for being against Italy and wishing an Communist revolution in the
nation.

The National Mussolini, without a seat in parliament or any government position, managed to be almost as powerful as the Persuasion or
Election government due to his control of the blackshirts. coercion
(May 1921)
Hence, PM Giolitti invited him to form a centre-right National Bloc against the left.
Mussolini accepted and won a seat in parliament, but the National Bloc failed to achieve a majority.
 Still, he used his new political position to rally the Fascis and ascend through the political system.

Consolidating Mussolini gradually consolidated the small fasci groups under the Fascist banner, which were, thus far, the Use of violence
the fascis only way of keeping order.
(Squadrismo)
Even though the National Bloc failed in 1921, Mussolini’s party’s rallies were growing in support, often seeing
tens of thousands in support.
The party membership soared to 320,000 of which 7% were armed Blackshirts.
The party changed its name to the National Fascist Party (PNF).

The PNF Mussolini changed his Fascist agenda to win power through the political process. Persuasion
(1921)
He focused on gaining support from the property-owning middle class:
- He dropped the wealth tax he had proposed in 1919.
- Argues for the freedom of the Church

→ some Historians argued that Mussolini cynically followed the money as he adopted a program that sought to
defend businesses from trade unions and Socialism.
- Mussolini adapted his proposals to attract anyone who could finance his political ascent.
- This, however, had adverse effects in Mussolini’s working class support base, as it triggered great
growth in the Socialist Trade Unions from 250,000 in 1918 to 2 million in 1920.

March to Rome In 1922, the Italian King Vittorio Emanuel turned to a liberal politician, Luigi Facta, to become PM and form a Coercion
(1922) new government.
Hence, the Fascists voiced their discontent, as they wanted Mussolini to be PM.
Later, on October 24th, during a rally in Naples in, Mussolini addressed 60,0000 Italians and changed his
viewpoint by criticising democracy and claiming support for the monarchy, as he proposed that Italy could
only thrive under an united, strong leadership.

Parallel to this support, however, Mussolini threatened to take the nation by violence, and demanded that at
least 6 government positions be given to the Fascists.
Hence, on October 28th, 30,000 Fascists marched 150 miles to Rome, spreading panic throughout the nation.
Yet, PM Facta knew that the army could easily suppress the Fascists, yet when he requested permission for
the king to stop the Fascists by using the army, the king refused (for unknown reasons).
Facta thought this was outrageous and resigned.
Mussolini joined the Fascists right at the end of the march, and marched into Rome where the king called on
Mussolini to become PM.

Securing power Though Mussolini obtained the role of PM, he needed to safely consolidate his power in order to not fall like Use of violence
previous PMs.
He did so through the extensive use of the paramilitary groups, which allowed him to become dictator.

Reactionary or revolutionary?

Reactionary Revolutionary

Fascism was a movement brought about by industrialization, Fascism was a new movement that aimed to transform Italy.
democracy, and the post-war era.
It provided a new ideology besides a new socio-economic system.

→ Alexander DeGrand: Fascism was a pragmatic political

program to maximise support rather than a consistent ideology.
- Mussolini appealed to different groups at different times,
often offering contradicting policies to secure support.
→ Jacob Salwyn Schapiro: Fascism was a middle-class oriented
revolutionary movement that attempted to establish a new social
order that was not based on socialism or capitalism
- “ Fascism is something unique in modern history, in that it is
a revolutionary movement of the middle class directed, on
the one hand, against the great banks and big business
 and, on the other hand, against the revolutionary demands
of the working class.

MUSSOLINI’S FOREIGN POLICY IN THE 1920s:

Aggression or Cooperation?

→ According to English historian Denis Mack Smith, "Mussolini's style abroad, as at home, was that of the bully rather than the
negotiator. In foreign policy, he was concerned less to reduce international animosities than to foster them...' Mussolini, 1983

Event Italy’s involvement Co-operation or aggression?

Aims In Mussolini's own words, he wanted "to make Italy great, respected and feared". N/A

He hoped to achieve this by:

- Establishing an aggressive and assertive foreign policy.
- Building-up the Italian military.
- Frequently employing violence, and perhaps war.

Yet, he also had some territorial ambitions. He sought:

- Italy to be a dominant power in the Mediterranean.
- The expansion of the Italian Empire in Africa.
- To bring the Balkans into Italy's sphere of influence.

Meanwhile, he hoped that achieving these goals would energize Italians, transforming them
into an aggressive race in the process.

The Corfu On August 21st, 1923, an Italian general and four of his staff members were Aggression: Mussolini clearly
Incident assassinated in Greece after working in the boundary commission that would settle the engaged in an act of violence by
(1923) Greek-Albanian border. forcefully occupying Corfu.

Upon hearing this, Mussolini was furious and thus demanded: The occupation was a great show of
- A formal apology by the Greek government. dynamic Fascism and exposed
- 50 million lira in compensation. Italy's strong foreign policy.

Yet, the Greek government refused, and thus Mussolini ordered a naval bombardment However, it became clear that
and occupation of Corfu. although Mussolini could bully
smaller countries, he could not do
 It was clear that overtaking Corfu was Mussolini's original intention, as the island would the same to larger powers like
bring him one step closer to bringing the Balkans into Italy's sphere of influence. Britain.

As a result, Greece appealed to the LoN, and so Britain, and its Mediterranean fleet placed In fact, Mussolini understood that he
strong diplomatic pressure on Italy to withdraw. would have to maintain good
relations with Britain, at least in the
Mussolini reluctantly agreed, and on September 27th, Italian troops withdrew from Corfu. short-term, to pursue his goals.

Finally, Mussolini received the 50 million lira he desired, yet there was no apology from
Greece.

The Fiume Although the Adriatic Port of Fiume was awarded to Yugoslavia in the secret Treaty of Cooperation: The issue was settled
Question London (1915), Italy made claims to the region in the Paris Peace conference (1919). with the Treaty of Rome, which was
& Pact of drawn by both countries.
Rome According to Italian sources, in 1919, around 65% of the region was of Italian descent,
hence it should be awarded to Italy on an ethnic and racial basis. Of course, Mussolini also employed
(1924)
coercion to force cooperation
This matter had escalated exponentially, leading Gabrielle D'Annunzio and Italian between Yugoslvia and Italy, subtly
nationalists to occupy the region in September 1919→ This was temporarily settled in the threatening Yugoslavia by supporting
Albania.
Treaty of Rapallo in 1920, when the region was returned to Yugoslavia.
Yugoslavia tried its best not to
Later, however, in 1924, Mussolini pressured Yugoslavia to cede Fiume to Italy, which it
antagonize the Fascist state.
did so as per the Treaty of Rome.

Yugoslavia agreed to this because Italy had just economically and militarily supported the
establishment of a new government in Albania, which borders southern Yugoslavia.

Hence, Mussolini was essentially sending a message to Yugoslavia, making it clear that Italy
could be a military threat, as it now had an armed ally bordering the country.

The Locarno The treaties consisted of 7 agreements to secure the post-war territorial settlements Cooperation: Mussolini was making it
Treaties between the nations of Europe. clear to the major European
(1925) powers, especially Britain, that he
They included a variety of clauses, but principally, Germany guaranteed its new western was willing to settle agreements and
borders with France. disputes through peaceful means.

Italy signed these treaties, which was a good opportunity for Mussolini to improve
relations with Britain after Corfu, as he was essentially showing that Italy was seeking to
preserve peace.

Albania & The Mussolini sought to control Albania, as it would allow him to: Cooperation: Through a series of
Treaty of - Further his influence in the Balkans agreements, Mussolini established
Friendship - Control access to the Adriatic Sea. good relations with Albania which
(1926) allowed him to pursue his goals.
In 1925, Italy began interfering in the Albanian economy, which was well received by the
Albanian President (and later King), Ahmed Zog I. Still, much of his cooperation in
Albania was indicative of potential
This improvement of relations led to the Treaty of Tirana (1926), also known as the Treaty aggression elsewhere, such as in
of Friendship. Yugoslavia.

As per the treaty: Also, relations with Albania later

- Italian army officials would train the Albanian army. deteriorated, as Italy invaded
- Albania became a satellite state to Italy. Albania in 1939.

This military proximity between Italy and Albania worried Yugoslavia→ link to the Fiume
Question.

Relations with Albania were later strengthened in the Second Treaty of Tirana (1927),
where a defensive alliance was drawn between Italy and Albania.

The Kellogg- Along with 14 other nations, Italy signed the agreement to which they guaranteed Cooperation: The Pact virtually
Briand Pact renounce use force in settling international disputes. outlawed war, seeking to preserve
(1928) international peace.
This treaty is considered a failure and is somewhat ridiculed, given that amongst the signers,
there included Italy and Germany, who were amongst the aggressors of WW2. Like the Locarno Treaties this too
helped Italy improve relations with
Britain.

The Treaty of In August 1928, Italy signed a Treaty of Friendship with Abyssinia, with the goal of Cooperation: Mussolini managed to
Friendship with friendly settling any outstanding differences in East Africa. secure peaceful relations with
 Abyssinia Abyssinia in the short-term.
(1928) The treaty secured that:
- Italy would uphold lasting friendly relations with Abyssinia (nowadays Ethiopia) He would later invade Abyssinia in
- Any dispute would be resolved through mediation, until a peaceful resolution was 1935, utilizing very violent and
found. barbaric means.

Other terms were also agreed upon, such as allowing Abyssinia access to the Red Sea
port of Assab.

The crushing Italy had conquered Libya (previously called Italian Northern Africa) in 1911 after an Aggression: Italian troops employed
of the Libyan extremely violent military campaign, and had since occupied the region. extremely violent measures to
revolt suppress the Arab rebellion.
(1922 – 28) Around 150,000 Italians settled in Libya, which accounted for 20% of the population.

Naturally, the Italian occupation was not well received by many, and so a Libyan resistance
was born, led by Idris al-Mahdi as-Senussi (later King Idris I).

The resistance attempted to regain control of the region, and so there occurred frequent
military encounters between Italian and Libyan forces.

→ Isralei Historian, Ilan Pappe, has estimated that between 1928-32 Italian troops "killed
half the Bedouin (an Arab tribe) population (directly or through disease and starvation in
camps)."

→ Italian historian, Emilio Gentile, estimates that Italian troops killed over 50,000 in pursuit
of repressing the revolt.

Italian foreign policy in the 1930s

Event What was it/what happened? What was the impact on Italy/Mussolini? What was the international reaction?

Invasion of In 1935, Italy invaded Abyssinia as a
Abyssinia means to conquer new territory.
(1935-36)
The invasion was extremely violent as
Mussolini employed military tactics
that had not been used since WWI,
such as chemical warfare.
Mussolini had an economic & racial
basis for this:
→ He sought to acquire the natural
resources present in Abyssinia.
Abyssinia was claimed by the Italian army,
and thus, the Italian empire was expanded
into Northern Africa.
Italy was able to utilise the region for
economic purposes, extracting its raw
materials.
The invasion also increased Mussolini's
prestige in Italy as he was showing to the
Italian people that he was expanding the
Italian empire, and keeping his promise to
restore Italy's glory.
Britain and France theorised on the secret
Hoare-Laval Pact to resolve the conflict by
dividing Abyssinia.
However, once this was leaked to the British
press, there was great criticism over the British
& French opinion due to a lack of a firm pulse
by both.
In the end, they both only submitted a
disapproval of the invasion, which is part of
why the Invasion of Abyssinia is considered as
one of the LoN's greatest failures in the 1930s.

→ Italian historian, Renzo De Felice, argued Germany approved the invasion and gave
→ He claimed that Italian’s had the right Mussolini moral support.
that Mussolini was really popular especially
to an Empire, and were to bring
between 1929-36, which was intensified by the
civilization to a barbaric society.
invasion of Abyssinia (1935)

Spanish Civil Together with Germany, Italy
War supported General Franco’s
(1936) nationalist groups in a coup to
overthrow the newly elected Republic
government and the popular front.
They were successful, as Franco
emerged victorious, establishing a
Fascist regime in Spain.
Italy did not benefit as much as it sought to,
and was left harmed by the Spanish Civil
War.
Mussolini spent ⅓ of Italy’s army stock on
the war, which only showcased Italy’s
military weakness.
Mussolini had hoped that the war would have
turned Spain into a satellite state for Italy,
During the war, Italian attacks on supply
submarines further increased tensions
between Italy, France and Britain.
Even so, Britain did not intervene in the war, as
British leaders believed that Spain was becoming
a puppet of far-left socialists, Germany’s and
Italy’s intervention was somewhat desirable.
Germany, who also fought in the war, benefitted
 Italy’s involvement was driven by Italy’s
expansionist foreign policy.
Mussolini believed that by helping to
establish another Fascist
government in the Mediterranean, it
would be easier for Italy to pursue its
goals in the region.
Rome-Berlin In 1936, Italy and Germany signed an
Axis agreement formalising a coalition
(1936) between the two states.
In the axis, both nations now
recognized Britain, France, and
Russia as common enemies.
Anti-Comintern The Anti-Comintern pact was initially a
Pact pact between Germany and Japan, to
(1937) which Italy later joined in 1937,
against the Communist International
(the Comintern), which was a Soviet
organisation that aimed to spread
Communism around the World.
*The Comintern→ A soviet organisation
that sought to spark communist
revolutions around the globe.
Hence, the pact was ultimately against
the Soviet Union.
Italy and the other powers agreed not
to collaborate with the Soviet Union
in the event of war, which
subsequently safeguarded its
interests in Europe.
The Anschluss The Anschluss refers to the 'German
(1938) Union with Austria', which was part of
Hitler's policy of a Greater Germany,
in which he sought to house all
German speaking people under the
Reich.
In 1938, this was enacted, as Germany
marched into Austria, completing the
Anschluss.
In 1934, Hitler sought the Anschluss,
yet Mussolini was worried about a
possible union between Austria and
Germany as he considered Austria
within Italy’s sphere of influence.
Thus, he prevented the Anschluss from
occurring.
Back then, he was able to prevent the
Anschluss, as Hitler had just risen to
and an ally in war, but Spain remained neutral from testing out its military techniques, and
in WWII.
Perhaps the only positive aspect is that Italy
grew closer to Germany in the war, as it
subsequently led to the Rome-Berlin Axis.
Although this was not yet a military alliance,
the axis lay the groundwork for the upcoming
Pact of Steel of 1939, which formalised
Italy's alliance with Germany.
By formalising a cooperative coalition with
Germany, Mussolini was able to strengthen
relations with Germany, who had been
emerging as a major power in Europe, and
who was pursuing a similar foreign policy.
This strengthened Italy's position, as it grew However, Hitler and Mussolini were making it
closer to a strong ally in the likely emergence clear that they intended on supporting each
of war.
Italy grew even closer to Germany, and the
agreement allowed for the consolidation of
what would become the Axis Powers, with
the integration of Japan.
Mussolini benefitted from this pact, given that
it fed into the strong Fascist opposition of
Communism, which was well-received by the
nationalists and conservatives of Italy.
To some extent, the Anchluss was a sign of
Italy's weakness in comparison to Germany.
In the 1920s and early 1930s Mussolini was
in a much stronger military position than
Hitler, and had great influence over Austria.
Now, however, the status quo had definitely
changed Hitler had far surpassed
Mussolini’s influence and power by 1938.
Therefore, Mussolini had no choice but to
support the Anschluss.
showcasing its military grandiosity.
Though this was a clear sign that Germany and
Italy were growing closer, Britain and France
continued to pursue the appeasement policy,
and not take immediate action against the
agreement.
Also, the axis merely formalised the already
existing relations between Hitler and Mussolini,
hence it was a very predictable event that did
not stun Britain and France
other, which was a cause of concern for Britain
and France.
As the pact was a secret agreement, there was
no international reaction, as no other nations
were aware of this.
Still, if Britain and France had known, they:
→ Would have likely seen the Anti-Comintern
Pact as a show of Germany's ambitions in
Eastern Europe, mainly regarding Poland and
Czechoslovakia.
→ Would have perceived the integration of Japan
as a sign that their empire was threatened in
East Asia.
*IMPORTANT reminder that there are no "Ifs'' in
history, so this sort of speculative comment
should NOT be made in your exams. They are
simply interesting to reflect about.
Though Germany was directly infringing the
terms of the Treaty of Versailles, Britain and
France only moderately and verbally
condemned the action because it was justified
by the fact that Austria contained many
Germans.
Also, as the union counted with a plebiscite, it
was thought that Austrians wanted the union.
However, it is important to remember that there
were also underlying reasons not revealed by
Britain and France.
Principally, their lack of intervention in the
Anschluss sprung out of the Appeasement
policy, which Britain and France were carrying
out as they rearmed and prepared for a future
war with Germany.
 power, and Mussolini was in a more
powerful position than Hitler, having a
stronger army.

Yet, by 1938, although Mussolini had

improved his relationships with
Hitler, Germany’s military was far
more dexterous and Hitler's
diplomatic position was stronger
than ever.

Sudetenland Hitler had ambitions towards the
Crisis & the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia, as it
Munich was a region that contained many
Germans.
Agreement
(1938) In September of 1938, he threatened to
use aggressive action to take over
the region if an agreement was not
drafted.
Hitler's demands of an agreement to
settle the dispute were met, as the
Munich Agreement was quickly
drafted, in which he was allowed to
take over the region.
In the Munich Agreement, Mussolini believed
to have acted as a moderator, bridging the
opposing interests of Britain, France, and
Germany.
However, in hindsight, it was clear that
Mussolini was merely advocating for Hitler’s
interests in the Sudetenland, showing his
subservience to Hitler.
Still, he successfully portrayed himself as the
saviour of peace, and was praised in Europe
for it, which increased his prestige.
The crisis was resolved in the Munich
Agreement, although the Allies were stunned
by Hitler's violation of it when he invaded the
remainder of Czechoslovakia.
Still, the Munich Agreement exposed Britain and
France's weakness, who were desperate to
safeguard peace at any cost.
Mussolini took advantage of this to demand
an annexation of Corsica, Nice, and Tune, as
part of Italy's expansionist foreign policy.
By then, Mussolini believed he could win a war
against France, especially with Germany's help.

Invasion of In April of 1939, Italy invaded Albania. By taking over Albania, Mussolini was able to In response to the invasion of Albania, Winston
Albania continue pursuing its expansionary foreign Churchill suggested that the Royal Navy should
(April 1939) Truthfully, however, the invasion was policy. occupy islands in Greece.
meaningless as Albania was already
a satellite state. This was amply successful domestically, as However, PM Neville Chamberlain only went as
Mussolini was stressing that Italians were a far as to condemn the action and guarantee
Yet, the goal of the invasion was not superior race through this show of military Greek borders with the British military.
necessarily to increase Italian territory strength.

but rather to: Mussolini did not expect this, as Britain had
been acting peacefully up to then.
→ Emulate Hitler’s success in
Still, such action by the British irritated
Czechoslovakia (which further
Mussolini, who long believed Italy had
exposed Mussolini's insecurities).
legitimate rights in Greece (Corfu).

→ Intimidate Yugoslavia.

→ Pursue his goal of controlling the

Adriatic sea.

Pact of Steel The Pact of Steel formalised the Although Italy was a member of the pact, The Pact of Steel was one of the last steps
(May 1939) Rome-Berlin axis and marked the Mussolini was hesitant to sign it, as he did before the German invasion of Poland, which
military cooperation between Italy, not think Italy was ready for a major war. led to the declaration of war by Britain on
Germany, and Japan, creating the This was because of: Germany.
Axis Powers.
→ Italy's slow industrial growth and military
In the pact, Italy agreed to
production.
inconsequentially support Germany if
it declared war on Britain.
→ Italy still saw the military repercussions of
the Spanish Civil War.

Still, Italy now had guaranteed allies that it

would fight a war against Britain and France.

This was very positive for Mussolini, as he

could now certainly rely on the great
Germany military, and on the Japanese
naval power.

Outbreak of After the German invasion of Poland Even though Mussolini had agreed to support Truthfully, Britain and France were rather
WW2 in September of 1939, Britain declared Germany in the event of war, he did not surprised with Mussolini's non-belligerence, as
(September war on Germany. immediately enter the war, as he felt that Italy
1939) was not ready for a major conflict against
Hitler immediately activated the France and Britain.
alliance system, as per the Pact of
Steel, and demanded the support of He told Hitler Italy needed "several years of
Italy. peace" before engaging in conflict, and even
called his ally "treacherous" for declaring war
at that time.
However, this stance was harmful to
Mussolini's public opinion, as:
→ He was contradicting himself, as he
previously advocated for war, and a
militarised society that would strengthen the
Italian nation.
→ He was showing to Italians, and the world,
that he had no issue in breaking the terms of
the Pact of Steel.
Hence, to evade these obligations, Mussolini
sent Hitler a list containing enormous,
unrealistic quantities of war materials, and
demanded that all were given to Italy in order
for it to join the war.
it suggested that Italo-German relations were
not as strong as they seemed.
On the other hand, Hitler was furious with
Mussolini's stance, as he felt betrayed by his
ally.
It was only in June 1940 that Italy joined the
war on the side of Germany. This was because:
→ Seeing the victorious German offensive
against French and British troops, it seemed like
Germany would win the war. Hence, Mussolini
believed he could imitate the successes of
Germany, and join the winning side.
→ Mussolini had the chance to achieve his goal
of completely controlling the Mediterranean,
and increasing Italy's status in Europe.
→ Not joining the war would be an
embarrassment for Mussolini, who would not
be seen as the strong and decisive Duce, but
as the one who made Italy into "another
Switzerland".

As the amounts were utterly absurd, Hitler
ignored the demands, and went to war alone
in 1939.
Mussolini then declared Italy non-belligerent.
→ There was somewhat a fear that if Italy
remained neutral, and Germany won the war,
Italy would live in an Europe dominated by
Germany, who would likely still be enraged by
Italy's betrayal.

Long-term causes

Weaknesses of Liberal Italy

Lack of an The long history of political division amongst Italians hindered the ability of an Italian identity to be formed.
Italian
identity Few Italians were involved in the actual unification of Italy in 1871, and most people were more loyal to their families, or the
immediate places in which they lived (regionalism), rather than the Italian nation.

Only about 2% of people spoke Italian, with the rest of the population only speaking dialects that were very specific to certain
areas.

Hostility from The Catholic Church was powerful in Italian society, with the majority of Italians identifying as Catholics.
the Church
The creation of Italy had seized the Papal States and Rome from the Church, which the Church resented.

The Pope refused to recognize Italy as a nation and instructed all loyal Catholics to boycott the elections by banning Catholic
participation in the political system.

Though this was lifted in 1895, there still remained hostility between the Church and Liberal Italy, even beyond WWI.

Economic Italy was predominantly agriculture, with 68% of the population being peasants, taking the role of farm labourers that
weaknesses depended on land.

Industry was underdeveloped, with most enterprises being small, craftsmanship based.

The lack of natural resources made it difficult for heavy industry, mainly coal and iron, to develop.

The main industrial development was centred around military purposes, in iron, steel and shipbuilding industries.

The main transportation links, railways, were concentrated in the north.

 Political The political system was very confusing, with no defined political parties or no two-party systems.
weaknesses
The lack of parties meant that politicians were organised into factions, and shared positions between them when in power.

This promoted the politics of transformismo, where political rivals would put their differences aside to form temporary, and often
fragile coalitions.

The urban and rural population did not have the power to vote, meaning that politicians were from a narrow social class:
wealthy/middle class. Their similar backgrounds also contributed to a lack of diverging opinions.

E.g→ This reflected a great political instability, evidenced by how Italy had 29 Prime Ministers between 1870 and 1922.

→ Some historians have pointed out that these ever-changing governments indicated that Liberal politics was about the pursuit
of power, rather than the good of the nation.

Threats to Liberalism
Socialism The industrialization of Northern Italy in the 1880s produced a sizable working class that was attracted to Socialism. A
government reform in 1881 granted 2 million more Italians to vote, which could indicate a Socialist rise.

Moderate Socialists only sought better working conditions, and more workers rights, whereas the more radical ones were
committed to a Communist revolution.

The former group became the Italian Socialist Party (PSI) in 1895.

The PSI grew in popularity exponentially, having secured 200,000 votes in the 1905 elections, granting them 32 seats in the
chamber of deputies.

They advocated for clauses such as universal manhood suffrage, women’s rights, an 8 hour working day, and income taxes.

The Socialists still had little support in the early 1900s, but sparked fear in other groups, particularly the Catholic Church.

Catholicism Though the Church had maintained its hostile position towards Liberal Italy in the 1890s, following the rise of Socialism, the
Church removed the ban on Catholic voting in the general elections as an attempt to fight the Socialist danger.

The Pope still opposed the creation of a Catholic Party, but some Catholics were allowed to put themselves as candidates.

With Catholics being active in national politics, the Liberal regime faced a challenge.

Nationalism Often members of the middle class, the nationalists were few, but found supporters in the media.

They greatly criticised Liberal politicians for being power hungry, and not caring about the Italian nation.

They condemned the regime for not making Italy as strong as Britain or France.

They sought further military spending, a more aggressive foreign policy, and an Italian Empire in Africa.
 These were the ones who would call for Italy’s entry in WWI, and who would later influence the rise of Fascism.

Liberal Italy’s stability

Factor Explanation Positive or
negative

Significant Italy had increased its GDP from 61 billion lira in 1895 to 92 billion lira in 1915. Positive
economic growth
International trade had increased by 6x in 1913.

Taxes on food were reduced, and the government increased spending on infrastructure, communications,
and drinking water supplies.

Great power Italy was thriving in its foreign affairs, having joined the Triple Alliance in 1882, with Germany and Austria- Positive
status Hungary.

Italy had conquested Libya in 1911, expanding the Italian Empire to Africa.

Stable political According to Liberals, the political system was stabilised, evidenced by the passing of universal male suffrage Positive
system in 1912.

Giovanni Giolitti, the Prime Minister, remained in power for 11 years, between 1903-14, and managed to
include moderate Socialists and Catholics in his government coalition.

→ English historian, G.M Trevelyan, wrote before WWI that there was “Nothing is more remarkable than the
stability of the Italian kingdom and the building is as safe as any in Europe. The foundations of human liberty
and the foundations of social order exist there on a firm basis.”

Political Italian politics was becoming very polarised. negative

divisions
The Libyan war of 1911 exposed the great political division within Italy.

While some groups, such as the PSI, condemned the Italian entry in war, others, the nationalists,
encouraged it.

Attempting to moderate the situation, Giolliti was greatly criticised by the right, who thought that the PM had
been too conciliatory towards the Left.

Nationalists started to seek some sort of authoritarian state in order to make Italy a great power.

As WWI broke out in 1914, besides the nationalist opposition, Socialists and Catholics became critical of the
government too.

The Liberal government was in no imminent threat, but its political monopoly power was over.

Coalitions still depended greatly on Transformismo, which made things much more unstable.

Political divisions were intensified by the internal rivalries between Liberal leaders, who had opposing views
on whether or not Italy should go to war.

In the end, the Liberals decided to go to war, seeking the credit for making “Italy Great”.

Yet, the opposite occurred, as the war widened political, and social divisions, and further undermined the
Liberal prestige, laying the groundwork for the growth of Fascism.

Economic The industrial North of Italy grew in economic prosperity while the rural South remained poor. negative
divisions
Economic divisions also generated great social disputes between the growing urban working class and their
middle class employers.

WWI
Factor Explanation Category
 Hesitation to High disagreement within the country, and even Liberals, on whether Italy should join the war. Most Italians Political
joining the were against Italy joining the war. Instability
conflict
Italy had recently renewed the agreement with the Triple Alliance.

Yet, Italy was politically and socially weak, militarily and economically unstable, and vulnerable to the
British Navy.

Reasons for war The secret Treaty of London (1915) with Britain and France guaranteed that if Italy joined the war it would Political
receive: Instability
1. Italian irredenta
2. Territorial (Turkey) and colonial gains
3. Financial gains

Hence, Italy joined the side of the Entente powers.

Short-term causes
Factor Explanation Category

Difficulties in Italy performed poorly in the conflict. Military

war failures
Campaigns such as the Battle of Caporetto (1917) were considered national humiliations→ 500,000 Italians
captured or deserted.

Over 1 million Italians casualties.

Victory at Vittorio Veneto (1918), made leaders hope that Italy would be well compensated, as it was a decisive
battle that effectively destroyed the AH army.

Italy, however, was poorly compensated.

National Italy felt humiliated for having suffered such significant casualties and not being properly compensated. Italian
humiliation morale
This greatly affected Italian morale.

Led to the resignation of PM Vittorio Orlando in June 1919.

A mutilated Italy was not compensated as it had desired, and the costs of war were far greater than the gains. Political
victory instability
- Italy regained some desired territory, such as Trentino and the Istrian Peninsula.

- It did not, however; receive the Adriatic port of Fiume, German colonies, or major financial
compensation.

This idea would be extensively used by the Fascists to turn people against Liberalism.

The Fiume The former WWI general, Gabrielle d'Annunzio, seized Fiume and established his own (seemingly Fascist) Political
Question regime for 15 months. instability
(September
1919) This exemplified how direct, violent, action was more effective than weak, unpopular political processes.

This made the government seem weak for being unable to deal with this situation.
Greater political In 1912, Prime Minister Giolliti introduced universal male suffrage as an attempt to ease the tension within Political
representation Italy. Instability

The opposite occurred as many new ideologies entered the political scene, such as Communism.

This set off years of political instability that would last until 1922, when Mussolini became PM.

Small parties grew in parliament, including the PSI (Italian Socilist Party) and the PPI (Catholic Party), whereas the
Liberals and conservatives were no longer a majority.

As these parties had conflicting ideologies, governing was very difficult, as parties would constantly disagree.
- E.g→ Italy saw 6 governments and 4 prime ministers in 4 years.

Fear of The PSI grew significantly following the war→ Over 1 million industrial workers joined a general strike in 1920. Political
Communism Instability

Communists pledged allegiance to the Comintern and Lenin, and sought to establish a proletarian
dictatorship.

This idea was very attractive to workers, especially in a period of uncertainty.

This also triggered a rise in anti-communist ideas, which paved the way for the Fascists.

The Fascis To combat Communism the government employed the fascis, a very violent and nationalistic paramilitary Use of
group. Violence
Fascis ≠ Fascists

(Not yet) They often disagreed on multiple fronts, but generally believed in similar things→ pro-war, anti-communist.

They successfully repressed the Communists in just ½ year, and created a militia known as the blackshirts.

Even though communism has been repressed, the blackshirts continue to persecute the left.

Yet, the government had extensively financed the group, essentially releasing an unstoppable force that grew
influential in Italian society, undermining the liberals.

Economic An inflation of about 50% hit and greatly damaged the middle class. Economic
Weaknesses & issues
Inflation The effects of this were worsened by the 85 billion Liran national debt in 1919, resulting from war loans from
the USA.

This greatly affected workers→ Industrial workers’ wages fell by about 25%.

During the war, industry appeared to be fine due to increased government spending on war materials, guns,
and resources.

Yet, the end of the war marked the end of lucrative contracts for industries, who now had to survive on their
own.

This quickly led to the bankruptcy of large industrial firms, which was seen by nationalists as a government
failure to protect Italian patriots.

Unemployment Demobilisation of troops led to an unemployment of 2.5 million in 1919, as firms were losing profit, and thus Social
unwilling to employ workers. issues

Unemployment was worsened by the shortages of food and raw materials, as people did not have jobs or
resources.
 This greatly decreased Italians’ quality of life.

Mussolini sought to adopt policies that would allow him to become the all-powerful Duce of Italy.

Mussolini had brought stability of a sort to Italy. He remained in power for 21 years, being personally popular for the greater part of this time,
but he had not brought about a revolution.

Social Policies
Event Explanation Outcomes Factor

Gaining Aware of the importance and prevalence of
support of Catholicism in Italian Society, Mussolini secured
the Catholic the Church’s support as it could be a potential
Church opposition.
Mussolini then implemented policies such as
making religious education mandatory and
increasing priests’ salaries. Actions such as
these led Pope Pius XI to withdraw support for
the Catholic Party.
Relations with the Church improved significantly. Policy
towards the
Still, tensions remained between Italy and the Church: Church
- Dispute over the Catholic Action youth group in 1931,
which clashed Mussolini’s Fascist policies towards the
education of the youth.
-The Pope opposed Mussolini’s anti-Semitic policies in
1938.

Mussolini was very aware that the Church was

powerful, hence why he urged for its support.

It was only with the Lateran Agreements (1929)

that the Pope officially supported Facism and
Mussolini, recognizing Italy as a state, in return of
£30 million in compensation and Italy's
recognition that the Pope controlled the
Vatican City.

Anti-semitic Initially, anti-Semitism did not lay at the heart The persecution of Jews was often inconsistent with not all Policy
policies of Facism, with neither Mussolini, nor his laws being enforced completely. towards
 government agents being against Jews. minorities
This was mainly due to the Church’s opposition to anti-
Italy even allowed 3000 Jews to enter the semitism, and because many Italians had connections to
country escaping the Nazis. Jewis Italians.

Yet, by the mid 1930s Italy’s foreign policy drew By 1943, with the fall of the Fascist regime, anti-semitism
closer to Nazi Germany’s, making Nazi racial intensified as Jewish property was seized and 7500 Jews
ideas circulate in Italy. were sent to Nazi camps, only 600 of whom survived.

Mussolini began to see Jews as a threat for

reasons such as how many jews were part of the
anti-Fascist group ‘Justice and Liberty’. This
led to the persecution of Jews in 1938, with
policies such as:

- In November, Jews were prohibited to

marry non-Jews.
Still, policies were not as intense as in
Germany, with Mussolini even excluding Italian
Jews who fought in WWI.

Policies Fascism shared the view of the Church in the
towards sense that it advocated towards traditional
Women gender roles. Mussolini enforced policies such
as:
- Banning contraception.
- Discouraging girls from entering higher
education.
Yet, Mussolini sought to increase the
population to expand the Italian Empire and
so he introduced the Battle of the Births.
Despite Mussolini’s efforts, the rate of marriage did not Policy
change and birth rates declined up to 1936. towards
women
The target of 60 million was never reached, with the
maximum by 1950 being 47.5 million people.
The quota was also unsuccessful, as women made up
33% of the industrial workforce by 1936.
Mussolini blamed Italian’s lack of a patriotic effort for not
being able to reach his goals during WWII.

Battle of the Births (1927) → Mussolini sought to

increase the Italian population to 60 million by

1950. To achieve this, he introduced a series of
carrot and stick approaches:
- Families with more than 6 kids did not
pay tax.
- Propaganda endorsed “good Italians” to
have babies.
- By the late 1930s, jobs and promotions
in the civil service only applied to the
fertile married.
- In 1933, a quota only allowed 10% of
women to join the workforce in the
public sector.
- Yet, low-paid occupations like
cleaners, were still allowed in
order for unemployment to be
coped with.

The Fascist The Fascist Teachers’ Association (1931) was Many children left school at 11 and thus escaped Fascist Policy
Education created to regulate/ supervise all teachers of indoctrination. towards the
System Italy, ensuring they were properly youth
indoctrinating the youth. Children who went to private or Catholic schools also did
- Membership was made compulsory by not see the state’s grip on the education system.
1937, and teachers were forced to take
an oath of loyalty to the regime, where
they swore to serve the state.

Schools promoted Mussolini’s cult of

personality, as students only read from
textbooks that venerated him, as he was the
hero sent to restore Italian greatness.

The notion of Italian superiority, linking to

figures like Da Vinci, Michelangelo and Marco
 Polo was promoted as a symbol of Italian
greatness in Europe.

Fascist Mussolini sought to indoctrinate the youth
youth during their leisure time, and build a new
movement generation of aggressive, athletic and
disciplined Fascists.
Hence, The Opera Nazionale Balilla (ONB )
(1926) was set up to organise youth movements.
It was compulsory for all children 8-18.
By 1937, 7 million children were members of
the ONB, and the movement began to split
activities for boys and girls:
Though compulsory, the ONB was never enforced, which Policy
hindered its ability to be more impactful in the Italian youth. towards the
youth
Even though many fully experienced a Fascist education,
there were cases when the Fascist measure did not stick,
and children were merely following the activities.
It is also difficult to tell how many people w ere actually
indoctrinated.

Boys→ Partook in military training and

teachings of the Fascist ideology but also
engaged in sports and fitness programs.

Girls→ Focused on sewing, singing and

dancing, besides other activities that incited a
domestic lifestyle.

The Gruppi Universitari Fascisti (GUF) was a

university program which also enforced similar
measures, mainly the Fascist ideology.

Cultural Policies
Dopolavoro This was aimed to control the leisure time of adults. Social
(1925) Policies

This organisation provided activities that would

influence workers towards a Fascist view of life. The lack of consistent indoctrination and politics
meant that people were fond of this organisation.
The Dopolavoro controlled clubhouses and centres
around Italy. These contained: The state rarely had to coerce people, as they would
- All soccer clubs freely join from their own will.
- 1350 theatres
- 8000 libraries, etc. The Dopolavoro boosted Mussolini’s popularity
- and the PNF’s prestige, as Italians truly enjoyed it.
By 1935, 2.4 million Italians had joined.

The program was successful because its main focus

was on leisure rather than Fascist military and
ideological training.

Attempts to The Dopolavoro was the most successful policy These attempts were unenforceable by the Social
increase towards integrating Fascism in people’s lives. government, and simply irritated Italians making the policies
Fascist government lose support.
interference Other attempts were too forceful and did not resonate
in social life with the population.

E.g1→ Mussolini attempted to ban the handshake and

replace it for an Italian salute.

E.g2→ Mussolini attempted to ban women from

wearing dresses, as he deemed them too
provocative, as did the church.

Cult of In 1926, opposition newspapers were repressed, Interestingly, propaganda often depicted Mussolini in Use of
Ducismo and journalists could be arrested for speaking ill about a duality of ways to convey different messages at propaganda
(Personality) the regime. different times.

Hence, radio, newspapers and cinema were used as

 mediums of propaganda.
Mussolini’s speeches would be broadcast through
radio in schools and as an attempt to reach rural
areas.
Fascist films were not common as Hollywood movies
were more attractive, yet they were preceded by a
Fascist newsreel.
Mussolini was depicted as the infallible saviour of
Italy, compared to “the new Caesar”, and would often
be portrayed as the “model Italian”, a strong, athletic
and courageous man.
*A lot of how Mussolini conducted propaganda later
influenced Hitler and Goebbles, perhaps even
allowing them to learn from Mussolini’s mistakes and
This duality in the cult of Ducismo helped to
shortcomings to conduct some of the most
convince the population that Fascism was the only
successful propaganda campaigns in history.
choice.
Italian foreign policy was celebrated as a show of
Italian greatness overseas.
Social & cultural policies successes and failures
Successes
The Lateran Agreement was a major success for the Fascist regime, as
Mussolini guaranteed the support of the Church which had a substantial
influence in Italian society.
The Dopolavoro was well received by Italians who enjoyed the leisure
facilities provided by the State.
Propaganda successfully made its way to countless social spheres,
such as schools, and leisure clubs, constantly portraying Mussolini as a
brilliant, infallible Italian hero.
The cult of Ducismo was successful in achieving its aim as Fascism was
seen as the only choice.
1. Mussolini was to be perceived as an
infallible, “god-like” man of culture
- E.g→ Fascist propaganda claimed that
Mussolini had read and memorised 35
volumes of Italian encyclopaedias.
2. Mussolini was to be perceived as a man of the
people to which the “average Italian” could
relate to.
- E.g→ Mussolini would often be depicted
driving tractors, ploughing land, and
holding children; daily activities carried out by
Italians.
Failures
Still, by the 1930s, relations with the Church deteriorated and
even though there was never a full force of opposition, the Papacy’s
rejection of some Fascist policies did not benefit Mussolini.
Anti-semetic policies, although implemented, were improperly
enforced, making them largely ineffective.
Mussolini failed in essentially all policies towards women, never
achieving his goals. E.g→ Battle of the Births failure to increase
population.
Fascist education and the ONB were not very effective in
achieving the indoctrination of the youth, especially in
comparison to the systems implemented in Nazi Germany.
Attempts to penetrate Italian social life were unpopular amongst
Italians, and harmed Mussolini’s prestige.
Mussolini’s dream of transforming Italian character into an
athletic, aggressive and obedient race never materialised.
Propaganda rarely persuaded Italians, who although we're fond
the Mussolini’s claims that Italy was great, did not venerate
Mussolini→ a very different reality than Hitler’s in Nazi Germany.
Although Mussolini’s cult of personality effectively guaranteed
that Italians saw him as their leader, it did not make him the
“people’s hero”.
→ C. Leeds claimed that by the late-30s, people resented the
Fascist interference in their private lives and the anti-Semitic
laws.
Economic Policies
Policy Explanation

Aims Mussolini aimed to build a:

- Corporate state
- Strive for autarky (Self-sufficiency).

As he pursued these policies, many of Italy’s old issues were left unresolved including:
- Industrial underdevelopment
- The divide between the North-South
- Rural poverty
- Illiteracy.

Policies In his early years as PM, Mussolini engaged in a liberal economic style, as an attempt to secure the support of
(1922-27) industrialists.

Under control of Treasury Minister, De Stefani, the government opened the economic landscape, facilitating
business activity by removing barriers and providing incentives, these included:

- Lowered corporate taxes

- Outlawed trade unions.
- Decreased government spending, stabilising inflation.
- Privatised the telephone industry

The Battle of the In 1925, De Stefani was dismissed and Mussolin took over control of the Italian economy.
Lira
(1925-26) Mussolini sought to reevaluate the Lira, turning it into a strong currency to showcase his strong nation, yet he did
this whilst completely disregarding Italian industries and consumers.

Although the lira was a weak currency, it made Italian exports very attractive (which was beneficial for Italy’s

economy), yet Mussolini believed that a weak currency symbolised a weak nation.

Mussolini strengthened the exchange rate, from 150 Lira: 1 Pound to 90 Lira: 1 pound but this had adverse effects
in the economy:
- Italian exports fell as they were now too expensive.
- Industries that were export heavy went into a depression.

The strong currency would have helped Italians by allowing for cheaper food imports, yet this was impossible due to
Mussolini’s protectionist tariffs.

Only heavy industry benefited as they were needed for militarisation, yet other industries were neglected.

Corporativism Theoretically, corporativism proposed that corporations be set up for each sector of industry, and within each
corporation there would be Fascist trade unions to represent workers.

Each corporation would set up its own production, pay, and working conditions, which were to be compromised
between workers and businessmen.

In case of disagreement, the issue would be taken to a labour court, where the dispute would be settled by the
Ministry of Corporations amicably.

Mussolini sought harmony between employers and employees while maximising production.

However, this did not work:

The Italian Confindustria (employers’ organisation) disliked trade unions, and refused to share power with
workers, as they wanted to secure businessmen control of industry.

Also, Minister of Corporations, Giuseppe Bottai, did not trust the Union leader, Rossoni, and wanted corporations
to dominate industry as he believed this would maximise production.

Mussolini was reluctant to lose support of big business and hence sided with Confindustria. Hence:
- Employers had greater power being able to deny paid holidays and alter working hours as they saw fit.
- Large Fascist Trade Unions split into smaller groups, making them weaker.
 Hence, a corporate revolution never materialised as there was still conflict between employers and employees.

Also, corporations never achieved their pivotal role in the economy dreamt by Mussolini.

→ US Historian, Alexander De Grand, argued that corporativism only increased the State’s control within Italian
Capitalism.
- ‘Fascism did not create its own unique economic system but rather grafted further statist [governmental] and
bureaucratic tissue on the existing body of Italian capitalism.’

→ British Historian, Martin Blinkhorn, stated that corporativism ‘disguised the exploitation and oppression of
labour’.

→ Tannenbaum argued that Mussolini did not have strength to confront big businesses.
- ‘Neither Mussolini’s government nor the Fascist corporations were prepared to bully Fiat, Pirelli, or the Bank of
Italy’.

Dealing with Italy was greatly affected by the Wallstreet Crash with over 2 million being unemployed in 1933, and car production
the Wallstreet falling by 50%.
Crash
(1929) However, Italy engaged in a successful economic program through expansionary fiscal policy to aid economic
recovery:
- Increased government spending in railways and power plants to create jobs.
- The government bailed out banks that had not repaid their loans by Italian industries.
- The creation of the Institute for Industrial Reconstruction (IRI) where the government took control of many
Italian companies, and provided loans instead of banks.

These measures came at the opportunity cost of taxpayer money, as they were extremely expensive, but Italy
successfully recovered.

Many of Mussolini’s supporters claimed that his use of fiscal policy inspired Roosvelt’s “New Deal”; a claim that greatly
boosted Mussolini’s prestige.

Reaching for By the mid-1930s Mussolini shifted his economic approach from economic prosperity to war preparation.
autarky
(mid-1930s) After the LoN’s economic sanctions due to the invasion of Abyssinia (1935), Mussolini strived for autarky as he
sought to decrease reliance on imports.

The sanctions exposed the fragility of the Italian economy, as it virtually could not operate without foreign goods.

This was a major disadvantage for Italy, as this vulnerability made it an easy target for economic warfare (such as
blockades), and boycotts.

Matters were worsened by the fact that Italy amply traded with Britain and France, meaning that much of its trade
would have to be shifted to other, allied or neutral countries, such as Germany and Switzerland.

Hence, to achieve autarky, Mussolini:

- Encouraged domestic industry (primarily heavy industry) by:
- Drawing multiple government contracts with private companies.
- Subsidising production
- Taking control of industrial production.
- E.g→ The government controlled 50% of steel production.

- Allowed monopolies and sought firms that had achieved economies of scales.
- E.g→ Fiat controlled car manufacturing.

The limitations Italy had not achieved self-sufficiency when it joined WWII:
of autarky
- It still depended on imports of raw materials.
- Italy was unable to match production levels with that of the Allies.
- The government had accumulated a deficit as he signed multiple contracts with Italian companies and
refused to increase taxation, as he feared losing public support.

Battle for Grain Seeking autarky, Mussolini subsidised grain production, allowing farmers to buy tractors, fertilisers, and machinery
(1925) to boost grain production.
 This was rather successful, as Mussolini managed to increase grain production to 7 million tonnes yearly during the
1930s, in comparison to 5.5 million during the 1920s.

He also managed to decrease grain imports by 75% (1925-35).

Mussolini used this as propaganda as he was often depicted helping in the harvest.

Yet, land used for exports of citrus fruits was used for grain production, meaning that Italian exports fell.

Land The previous government had treated land for agriculture, by draining or irrigating land, which Mussolini
reclamation continued.

Though little land was reclaimed, Mussolini was successful in providing thousands of jobs and improving public
health.

Land reclamation was also used for propaganda, of how malarial swamps were transformed into a network of farms.

Economic policies successes and failures

Successes Failures

The policies between 1922-27 encouraged business activity,
which was prosperous for Italy's economy.
Mussolini managed to increase output industrially and
agriculturally.
Expansionary fiscal policy to save the economy from the 1929
Wallstreet Crash were successful.
- E.g→ 5000km of railways were electrified.
Industrial improvements were only made for propaganda.
Italy was still behind major nations like Britain and France.
By reevaluating the Lira, whilst imposing protectionism, Mussolini
extremely harmed the middle class, as well as export-led industries.
The failure of corporativism greatly worsened Italian’s living
standards.

Mussolini’s policies were admired by foreigners. The abolition of trade unions meant that workers suffered with pay and

“Mussolini made the trains run on time” was a common phrase
by foreign journalists who believed Mussolini managed to
improve Italy’s industrial efficiency.
→ Spencer Di Scala claimed that Mussolini managed to modernise
and progress the Italian economy.
- “policies stimulated modern industries such as electricity,
steel, engineering, chemicals ... Italy’s profile began to
resemble that of modern European countries to a
greater degree than in the past.”
working hours. It is estimated the real wages fell by 10% between 1925-
38.
Yet, Mussolini did not mind a fall in living standards as he argued it
would lead to tougher Italians.
The working class and peasants were mainly harmed as middle-class
Italians took government positions.
Only major industrialists and large landowners in the North benefited.
Autarky increased the price of imports which people were unable to
afford due to their low wages.

Farmers migrated to cities to which Mussolini resisted as he sought to

create a class of prosperous peasants.
- E.g→ Rome’s population doubled between 1921-41, and over ½
million left rural areas in the 1920s-30s.

Agricultural workers suffered significant wage cuts, which they

attempted to escape by emigrating to the USA, though Mussolini
attempted to limit emigration.

Agricultural policies only favoured large landowners, and his refusal to

break up large land estates only contributed to poverty in the South.

The gap between the rich North and the poor South was wider than it
had been in Liberal Italy.

→ Alexander De Grand stated that Italians understood that the

government’s priority was not economic prosperity.
 → Richard Bosworth believed that Mussolini’s policies were confusing and
contradicting.
- “His economic policies were concerned, one Mussolinian line
[policy] looked modernising, the next traditional.”

Political Policies
Policy Explanation

Aim Mussolini set out to build his personal dictatorship by constructing a Fascist state.

Being able to rule by decree (1926), Mussolini sought to increase his personal power within the state and the PNF.

Attitude towards Although the king, Vittorio Emanuele, did not have any political authority, he was an influential figure in Italian politics,
the King which could be threatening for Mussolini.

However, Mussolini had the support of the king, and so it was easy to deal with him.

Even though the Italian constitution stated that the king had a say in foreign affairs, Mussolini never consulted the king
regarding any of Italy's affairs, and simply made political decisions alone.

Yet, Mussolini still followed protocol, visiting the king regularly.

Attitude towards Mussolini did not wish to share power so ministers were simply told what to do.
government
ministers Therefore, he often appointed weak figures to the position of ministers, as this assured him that they would obey him
blindly and be fully subservient to his demands.

Any minister who challenged his authority would be fired for being disloyal to the Duce:
- E.g→ De Stefani, Mussolini’s Minister of Treasure (1922-27) was fired for not conducting economic policy
exactly how Mussolini wanted him to.

In fact, Mussolini was so obsessive that he often controlled many important ministries.
- E.g→ At one point, he was both minister of foreign affairs, and the interior.

Attitude towards With the passing of the rule by decree in 1926, parliament had no power.
parliament
Free elections did not exist, and deputies had to be pre approved by the government.

Congress became fully Fascist only serving to show fake statistics such as how 98% endorsed the regime.

In 1939, parliament was abolished and replaced by the Chamber of Fasces and Corporations which also had no
power.

Gaining support Mussolini and the army shared views that Italy needed an aggressive foreign policy, and hence it was easy for him to
of the secure their support.
military
Generals and officers were endorsed to join the PNF as that would help them escalate the ranks.

The army was sceptical of the Fascit militia for being too powerful, but they were still loyal to the Duce.

Controlling the Judges that were not sympathetic to Fascism were fired, and replaced by those who were.
judges
The Italian legal system was no longer impartial. Rulings were often arbitrary and Mussolini could dictate verdicts and
sentences.

Controlling the Mussolini could not personally oversee all regional governments, as there were too many of them.
local government
Therefore, to extend his power to regional governments, he replaced local mayors with pre-approved Fascist officials→
the Ras.

Yet, this in itself was problematic because:

- Although Mussolini was seeking to extend his personal power over regional governments, the Ras wanted to
 decentralise control and governance in Italy, meaning that they did not want Mussolini personally controlling all
of Italy.

Attitudes towards Mussolini wanted the PNF to support him unequivocally, and his government to not be a partnership, as he wanted to
the PNF solely dictate Fascist policy.

To monopolise control in the PNF:

1. Mussolini asserted dominance by controlling the Fascicst squadristi, creating an atmosphere of fear in the
party, and purging disloyal Fascists and potential threats.

2. Mussolini controlled appointments to the Grand Council of Fascism (1922), the major decision-making body
within the PNF, and hence he appointed friends and allies to positions of power, whilst diverging threats from
the sphere of power.

Yet, Mussolini still had opposition within the PNF, mainly due to conflict with local Fascist leaders (Ras) who often
questioned his position, and had different beliefs to him.

- E.g1→Whilst Mussolini sought a monolithic fascist state, with him being the only one in control, the Ras sought a
decentralised state, where multiple Ras would control multiple regions.

- E.g2 The Ras had demanded dictatorial action by Mussolini during the Matteotti affair.

Instability of the The PNF was not united but rather a volatile coalition with different views and priorities.
PNF
The party was mainly divided into two groups:

1. The right wing of the party, the Squadristi, wished to continue employing violence to control the country.

2. The left wing of the party, the conservatives, sought for the restoration of law and stability.

Therefore, it was up to Mussolini to unite the PNF, which also gave him room to explore its hostilities to increase his
personal power.

For instance, Mussolini could undermine the Squadristi by being more conciliatory to the conservatives, and vice-
versa.

Preventing the Mussolini kept a close eye on potential threats.

emergence of
rivals Only the utmost loyal Fascists held high-ranking positions and were appointed to the Grand Council of Fascism:

- E.g.→ Achille Starace was Party Secretary (1931-39), for being loyal but also fairly weak and not threatening.

In comparison, Strong men of drive were moved away from power:

- E.g→ Italo Balbo, the Ras of Ferreira, and blackshirts’ leader, achieved fame in 1931 for completing a
transatlantic flight, and grew popular within the PNF and the public. Hence, he was sent to Libya, as Mussolini
diverted him from power.

Hence, leaders remained loyal and obedient, especially when considering that without Mussolini, their posts would
cease to exist.

- E.g→ Even radical squadristi men, like Roberto Farinacci realised that if they were loyal to the Duce, they were
not at risk.

Gaining support Mussolini needed to control the civil service without increasing the power of the party as he wanted to control things
of the himself and did not want party members to become more powerful.
Civil Service
Using his power of patronage, he appointed loyal conservatives to positions, and threatened those who did not fulfil
his wishes. This allowed Mussolini to:

1. Prevent a Fascist revolution in government, as the civil service would not be controlled by the PNF.

2. Ensure that the civil service was loyal to him.

In fact, by 1927, only 15% of the civil service was Fascist.

 Party x State Mussolini would strategically transfer and disperse power between the PNF and the government to manage their
power statuses and political authority to ensure that both were never too powerful to threaten his position.

In the long-run, by constantly shifting concentrations of power, Mussolini balanced out the power of both, such that
neither was strong enough to oust him.

To do this, Mussolini capitalised on the power struggles and disputes between the State and the Party:

- E.g1→ Would the Fascist Youth Movement, the ONB, be controlled by the Ministry of Education or the party?
- The ONB was previously controlled by the Party and was given to the Ministry of Education in 1929,
increasing the power of the government.

- E.g2→ The army had disputes with the blackshirts, who claimed they had the same status as army officers.

- E.g3→ In contrast, the Dopolavoro was controlled by the Ministry of National Economy and was passed to the
Party in 1927, increasing the power of the party.

However, although Mussolini's personal power was increased, Italy suffered as:
- Disputes made the government slow and inefficient, as the shifts of power meant that the government became
disorganised and ineffective.

- Mussolini was managing many ministers at one, meaning it was impossible to assure his commands were
always followed.

The OVRA The OVRA was Mussolini’s secret police, used to persecute opposition and murder political opponents

Secretly, it is estimated that they murdered 2000 opponents in 1926.

Political policies successes and failures

Successes Failures

→ Martin Clark argued that Fascism was popular because it did not → American historian Alexander De Grand argued that the support
alienate relevant groups like Big Business and the Church for Fascism was a consensus but lacked enthusiasm by the
population.

→ C. Leeds claimed that by the late-30s people resented the Fascist

interference in their private lives and the anti-Semitic laws.
 5: From democracy to dictatorship (January-March 1933)
Event Explanation Factor

Hitler’s mixed Though Hitler had been appointed Chancellor, Von Papen was his vice-Chancellor, and there were Use of Legal
cabinet only 3 Nazis in the cabinet. methods

Von Papen believed that Hitler could be tamed but he was ultimately wrong as Hitler used his
position of Chancellor, Goering’s role as Prussian Minister of the Interior, and Frick’s as
National Minister of the Interior to build a strong parliamentary base in government.

Failure of the The left was unable to form a united opposition to combat Hitler. Failure of the
left opposition
The SPD and KPD were in great disagreement as the KPD referred to SPD members as “social
fascists”, thus making it impossible for a united front to be formed.

Hitler calls upon Hitler called for elections in March 1933 as he wished to achieve a parliamentary majority for the Use of Legal
the March 1933 NSDAP’s representation in the Reichstag. methods
Elections
The NSDAP had lost support in the November 1932 elections, losing over 2 million votes.

Yet, now Hitler could use his position as Chancellor and the strong regional branches, with
Goering as Prussian Minister of the Interior and Frick as National Minister of the Interior.

The Reichstag A week before the elections, the Reichstag was set on fire, and Marinus Van de Lubbe, an affiliate Use of force
Fire of the KPD, was deemed responsible, tried and executed.
(February 27th
1933) → Some historians believe that it was the Nazis who started the fire as an attempt to villainize the
KPD prior to the elections and thus encouraging people to vote for the NSDAP.

This event was very positive to Hitler, who managed to suppress the KPD, who were seemingly
unprepared to defend themselves, and persuaded Hindenburg to pass the Reichstag Fire Decree.

The Reichstag Hitler persuaded Hindenburg into passing this decree and establishing a state of emergency: Use of Legal
Fire Decree - Germans lost civil liberties. methods
(February 28th - Legal means were utilised to repress the opposition.
1933) - Opposition leaders, including KPD leaders, were imprisoned
- Anti-Nazi publications were suppressed.

Noticeably, the KPD was only banned immediately after the elections, and this was apolitical
maneuver by Hitler who, allowed the KPD to run in order to dilute anti-Nazi votes shared with the
SPD and to prevent violent uprisings.

Hence, anti-Nazi parties were weakened.

Electoral The NSDAP increased its seats in the Reichstag, obtaining 43.9% of the seats. Use of Legal
outcomes of the methods
March 1933 Stills, in spite of propaganda and the anti-communist hyesteria the NSDAP was not an absolute
Elections majority.

The NSDAP only achieved a 52% majority in collaborating with the DNVP, who had obtained 8% of
the votes.

Yet, the events of the election showed that the population was still unwilling to fully support
Nazism.

→ Historian Richard Evans has pointed out that the reasonable number of votes for the Zentrum and
the BVP suggested that some people still desired democracy.
Social outcomes Following the elections, street violence increased, as SA members attacked KPD and SPD Use of force
of the March members.
1933 Elections
The breakdown of law and order was manufactured by the Nazis and used to tighten control over
Germany.

The KPD was banned as a party, and its 81 elected deputies could not participate in government.

The Enabling The Enabling Act marked the end of democratic government as Hitler was given power to rule by Use of Legal
Act decree for 4 years. This essentially gave him dictatorial power. methods
(March 1933)
Hitler needed a ⅔ majority to pass the bill, which he achieved by:
- His 52% majority in collaboration with the DNVP.
- Suppressing SPD members (-12%).
- Offering guarantees to the BVP & Zentrum to assure their support. E.g→ the protection of
the Catholic Church, which was approved by the Pope, similar to the Lateran Agreements
in Italy.

Hence, the bill passed as all deputies voted in favour, except SPD.

Hindenburg signed the bill, essentially transferring his constitutional power to Hitler.

Was the Act political murder or suicide?

The Nazification The Enabling Act preceded Nazi legislations that aimed to achieve Gleicshschaltung which as the Use of Legal
of Germany Nazification of Germany. In this process, anti-Nazi elements would be eliminated form the Reich. methods

Hence, Hitler began the process of cleansing institutions such as Churches, the military, labour
movements and the civil service, which were to be brought under Nazi control.

The purge of the Through the Law for the Re-establishment of the Civil Service of April 1933, the Nazis guaranteed Use of Legal
civil service a way of cleansing the Civil Service, and avoiding the difficulties of Weimar. methods
(April 1933)
The Law allowed:
- Non Aryans to be dismissed.
- Officials whose political activities could threaten the state were dismissed.
- Those of Jewish descent were removed from education, the judiciary and diplomacy.

This was an opportunity to:

- Award loyal Nazis that had been in the Party for a long time (since Sept. 1930).
- Attract the “March Violets”; those that recently joined the Party (since March 1933).

The abolition of Labour unions were associated with Leftist influences and so they were dissolved. Use of Legal
trade unions methods
Instead, trade unions were replaced by the German Labour Front (DAF):
- The DAF could not collective bargain
- The DAF could not engage in strikes.

The DAF was Hitler’s plan to bring harmony to the Volksgemeinschaft (“People’s Community”)

The The Single-Party State was established in July 1933 after all political parties were banned apart from Use of Legal
establishment of the NSDAP. methods
a Single-Party - On July 5th, the BVP & Zentrum voluntarily dissolved due to the Concordat between the
State Nazis and the Church (signed on July 20th 1933).
(July 1933) - The DVP & DNVP also dissolved as the Nazis promised job security.
- The SPD was forced to exile, where they continued to oppose from as far as the SOPADE.

The Night of the The Night of the Long Knives was the purge of the SA on June 30th where numerous SA officials Use of force
Long Knives were murdered. Reasons included:
(June 1934)
- The SA’s leader, Ernst Rohm, had rivalries with leading Nazis such as Henirich Himmler,
chief of the SS, and Goering.
 - The rumour that Rhom planned a second revolution to redistribute wealth, which was
threatening to Hitler’s elite supporters.

- The fear that Rohm planned to amalgamate the SA and the armed forces under his control,
antagonising the army against Hitler.

- It was discovered that Rhom was a homosexual, besides many SA officials,which Hitler
saw as the degeneracy of the SA.

All of these reasons were seen as Rohm’s betrayal, which infuriated Hitler.

Yet, the purge not only included SA members, but also members of the party that were
considered threats, and enemies of the State. E.g→ previous Chancellor, Schleicher.
Over 400 people died in the Night of the Long Knives.

Stage 6: The establishment of the Fuhrerprinzip (August 1934)

Event Explanation Factor

The Death of Following the death of Hindenburg in August, Hitler dissolved the presidency and established himself Use of Legal
Hindenburg as the supreme-leader of Germany: the Fuhrer. methods/
(August 10th charismatic
1934) With the Fuhrerprinzip established, Hitler had complete control over Germany. leadership

Treatment of the Opposition

Event Explanation Factor

Nature of the Though Historian Frank McDonough has estimated that >1% of Failure of the opposition
opposition Germans engaged in opposition, there were still groups that
engaged in 2 types of opposition:

Silent opposition: People refused to do the Nazi salute, or

mocked the regime in private.

Active opposition: People actively attempted to sabotage the

regime through anti-Nazi propaganda, sabbotaging th
workplace, or vene plotting Hitler’s assasination (E.g→
Operation Valkyrie).

Still, distrust remained between the remnants of the KPD and

the SPD which meant that no united opposition occurred.

In exile, the SDP formed the SOPADE, in which the SPD

attempted to engage in limited opposition while in exile in
Prague and Paris (1933-38).

Other institutions which could have opposed, such as the church

and the army also failed to do so.

Anti-Nazi Youth These groups sprung all around Germany, and actively
Groups opposed the regime in secret.

Most of them were non-violent, as it was too dangerous to

outright attack the Gestapo, the SS, and other party officials.

Groups would often secretly speak out against Nazism or

engage in activity that boycotted the regime. E.g:

The White Rose→ The group operated in 1942 but were caught
by the Gestapo in 1943. They were made up of students from
 the University of Munich and led by Sophie and Hans Scholl.
The group opposed the regime by secretly distributing leaflets,
and engaging in a graffiti campaign that spread anti-Nazi
messages, calling upon resistance.

Irena Sendler- This social worker saved over 2,000 Jewish

children from the Warsaw Ghetto. She later received a
Righteous Among the Nations medal in 1965, and only died in
2008.

The Gestapo In July 1933, Goering created the Gestapo which transformed Repression of the Opposition
(July 1933) the Prussian political police service into a Nazi secrete police
and changed its headquarters to Berlin.

Though it was created by Goering, the Gestapo was a division

of the SS, led by Himmler.

At one point the Gestapo was made up of 30,000 officers and

relied on the aid of “cultural denunciation”, in which the State
endorsed the denouncing of enemies of the regime in return
for praise and benefit.

The purpose of the Gestapo was to induce an atmosphere of

fear, as an attempt to discourage resistance, and it outright
repressed opposition.

→ Historians like Christoph Graf have pointed out that the

Gestapo exposed the continuity between the Weimar
Republic and Nazi Germany as many Gestapo officials had
been members of the Prussian political police.
- A product of the Weimar Constitution helped Hitler, a
dictator, stay in power.

Dealing with the The Nazis implemented a series of repressive measures to Repression of the Opposition
opposition deal with the opposition:
- Structured repression
- Gestapo (1933)
- “Monolithic and all-seeing secret police” image
- Encouraged informants
- Smear campaigns (Demonization)
- Forced resignations
- Imprisonment
- Concentration camps
- Assassinations

Use of propaganda
Event Explanation Factor

Joseph Joseph Goebbles was Hitler’s Minister of Popular Enlightment and Propaganda, responsible for Use of
Goebbles promoting the Nazi ideology. propaganda

Gobbles was very skillful and used radio, film, torchlight processions, mass meetings and mass
propaganda as a way to convey the idea of “Hitler over Germany”, and promoting Hitler’s infallibility.

Charisma and Together with propaganda, Hitler’s self promotion derived greatly from his charisma and oratory. Use of
oratory propaganda
He was a masterful public speaker, with some claiming that he had a hypnotic attraction to
audiences, which made his speeches very powerful.

Hitler was also very charismatic and adored by the German population, who viewed him as the
great, infallible “messiah”, who soon would be called the Fuhrer.

Indoctrination Propaganda achieved mass indoctrination as Goebbles made use of various mediums of Use of
 communication to propagate the Nazi ideology. propaganda

Theater, art, film,literature were all endowed with Nazi indoctrination, though Gobbles’ favorite was
radio.

Goebbles believed that propaganda should be modern and done in a modern way, which was why
the radio, a recently popular technology, was very attractive.

The radio allowed Hitler’s speeches to be broadcasted nationwide, and ensured that propaganda
reached even the most remote parts of Germany.

Still, propaganda was amply done through the use of posters, and advertisements that promoted the
Fuhrerprinzip and the notion that the party was omniscient, and omnipotent.

The effects of Propaganda was very effective in achieving mass indoctrination as the constant and dynamic Use of
propaganda propagation of ideology occurred in parallel with the negative portrayals of any alternatives to propaganda
Nazism.

Together with the atmosphere of fear, propaganda reinforced the notion of the
Volksgemeinschaft, ruled by Hitler, and so allowed the repressive policies of the government to be
amplified.

The widespread propaganda also encouraged the people to act towards the collective good and
engage in activities such as denouncing enemies of the state.

Hitler's foreign policy → 1936-39

(Road to war)
Revision video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Eu78iaVsBEE&feature=player_embedded

Event What happened? What was the impact on What was the international reaction?
Germany/Hitler?

Remilitarisation Following the lack of international
of the Rhineland intervention from the German
March 1936 rearmament. Hitler decided to go step
further, and march into the Rhineland, a
demilitarised zone of German territory.
In March1936, a German battalion
occupied the Rhineland.
Unknown to anyone, the German troops
were ordered to retreat had France
mobilised their troops. Yet, this did not
occur, and the German army prevailed in
the territory.
By having German troops march into France did not intervene in the remilitarisation
the Rhineland, and above all, not be of the Rhineland, thus allowing German troops
intervened by France or another to remain in the region.
nation, German morale was boosted.
This was a sign that Germany was The LoN did not make any claims
growing powerful once more, condemning the remilitarisation, as the region
making the population very was deemed as righteous German territory.
enthusiastic.
The German Olympics of 1936, were
For Hitler, this manoeuvre meant that interpreted as a sign of German peace with the
the population would further see him world, strengthening Germany’s public
as a strong leader. relations.
“Hitler’s successful defiance of Britain
and France had strengthened his
prestige at home.”

Participation in Germany, together with Italy, supported Hitler believed that the German
the Spanish Civil General Franco’s fascist party in participation in the war would be
War overthrowing the Spanish government beneficial in 3 main ways:
1936-39 and consolidating power.
1. It allowed Hitler to try out his
military, and practice military
techniques that would be used in a There was no intervention in the War by
major war. Mainly, Hitler tested the Britain or France, as they declared neutrality.
newly formed Luftwaffe, and its
 efficacy.
2. The War allowed Hitler to
strengthen relations with Mussolini,
which was crucial for Germany’s
alliance.
Yet, as British leaders believed that Spain was
becoming a puppet of far-left socialists,
Germany’s and Italy’s intervention was
somewhat desirable.

3. Hitler hoped to secure Spain as an

ally when war broke out, but this did
not happen as Spain declared
neutrality.

Rome-Berlin Axis The coalition between Germany and Italy
October 1936 was formalised following their partnership
in the Spanish Civil War.
Now, however; both nations recognized
Britain, France, and Russia as common
enemies.
Though this was not a formal alliance
between the two, it was a sign of
strengthened cooperation between
Germany and Italy, which would be
later consolidated by the Pact of Steel
in 1938, where Japan would also enter
the alliance.
Some concern arose by the LoN, as it was
interpreted as a threat.
Hitler and Mussolini were making it clear that
they intended on supporting each other,
which was a cause of concern for Britain and
France.

Hitler now had an ally who could help him

pursue his aggressive foreign policy in
Europe.

Anti-Comintern This was an agreement between Germany,
Pact Japan, and later Italy (in 1937), which
November 1936 agreed that all of the nations involved
would not betray each other and support
the Communist International.
This further strengthened the
relations between the Axis powers,
by guaranteeing that they would all
oppose the major threat of
Communism.
As the pact was a secret agreement, there was
no international reaction, as no other nations
wereI aware of this.

Communist International→ A Soviet agency Even if combating Communism was

not the primary goal of his allies, Hitler
determined to spread Communism around
was guaranteeing their support.
the world.

Additionally, this was the first formal

agreement involving Japan, which
would culminate in a more formal
alliance in 1938 with the Pact of
Steel.

Hossbach In November 1937, Hitler met with The Memorandum allowed Hitler to As the Memorandum was a secret, there was
Memorandum Goering and his military commanders to explain to his inner circle the key no international reaction, as no other nations
Novem ber 1937 discuss the policy of “Lebensraum” (living policy of Lebensraum, which would were aware of this.
space), which he hoped to achieve by become a major element of
1943-45. Hitler discussed the need for an Germany’s foreign policy, as Hitler
Anschluss with the German-dense Austria, sought increased territory in Europe.
and the destruction of Czechoslovakia as
a means to acquire territory. By removing many of his ministers,
staff, and generals, Hitler was able to
In the following months, Hitler removed 18 better tailor those around him to
cautious generals and diplomatic staff enact the German foreign policy,
from his government, including Naurath especially as he was cutting ties with
(Foreign Minister) and Blomberg (War the military and diplomatic personnel
Minister). of the Weimar Republic.

Evidently, as the meeting highlighted

key upcoming events, such as the
Anchluss in 1938, and the complete
invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1939,
this may show how Hitler was in fact
planning his foreign policy all
along, and was not opportunistic.
 Anschluss This was the German “union with
March 1938 Austria”, where Austria was officially
annexed to Germany as part of Hitler’s
policy of a Greater Germany.
In February 1938, Hitler met with Austrian
Chancellor, Schuschnigg, to discuss the
prosecution of Austrian-Nazis in Austria.
Frequent disputes had arisen with
Austrian-Nazis due to their favourability to
Hitler, which many Austrans disliked as
seeing a threat to their sovereignty.
Through coercion, Hitler demand that a
leading Austrian Nazi, Seyss-Inquart, be
appointed minister of the interior.
Schuschnigg ordered a referendum on the
possible union, which Hitler portrayed as a
defiance of the people’s desire.
Hitler then pressured Schuschnigg to
resign, and the appointment of Seyss-
Inquart to the chancellorship, to which
Schusnigg obliged.
In March,Seyss-Inquart requested that
the German army marched Austria to
restore national order.
The Germans were received with great
enthusiasm by both Austrian-Nazis, and
not too, particularly because people were
thankful for the restabilization of
domestic affairs.
In April, a plebiscite was held to formalise
the German annexation of Austria, with
99% of the vote in favour.
Sudetenland Hitler wished to take over Sudetenland,
Crisis an area in western Czechoslovakia which
September 1938 housed over 3.5 million Germans.
Besides containing a great amount of
Germans, Hitler disliked Czechoslovakia
for several reasons:
Hitler was fulfilling his policy of a
Greater Germany, and hence
strengthening Germany.
The annexation of Austria also
provided Germany with further
resources such as raw materials,
which were extremely valuable for
production.
For the German people, this action
was also a sign of the strengthened
German nation under Hitler, as this
was the first major territorial
expansion of the Third Reich.
Perhaps, as Hitler had no plans to the
immediate annexation of Austria at the
start of 1938, and yet the Anchluss
was achieved by March, this may
show how he was an opportunist in
his timing and methods, even though
he had consistent aims.
Hitler continued to achieve his policy
of a Greater Germany as 3.5 million
Germans were brought into the Reich.
Again, the German people saw a
significant German expansion in
Europe, which strengthened their
morale.
Though this was officially prohibited by the
Treaty of Versailles, Britain and France
believed that this action was justifiable as
there were indeed a great number (7 million) of
Germans in Austria.
Also, as the union counted with a plebiscite, it
was thought that Austrians wanted the union.
However, it is important to remember that there
were also underlying reasons not revealed by
Britain and France.
Principally, their lack of intervention in the
Anschluss sprung out of the Appeasement
policy, which Britain and France were carrying
out as they rearmed and prepared for a future
war with Germany.
Hitler's demands of an agreement to settle the
dispute were met, as the Munich Agreement
was quickly drafted.
As per the Munich Agreement, Hitler was
allowed to take over the region, which he did
later that month.
 → It was a creation of the Versailles
Settlement.
→ It had alliances with France and Soviet
Russia, which was an obstacle to his
eastward expansion.
→ Its government was democratically
elected.
Crucially, however; the advancement
into the Sudetenland also allowed
Hitler to understand the extent to
which the Allies were committing to
the policy of appeasement, which
would further secure him that a future
German invasion of the whole of
Czechoslovakia might not be an
issue.

Hitler sought to issue an invasion following

a report that Sudeten Germans were being
discriminated against by the government.
Yet, this did not happen as he feared a
possible major conflict.
Still, as per the settlement of the Munich
Agreement, Hitler was allowed to take
over the region, which he did in
September.

Munich Following Hitler’s threats of invading
Agreement Sudetenland with violence if an
September 1938 agreement was not met, and internal
pressure from Sudeten Germans, the
Munich Agreement was devised to
resolve the issue.
their relations with Germany were on a
Neville Chamberlain (Britain), Eduard
Daladier (France), Adolf Hitler (Germany),
and Benito Mussolini (Italy), met to discuss
the matter. As the Sudetenland possessed
many Germans, it was agreed that
Germany could take over the region.
Hitler was able to thrive on the
diplomatic front, benefitting from
the Allies’ extensive policy of
Appeasement to secure his aims.
Convincing Britain and France that
sound diplomatic footing allowed
Hitler to confidently abuse the
Appeasement policy and continue
striving for his aims in continental
Europe.
Italy’s Mussolini strongly advocated for
Hitler’s wishes during the Conference, further
strengthening the Axis coalition.
The Munich Agreement allowed the Sudeten
Crisis to be resolved through diplomatic
means, allowing Hitler to further convince
Chamberlain that Anglo-German relations
were stable.
Chamberlain viewed his claims as nothing more
than a wish of a Greater German Reich,
claiming it was reasonable to keep appeasing
Hitler.

Not only was the policy of a Greater

Noticeably, neither the Czechoslovakian
government nor the USSR attended the
meeting to discuss the issue.
Germany by including Sudeten
Germans under the Reich, but he was
boosting morale at home, as
Germany was making significant
gains.
In fact, Chamberlain’s delusion was so
extensive that hours after the signing of the
agreement he paid a personal visit to Hitler,
seeking assurance that peace would be kept.
He was so convinced that he returned home
claiming “peace of our time”.

Invasion of Following the claim of the Sudetenland,
Czechoslovakia Hitler began to pursue the invasion of
March 1939 Czechoslovakia as a whole, feeling
confident that no major conflict would
erupt due to appeasement.
The country was a multinational state,
such as Czechs and Slavs, who Hitler
incited a separalist feeling against, as
they were seen as inferior.
Hence, Hitler pressured Czech President,
Hacha, into inviting German troops into
Czechoslovakia. By March 15th, the
provinces of Bohemia and Moravia were
taken over, becoming a part of Germany.
Confident that the Allies would not
intervene due to appeasement, Hitler
continued to aggressively pursue
territory in Europe, displaying a
strong leadership, and an effective
foreign policy that increased his
prestige and German morale.
This was, perhaps, the first
unjustifiable territorial claim and
invasion by Hitler, showing his true
intentions. While the Sudetenland
was part of the Greater Germany goal,
the invasion of Czechoslovakia was a
clear pursuit of the Lebensraum
policy.
Following the German invasion, Chamberlain
realised that the Munich Agreement meant
nothing to Hitler, and declared that Hitler was
attempting to “dominate the world by force”.
The invasion marked the end of the
appeasement policy, as France and Britain,
weary of Hitler’s aggressive actions,
commenced a preparation for war.
Evidently, it would be only after the next
German territorial claim (in Poland), that the
Allies would declare war on Germany.

Slovakia was to become an independent Czechoslovakia was rich in

state under German “protection”.
A week later, Hiter forced Lithuania to
hand back Memel, a city with German
inhabitants Germany had lost in 1919.
agriculture and industry, which was
very beneficial for Germany,
productively and economically.

Pact of Steel The German and Italian foreign ministers The Pact formalized the Nazi-Italian
(Rome-Berlin signed the Pact forming an alliance alliance, assuring Hitler that Italy
 Axis) between Italy and Germany.
May 1939
Japan was not included as it wanted a
pact aimed at the USSR, whereas the
Pact of Steel was aimed at Britain and
France.
The Pact consisted of 2 parts:
1. An open declaration of continuing
trust and cooperation between
Germany and Italy.
2. The “Secret Supplement Protocol”
encouraging a union of military
and economic policies between
the nations.
Nazi-Soviet Pact In August Hitler secretly approached Stalin
(Ribbentrop- to form an alliance that aimed to, and
Molotov) successfully, aborted a possible alliance
August 1939 between Britain, France, and the USSR
to take collective action to defend
Poland.
It was a 10 year non-aggression pact that
guaranteed that Germany and the USSR
would not confront each other violently.
The pact was essential for German
success in invading Poland, as it
assured that the USSR would not
intervene.
The agreement guaranteed that each
nation would take a portion of Poland.
Germany invaded Poland on September
1st, and the USSR invaded from the east
on September 16th.
Invasion of On September 1st, Germany invaded
Poland Poland.
September 1939
Hitler argued he did this following claims
that Germans were being mistreated and
discriminated against by Poles and the
Polish government.
However, this merely hid his true
intentions of occupying Poland to:
→ Continue his policy of Lebensraum.
→ Reclaim lost territory from the Treaty
of Versailles.
→ Gain access to strategic military and
economic regions, e.g- the Polish
Corridor.
In October, the Poles surrendered.
In spite of their guarantees to Poland, the
Allies were unable to defend the Poles,
who were swiftly defeated by Germany.
Yet, the invasion was followed by the
would support Germany when war
came about.
This assured Hitler that after the future
of Germany, if there was indeed a
declaration of war by the Allies, he
would have Mussolini beside him.
The Secret Supplement Protocol
further guaranteed a collaboration in
wartime production, which was
essential when facing the major
productive power of the British
Empire.
Hitler successfully guaranteed that
the USSR would not intervene once
he invaded Poland, which was pivotal
for the German success.
Though he knew that this was a
temporary “friendly” agreement, it
was enough for him to pursue his
short-term goals.
There are 2 different interpretations
to Hitler’s reaction to the declaration
of war by the Allies:
1. Hitler was aware that the
invasion of Poland would
trigger a reaction, most likely
a war declaration, by the
Allies, but he still decided to
pursue the invasion.
2. Hitler was unsure that the
invasion of Poland would
trigger an aggressive
reaction by the Allies. In fact,
given that they failed to do
anything following the German
invasion of Czechoslovakia,
Hitler believed that the
Appeasement policy would
be maintained, which meant
that he was rather surprised
by the declaration of war.
As the Pact was merely formalising the
alliance between Italy and Germany, there was
no significant international reaction.
Especially when considering that the clauses
referring to the collaboration in war were
secret.
However, the formalisation of their partnership
into a strong alliance sent a message to
Europe that Italy and Germany could be
preparing for war together.
The Pact was a very unlikely and surprising
event, which came as a shock to Britain and
France.
AJP Taylor cites the Pact as evidence of the
lack of consistent aims behind Hitler’s foreing
policy, given that it directly opposed his
previous hostile anti-Communist stance.
Other historians, however, suggest that the pact
coincided with his fundamental desire for
Lebensraum in the East, being merely a
tactical device to neutralise the USSR while
he dealt with Poland. Hitler would later confront
the USSR.
Some argue that the Hitler assumed that the
pact would deter Britain and France from
defending Poland.
Following the German refusal to withdraw
from Poland after a British demand, Britain and
France declared war on Germany on
September 3rd.
It was now clear that Hitler was aiming for the
complete domination of Europe, given that
Poland did not contain many Germans. The
country was a militarily strategic region,
including the Polish corridor.
 Allies' declaration of war.

Stage 1: Post-war scenario (1918-1919)

Event Explanation Factor

Signing of The termination of the War was followed by the Treaty of Versailles imposed by the Allies, in which Impact of
Treaty of Germany had to comply with multiple clauses. E.g: War
Versailles - The War Guilt Clause
- £6.6 billion in reparations
- Demilitarisation of the Rhineland
- Reduction of the army to 100,000 men

Germans saw the treaty as a diktat as they believed it to be extremely harsh.

All of these clauses were detrimental to Germany, politically, economically and morally.

The Stab in German military leaders believed that Germany had been betrayed by the liberals who signed the ToV. Political
the Back Instability
These became known as the November Criminals, who the Nazis would later blame for Germany’s
defeat.

Creation of With the fall of Kaiser Wilhem II, a new democratic government, the Weimar Republic was created and Weakness of
the Weimar took control of Germany. the Political
Republic system
The Weimar Republic was mainly led by the SPD and was essentially a “revolution from above” as the
government came to power due to the politicians rather than the people.

→ Historian Peter Gay wrote that the fall of the Weimar Republic occurred as Germans were not familiar
democracy and were used to an authoritarian state
- Nations like the USA and France had seen a revolution from below as it was the people’s efforts
that led to democracy, whereas in Germany, democracy was imposed.
- Germans desired more stability and security (following the events of the war), meaning that
democratic institutions were very weak and lacked public support.
Stage 2: Early years of Weimar (1919-1923)
Event Explanation Factor

The army as an President Friedrich Ebert (1919) signed a pact with the German military seeking military Weakness of
imperium in imperio support to ensure the survival of the Republic. the Political
system
Yet, the pact essentially allowed the military to act in its own interest, and its support for the
government was conditional.

The army often chose when to step in: E.g→

- The army was willing to intervene in the Spartacus Revolt (1919) as it was a Communist
Putsch.
- The army did not intervene in the Kapp Putsch (1920), claiming that “Reichswerh does
not fire on Reichswehr” as the revolt was led by old army soldiers (the Freikorps) who had
been let off.

Many military officers and generals were conservative and anti-Democratic, as they were fond of
the Kaiser, or were linked to Prussian landowners.

The army continued to be very influential in the new Republic.

Proportional Smaller, often anti-Republican parties, could gain more seats in the Reichstag. Weakness of
Representation the Weimar
(Article 17) Proportional representation led to unstable coalitions between parties with different goals/aims, Constitution
making the government weak and short-lived.

As polarisation increased in the 1920s, it became harder for moderate parties to form stable
coalitions and stay in power.

This was initially considered to be a strength of the Constitution, as it provided the population with
secrete universal suffrage but proved to be a weakness.

Article 48 This allowed the President to suspend basic constitutional principles and rule by decree in the Weakness of
event of threat to public order or security. the Weimar
Constitution
Though this was drafted as a safety measure, only to be used in extreme occasions, Ebert used
it 136 times.

Sometimes it was justifiable, such as during the Ruhr crisis in 1923, but often, it was only a way
to override the Reichstag

→ Historian Stephen Lee has said that ‘the presidential powers meant the existence of a ‘reserve’ or
‘parallel’ constitution – which had no need of parliamentary parties.’

This was initially considered to be a strength of the Constitution, but proved to be a weakness.

Continuity of In light of achieving stability for the new constitution, old institutions of Imperial Germany were Weakness of
traditional not reformed, allowing conservatives to exert great influence. the Weimar
institutions from the Constitution
Wilhelmine Era Many of the structures of the Weimar Republic were still operated by judges, army officers (etc.)
that had been in power since Kaiser Wilhem

The synchronicity of asynchronous (Fredric Jameson, Ernst Bloch, Siegfried Kracauer) →

Weimar was made up of a mix of ‘change and continuity’ where many pre-standing features of
Imperial Germany were still present, but new Republican-democratic elements were
happening at the same time.

- E.g→ the economic prosperity of 1923, happened parallelly to the economic instability.
The civil service Civil servants were powerful in government, especially when ministers of different coalitions were Weakness of
changing. the Weimar
Constitution
This was majorly possible as a result of the continuity of conservative, anti-Democratic values
of Imperial Germany.

The judiciary The branch was made by appointed judges, under the Kaiser. Weakness of
the Weimar
Though Article 54 guaranteed the independence of judges, most of the men were anti- Constitution
Democratic and conservative.

The Judiciary was very harsh towards left wing opposition and very lenient to right-wing.
- The leaders of the Spartacus Revolt were killed.
- The leaders of the Kapp Putsch received a mild sentence.

Post-War German The conditions in which the new Constitution was created completely undermined its Political
conditions credibility. Instability

In a time of great political uncertainty the democratic advancements it proposed were not
experienced by Germany.

→ Historian Ruth Henig stated that: 'There could not have been a worse time for the
inauguration of a new democratic republic’. (the Weimar Republic, pg. 15)

Creation of the The NSDAP was created in 1920, to which Hitler joined and became leader in 1921. Political
NSDAP Instability
(1920) Hitler helped to draft the NSDAP’s 25 point program which contained a variety of points which
aimed to appeal to a wide audience.
- E.g→ The scrapping of the ToV appealed to nationalists and the military.
- E.g→ religious freedom (though it did not occur) appealed to religious people.

Its intention was to ensure mass support particularly towards nationalists, the industrial working
class, the agricultural elites, etc. (Richard Geary)

The NSDAP failed to achieve power in 1923 with the Beerhall Putsch when they attempted to
take the government by force.

Hitler was arrested but only served 9 months of his 5 year penalty. Yet, during his prison time,
Hitler wrote Mein Kampf, and understood that the path to achieve power was through the
political system.

The French In 1923, after Germany proved unable to pay the War reparations, France invaded the industrial Economic
Occupation of the region of the Ruhr to claim German factories and raw materials. Issues
Ruhr
(January 1923) The Ruhr was a major industrial region for Germany, as it outputted many of the raw materials
that Germany was already using to pay the reparations.

Ebert declared the situation a national emergency, and insisted German factory workers to
passively resist by refusing to work.

The government promised to pay for workers’ wages in return.

This however meant that the government had to print more money, contributing to high inflation.

In August, resistance by German workers succeeded as the French left the Ruhr, also due to
pressure by Britain,

However, the encounter between the French and Germans often led to conflict between German
civilians and French soldiers, leading to German deaths.

Hyperinflation As a result of the French occupation of the Ruhr, Germany saw hyperinflation as a result of Economic
(1923) excessive money printing. Issues

This was worsened by the loss of confidence in the Reichsmark and in the government’s ability
to fix the issue.
 This would provide the basis for the growth of anti-republican groups and support for
totalitarianism and authoritarianism which would culminate in the rise of the NSDP.

Stage 3: The Golden Age (1924-1929)

Successes
Event Explanation Factor

Dawes Plan The Dawes Plan was developed to help Germany pay the wartime reparations & reach economic Economic
(1924) recovery: Factors
&
Young Plan 1. The U.S would lend money to Germany, who used the money to build up the German
(1929) economy.
2. Germany would use the money and increased tax revenues to pay reparations for France.
3. France would use the money from reparations to pay for the U.S loans that were borrowed
during wartime.

This was a key element in reestablishing German finance.

Later in 1929, the Young Plan extended the time for reparations to be paid to 58 years and it
reduced reparations to $29 billion.

Modernisation of German factories started following the American system of mass production, and Fordism. Economic
German industry Factors

Economic growth Government spending in social services, particularly unemployment, allowed for workers to be Economic
paid undue salaries. Factors

The workforce was the highest paid in the world, and it increased in size as women joined it. This
also resulted in a middle class boom.

Germany’s GDP was 25% higher in 1928 than it was in 1925.

German No houses had been built since the war, so architects were called on to build new apartment Economic
modernity blocks, libraries, parks, and transport systems. Factors

Berlin became the 3rd largest city in the world.

Passing of an This allowed for the Chancellor to pass laws without parliament approval, which meant that the Economic/
Enabling Act chancellor had much more power to deal with economic issues and political uprisings. Political
(1923) factors
Though a radical measure, this did allow for the stabilisation of national affairs.

This however, would set a dangerous precedent for Weimar politics.

More moderate The more moderate parties like the SPD gained more votes in the Reichstag elections ns Political
representation Factors
More extreme parties like the KPD and NSDAP lost support.

Cessation of Unlike the early 1920s, the Gilded Era did not see violent political uprisings or Putsch attempts Political
violent uprisings Factors

Seeming support The greatest paramilitary group of the time, the Reichsbanner Schwarz-Rot-Gold was made of 3 Political
for the Republic million men and is committed to defending parliamentary democracy. Factors

This suggested that a great number of people were willing to fight for the Republic.
The Locarno Pact Germany and France accepted their western borders and renounced the use of force. Foreign
(1925) affairs
This was allowed for the Franco-German reconciliation.

Germany enters Germany’s acceptance into the LoN was a step towards international peace as it included Germany Foreign
the LoN back into the discussions of international peace. affairs
(1926)
After its post-WWI humiliation, this was a way towards international reconciliation.

Kellogg-Briand 15 nations signed the agreement to which they guaranteed not to use force in settling Foreign
Pact international disputes. affairs
(1928)
Germany’s involvement helped to convince other nations that Germans were committed to peace.

Failures
Event Explanation Factor

The → Historian Theodore Balderston has renamed for Golden Age of Germany for the Gilded Age
“Gilded Era”
of Germany
This is a result of the superficial economic prosperity masking deep economic issues.

Reliance on US The growing German economy was highly reliant on U.S loans, which meant that if the American Economy
loans economy collapsed, as it did in 1929, so would the German economy.

The Dawes (1924) and Young Plan (1929), were seen by Nationalist groups as a sign of the
Republic’s continued weakness.

It was perceived as pandering to Allies and ToV Diktat.

Agrarian distress The fall in food prices led to the accumulation of farmers’ debts, even before the 1929 crash. Economy

Little government spending was focused on this sector, making it seem like the government did
not care about farmers.

Unions such as the Rural League were not fond of the government, and easy targets for the
NSDAP to gain support.

Low industrial Though this was improving, Germany fell behind in production in comparison to developed Economic
production European states. Factors

No new technologies were being introduced to factories, and though American techniques were
admired, there was a lack of dynamism in the German economy. This led to high unemployment.

Government Weak coalitions made it difficult for the government to deal with economic and political issues, as Economic/
Coalitions parties would disagree on policies and the measures to be taken. Political
Factors

The outcome of Judges continued to be lenient to right-wing/nationalists, and remained harsher with the left- Political
the Putsch trials wing. Factors
(Nov. 1923)

Outcome of Hindenburg, a former WWI general, was elected President. Political

Presidential Factors
elections He had links to the ‘old-order’, being a former General, and believing nationalism and
following Ebert’s conservatism.
death (Feb. 1925)
→ As Stresemann noted himself, “The truth is, the Germans do not want a president in a top hat… he
has to wear a uniform and a chestful of medals.”

However, some viewed Hindenburg as a stabilising figure, providing continuity between the
imperial past and the Republican present.
 Strengthening of Unlike other extremist parties, the NSDAP managed to reorganise itself and grow more as a Political
the NSDAP national movement: Factors
- Establishing the Fuhrerprinzip: strong leadership principle, under Hitler.
- Appointing Gauleiters: regional leaders subordinated to Hitler.
- Volksgemeinschaft (“People’s Community”), which was based on (German) blood not class.
- Youth and professional associations with Party links.
- Use of propaganda to explore grievances of those in distress during the 1929 crisis and after
to gather support .
- Adoption of the “parliamentary road” to power, not just putsch attempts.

Rise in anti- The economic system only really favoured big business, whilst small business did not see much Political
semitism prosperity. Factors

Extreme right-wing parties would use this as a way to blame the Jewish (who owned many shops
and businesses) for stealing German prosperity.

Women as a Many women enjoyed freedom, sporting new American fashion and access to contraception. Political
conservative Factors
symbol This led conservative and religious groups to use women as a symbol of the degeneracy of the
republic, and a loss of pure German morality.

Cultural Experimentation
Event Explanation Factor

American Germans, experiencing economic prosperity, go on an American style consumption binge, as they Cultural
consumerism now buy products that are not only necessities, but desires. Experimentation

Consumer credit was an acceptable level for all classes, and as American goods flooded the
market, consumption increased.

Living in the → After experiencing hyperinflation, and great income instability, Germans realised that prosperity Cultural
Present Experimentation
could disappear in an instant, and it was better to enjoy life now than worrying about the future.
(Eric Weitz)

Modern Germany began an Americanzed style of advertisement, fusing sex appeal wih consumers ideals. Cultural
advertising Experimentation
Differently from American advertisement, German advertisement blended mass culture and high
art
- Modernist designs (New Objectivity) are used to sell consumer products.
- Artists’ works are published by intellectual journals and marketing firms.

Modern life Urbanisation brings Germans into the cities, as they wish to experiment with entertainment Cultural
services such as cinemas, radios, and boxing. Experimentation
- Radio listeners jumped from 10,000 in 1924 to 780,000 in 1925, and 3.8 million in 1928.

Stage 4: Decline (1930-1933)

Event Explanation Factor

Wallstreet Crash In 1929, with the crash of the stock market, as Germany’s economy was greatly dependent on the Economic
(1929) U.S, Germany was greatly affected. factors

This was worsened by how Streseman died in 1929 making the government unstable.

The crash sent Germany into a depression and unemployment increased from 3 million in 1929
to 6 million by 1933.

Hence, people lost faith in the ability of Weimar to govern, and so they turned to other
alternatives to govern.
 Growth in support The failure of Weimar to deal with the socio-economic issues led to anti-republican groups rising Support for
for extremism against the parliamentary system. Nazism

→ Historian Kolb pointed out that Industrialists aimed to establish an authoritarian state,
depriving the Reichstag of power.

End of the With Hindenburg in power, the accountable government was replaced by a process of rule Political
accountable through Article 48, and a series of governmental cabinets. Factors
government
(March 1930) Decision making was left to a select few and the appointment to Chancellor was determined by the
circle of interests of those unsympathetic to democracy.

This culminated to Hitler’s appointment as Chancellor in 1933.

The After the fall of the Muller cabinet in March 1930, President Hindenburg appointed a member of Political
“Hunger Chancellor” the Zentrum, Heinrich Bruning, a.k.a the “Hunger Chancellor”, whose nickname was given due Factors
(March 1930- to his deflationary economic policies and contractionary fiscal policies.
May 1932)
Bruining greatly antagonised the left which was beneficial for the NSDAP’s propaganda.
Bruning governed with the help of many emergency decrees until he was dismissed in 1932 for
planning to implement agrarian policies that would not favour landowners.

Chancellor Bruning’s failure resulted in a growth in support for extremist parties in the
September 1930 elections. E.g→ NSDAP gained 107 seats.

The With the fall of Bruning, Chancellor Franz von Papen was appointed, whose cabinet was known as Political
“Baron’s Cabinet” the “Baron’s cabinet’ for containing many aristocrats. Factors
(May-December
1932) Yet, though Von Papen was Chancellor, it was Schleicher, the Defence Minister, who had the
most power

Yet, Von Papen also failed to deal with the economic issues and lacked parliamentary support.

In the elections of July 1932, the NSDAP became a majority with 38% of the votes, which led
Hitler to claim the chancellorship, to which Hindenburg denied.

Von Papen failed to achieve a majority and so in September, Hindenburg dissolved the
Reichstag, and called upon new elections.

The Elections of In the November elections, the NSDAP lost 2 million votes but the KPD increased its support. Political
November 1932 Factors
Von Papen encouraged Hindenburg to continue his rule by decree seeking stability.

Yet, Hindenburg lost confidence in Von Papen, and appointed Schleicher as Chancellor.

Chancellor As a desperate attempt to stay in power, Schliecher attempted to form a coalition with various Political
Schleicher groups, including the left wing of the Nazi power, led by Strasser. Factors
(December 1932-
January 1933) However, the coalition failed as Hitler found out about Strasser and alienated him in the
NSDAP.

Hitler appointed as Von Papen attempted to form a conservative-nationalist coalition and persuaded Hindenburg to Nazi
Chancellor appoint Hitler as Chancellor, as Hitler would only accept the coalition if he was chancellor. Pressure
(January 1933)
Von-Papen believed that Hitler and other Nazis could be controlled.

Successfully, on January 30th, Hindenburg appointed Hitler as chancellor (of a coalition

cabinet).

Noticeably, Hitler became Chancellor at a time when the NSDAP was losing support, as evident
by the previous elections.

Failures to prevent the NSDAP uprise

Failure Explanation
 Collaboration of Together, the elites of Germany sought to use Hitler against the perceived greater threat of Communism.
the elites

Failure of an The Left failed to combine in the interest of self-preservation against Nazism, an ideological enemy.
united opposition

Reorganization of The Nazi movement managed to expand from a South Germany regional organization to a national one by 1929.
the Nazi
movement This allowed the party to exploit opportunities in light of the depression.

Propaganda The Nazi effectively used propaganda to promote National Socialism and to portray Hitler as the saviour of
Germany.

Economic Policies
Policy Explanation Successes Failures

Aims Hiter had 3 primary goals, though no set economic plan: N/A N/A
- Reduce unemployment
- Create an economy strong enough that could support the
policy of Lebensraum
- Achieve autarky, so Germany did not rely on other nations.

Tackling War production: (eventually the Four Year Plan), the need for Unemployment was Manipulation of
Unemployment military supplies meant that workers had to be hired in factories, reduced, evident by how in statistics: A large portion
reducing unemployment. 1933 unemployment was 6 of the population, such as
million and by 1939 victims of civil purges,
Public works projects: the construction of the Autobahn, houses, Germany suffered a labour was not accounted for
schools, hospitals, etc, provided employment, together with a sense shortage. when calculating
of purpose as workers were producing useful infrastructure that unemployment figures,
would help the country. The Armed forces grew from suggesting the numbers
- This overlapped with the goal of militarisation, as 100,000 in 1933 to were much higher.
railways and motorways linked the East and West and 1,400,000 in 1939.
would be used in war. → Historian Adam
By 1934, The RAD was
Tooze describes the
RAD, Youth Labour Service: made up of 400,000 men.
‘hidden unemployed’
- Cheap & regimented labour.
and calculated that there
- Initially voluntary but later compulsory for 19-25 males.
were still 4 million out of
- Authoritarian control over recruits allowed for Party
work in 1935.
indoctrination.
- Semi-military group of Nazi youth.
Hitler also incentivized
single women not to
Conscription (1935): Provided “employment” for all 18-25 year-
work so they could get
olds serving in the military, and allowed Hitler to “destroy the
married and have
ToV”.
children and qualify for
 marriage loans.

The Hjalmar Schacht was Germany’s Minister of Economics up to Bilateral agreements Import shortage:
‘New Plan’ 1936, and his developed the New Plan for economic recovery: allowed Germany to import Though the agreement
(Schacht) more raw materials and solved the trade issue
(1934) Correcting the balance of trade: increase its influence over in 1934, there was still
the Balkan region. increased demand for
German imports outweighed exports, leading to a fall in foreign imports (which could not
reserves and gold, and the accumulation of debt. Mefo bills funded ½ of be met), especially as
Germany’s rearmament rearmament grew at a
Fiscalization of imports: The government had to approve all between 1933-38. steady pace.
imports, as to ensure that there was not more money flowing out
of the country than flowing into it. Economic distortion:
Schacht worried about an
Bilateral agreements: Especially with Balkan states, which were economy that had been
the main suppliers of German raw materials. The implementation too distorted towards
of barter agreements eliminated the use of scarce foreign rearmament due to
currency caused by the trade deficit and increased Germany’s budget deficits and
economic influence over the region. payment problems.

Mefo Bills: acted as government bonds that could be claimed with Hence, Schart wanted to
interest after 5 years. encourage exports, and
halt the increase in
However, the bills were supplied by a dummy company→ arms expenditure.
Metallurgische Forschung, a heavy industry corporation.
Hitler’s disapproval:
Hitler thought that
The bills:
Schacht’s approach
was overly
Disguised government involvement in rearmament.
conservative and would
not get Germany where
Increased the expenditure on rearmament by delaying real
he wanted it to be.
payment.
Hence, Schacht was
Aimed to increase public expenditure without causing inflation.

fired and Goering was

appointed in 1936.

The Germany prepared for war in 4 years: Prioritised German Hitler successfully Guns vs Butter: The
Four Year Plan rearmament and self-sufficiency in food and industrial production increased rearmament. economic investment in
(Goering) (key industries during the war). war production came at
(1936) In 1932, military spending the opportunity cost of
Government regulations: The government increased control over accounted for 1% of the production of
imports, labour, raw materials, and prices. It also created targets Germany’s GDP, yet by consumer goods,
that the private sector had to meet. 1940 military spending especially food.
reached 38% of Germany’s
Hitler’s demand for an excessive rearmament marked the GDP. This meant that the
radicalization of the regime as it came at the cost of consumer German economy failed
goods, which became known as the “Guns vs. Butter” dispute. in sufficiently providing
consumer goods and
→ Historian Mason has argued that the rearmament program was rearmament
hindered by having to supply both military and consumer
goods, making Germany less prepared for war.

The government feared popular unrest and disapproval of the

government if there was a great shortage of consumer goods.

- The excessive rearmament was overheating the economy

which culminated in issues like labour shortages and
shortage of raw materials.

→ Historian Overy argued that there were 2 distinguishable periods

in the German economy:

- 1933-36: Public works and revival of consumer demands

were prioritised.
 - Post-1936: Rearmament was prioritised as Hitler steered
the economy towards war.

Ultimately, the post-1936 period was not enough time for

Germany to become the seizable war economy Hitler desired.

- Overy has even argued that Germany failed to build a

strong war economy capable of enduring long periods
of war, which is why the Blitzkrieg tactics were created, so
quick victories could be attained and a war of attrition
could be avoided.

Blitzkrieg Blitzkrieg allowed Germany to obtain new territory that supplied Blitzkrieg evidenced many Germany was pushed
(1939-41) them with labour and raw materials. short-term successes. into a war of attrition,
- E.g→ Anchluss and invasion of Czechoslovakia had supplied Particularly with the military which it was not able to
achievements and sustain.
Germany with economic resources conquered territory.
The goals of the 4 year
However, the performance of the Nazi economy during war raises plan were not met.
the question of whether Germany was a polycratic state or the
monolithic Fuhrer state. Hitler’s wish to establish
a New Order in Europe
→ Historian Geary has referred to the overlapping authorities of led to the issues outlined
by Gordon Wright as the
the government as “personal fiefdoms” that prevented political
Nazis failed to effectively
and economic policies from running smoothly.
get the conquered
population behind their
A lack of central wartime administration made it difficult for the
war effort.
nation to successfully mobilise resources and get all the people
behind the war effort. This resulted in a sense of confusion.

E.g→ Overy has exemplified this productive inefficiency by

pointing out that Fritz Todt, Minister of Armaments and war
production (1940-42), had no control over aircraft production.

It was events like these that hindered the Nazi ability to react to war
losses:
- E.g→ Inability to replace the lost planes in the Battle of
Britain (1940).

- Gordon Wright has argued that the Nazis could have

collaborated with the conquered territories as a way to
benefit from the vast military and material resources.
Instead, their policy of “smash and grab” was more
convenient, but did not allow Germany to fully thrive from
the conquered territories.

The Economy With the death of Fritz Todt, Albert Speer replaced him as the Under Speer, the economy
under Albert Minister of armaments and war production. effectively functioned and
Speer became much more
(1942-45) Spear restructured the economy, and mobilised to a total war. organised.
Production increased massively. War time production goals
- E.g→ 3x more weapons in 1944 than 1941. were being met.
→ Overy stated that Speer
However, at this point Germany was already at war with the USA.
was a figure of authority
Germany’s industries were being bombed by Allies. that allowed the economy to
become more efficient.
He even pointed out that the
increase in German
production showcased the
ineffectiveness of Allied
bombing.
Though the economy was
more organised,
Germany was not able
to withstand the Allies’
attacks.
It is interesting to notice
how, during the
Blitzkrieg, the economy
was not doing well, but
the military made gains,
whereas under Speer,
the opposite occurred.
This shows the self-
destructiveness of the
Nazi economy, as the
period of
disorganization proved
irreversible.
 Social Policies
Policy Explanation Factor

The education Part of Hitler’s goals of building a “Thousand Year Reich” involved the heavy indoctrination & Nazification of Policies towards
system the youth, as a way to build a generation that would carry the views of the NSDAP. the Youth

Schools and universities were cleansed from teachers unsympathetic to Naizm, due to their Jewish
background or lack of fitness.

All teachers were forced to join the National Socialist Teachers’ League (NSLB) which aimed to:
- Ensure conformity in their presentation of the Nazi ideology to the youth.

- Keeping teachers under Party control.

Students learned subjects like history, biology, “Germanics” and “Eugenics” which aimed to teach different
aspect of Nazi qualities.
- E.g1→ History taught students the greatness of Germany’s past and the “evil legacy of Weimar”
→ Historians Noakes and Pridham have highlighted that the teaching of history in Germany
had always had a nationalist bias, with many teachers being taught those same ideas
Hitler wished to carry out.
- E.g2 → The study of Eugenics instilled the idea of Aryan racial superiority.

The Nazims even propsed more elite education for selected future leaders:
- The Adolf Hitler Schools emphasised physical exercises, race purity & obedience.
- The Napolas focused on military discipline and leadership.
- The Order Castles was for the ruling elites and included similar subjects as the previous two but also
included political studies, and indoctrination.

Youth groups Nazi youth movements had existed in the 1920s but were intensified in 1933, with the creation of the Hitler Policies towards
Youth (HJ) and the League of German Maidens (BDM) the Youth

Hitler Youth→ Militaristic activities, sports, and physical activities.

League of German Maidens→ Domestic, "women like" chores and activities.

Hitler believed that schools were not enough to create the tough, athletic, and obedient new Germans,
which is why the Youth groups were created

Noticeably, Hitler’s goals for the youth excluded intellectualism and academic excellence as he believed
these had led to the cultural degeneracy of Germany.

→ Sax and Kuntz have said that, under Nazism, children “were duller and stupider, though healthier,
individuals.”

Hitler also ensured to ban other youth movements and absorb their members (apart from Catholic
movements which were protected by the Concordat).

By 1935 nearly 60% of the 10-18 year olds had joined, though the movements were only compulsory in
1939.

Children would spend the whole day at the movements being indoctrinated, practising sports, militarism,
etc. Children's homes were like bed and breakfast services as that was the only time they returned home.

Children enjoyed the movements which played into the NSDAP’s goal of monopolising young life and
obtaining it fully under Party control.

The Youth Movements aimed to:

- Liberate them from the “evils” of democracy, Marxism and Jews.
- Restore German pride and honour.
 - Revise 1919 “Diktat”.

Role of Women Supposedly, Hitler did not necessarily see women as inferior but he sought to rescue them from the Policies towards
degeneracy of women’s dignity and honour, which had occurred under Weimar’s Western democratic- Women
liberal policies.

He sought to restore the traditional role of women as mothers and family oriented. He also believed that
women bore the nation’s future.

Hitler attempted to limit female participation in society to “Children, Kitchen, Church.”

Hitler believed that men and women should work in partnership to serve the nation.

Hence, Hitler also believed that women bore the nation’s future, and so proposed numerous pro-natalist
policies to supply the Reich, given that Germany had a declining and low birth rate.

Nazi anti-feminism was also shared by groups such as traditionalists, and the Church.

Hitler capitalized on this, creating what critics claimed to be a reactionary policy based on male supremacy,
in spite of the Nazis claiming the contrary.

Pro-natalist As an attempt to increase the population of the Reich, Hitler implemented measures such as Policies towards
policies Women
Marriage loans: 1000 Reichsmarks paid at 1%, to which the value decreased by ¼ per child.
- To receive the loan, however, women had to give up employment. The goal was to discourage
women from working, so unemployed men could take the jobs.
- It is estimated that 42% of couples received the loan by 1939.
- Loans did not significantly increase the birth rates→ 2+ kids: Harms > benefits
Monetary incentives:
- Income-tax reductions for married couples, and higher taxes for singles, or couples who had no
children.
- Child support & provision of facilities like birth clinics which helped to reduce fares.
Mother’s Cross award
- Depending on the number of children, mothers would receive medals. E.g→ 8+ was gold.
 These benefits, however, were only appropriate if children were of Aryan blood and not “asocials”. E.g→ Child
born with a disease or handicap.

Opposingly, the government also provided decensentives by denying women control of their body,
E.g→ banned contraception, and criminally convicting women who broke these laws.

Women in the Initially, laws restricted the number of women that could work in the civil service or attend higher education. Policies towards
workplace Women
Nazi propaganda was used to discourage women to work and encourage them to fufill the Party set goals.

Yet, By 1937, rearmament programmes had led to labour shortages, to which women were sought to
work.
- While in 1933 there were 5 million employed women, by 1939 there were 7.14 million.

This was achieved through propaganda and monetary incentives:

E.g→ Propaganda attempted to convey to women that joining the workforce was honourable and they should
attend higher education to become skilled workers and serve the Reich.

E.g→ Monetary incentives were adapted: For example, working women were now qualified to receive
marriage loans.

Still, despite returning to the workplace, women did not have the same social status as men:

→ Women mainly took on roles in education and health industries yet Hitler refused to allow them to work in
certain industries like the judiciary, as he believed women were emotion driven and intellectually inferior.

→ Women had a secondary role in politics, merely conducting male-dominated policies.

→ Geary pointed out that this was an instance in which ideological purity had to give in to economic

necessity.

Although, the government created institutions to promote Nazi values amongst women:
- German Women’s Enterprise (DSW)
- Reich Mother’s Service (RMD)
- National Socialist womanhood (NSF)

The German Within Hitler’s first year, trade unions were abolished as part of the Nazification process, as trade unions Policies towards
Labour Front were associated with leftism. Workers
(DAF)
Unions were replaced with the German Labour Front (DAF), which did not fight for workers, but rather:
- Ensured workers were kept in order and the production was increased.

Integrating To ensure this, the DAF created 2 subsection organisations: Policies towards
Workers in the Workers
Volksgemeinschaf - Beauty of Labour→ ensured that facilities, meals and workplaces were to good standards, the Nazis
t
also wished to achieve beautification.

- ‘Strength Through Joy’ (KdF) → Incentivised workers by providing them with subsidised leisure
facilities, such as theatre visits, sports, etc.
- This was the carrot in the carrot and stick approach utilized by the Nazis, to incite high levels of
production.
- Opposingly, workers lost their freedom as organising leisure activities allowed the state to
ensure that workers had no-time for anti-state activities and could be indoctrinated.

→ Head of the DAF, Robert Ley, stated that the KdF contributed towards the “sense of solidarity required by
the Volksgemeinschaft.”

Council of Trusts: an organisation that represented workers in discussions with ‘plant leaders’.
- It was designed to further encourage the idea of a community in the workplace between employers and
employees→ The opposite of class struggle.
Attempts to Nazify In 1933, Hitler had signed the Concordat with the church, however, it quickly became clear that the Nazis Policies towards
the Church aimed to interfere with religion. the Church

German Christians created the Reich Church, whose Reich Bishop was Ludwig Muller, and attempt to
reconcile protestant and Nazi beliefs.

However, the Nazis were only partly successful in achieving the predominance of the Reich Church.

It was for difficult for the Nazis to head on attack the Church as they feared losing support from German
Catholics, which was precisely the group they were attempting to sway.

Hence, a war of attrition between the Church and the State was developed:

To subtly attack the Church, the Nazis:

- Accuse priests of crimes such as sexual abuse and pederastry as an attempt to lure young people
away from the Church.

- During the mid-1930s, the Nazis launched the Church Secession Campaign to encourage Germans
to abandon churches.

Yet, despite these measures, the nazification of the Church failed, as the Reich Church had limited support
and Catholicism remained popular.

Nevertheless, the Church was still in a delicate situation, as it too could not openly attack Nazism, given that
the Nazi government was actually implementing policies enjoyed by the Catholic Church:

→ Historian Ian Kershaw has argued that the Church did not launch an attack on Nazism because it shared
some of its beliefs. E.g→ The Nazis attacked ‘godless’ Marxism, they built an authoritarian state, and conducted
a strong foreign policy.

Still, even though the Church did not consistently attack Nazism, they did not blindly support it either, as
they often publicly condemned the regime when it opposed the Catholic doctrine:

- In 1937, Pope Pius XI publicly attacked the Nazi government for breaching the Concordat, and
racial/nationalist idolatry.

- He also attacked the government in 1938 following the events of Kristallnacht.

- In 1940, Pope Pius XII repudiated the Nazi Euthanasia program (Akiton T4).

Minorities The Nazi government considered asocials all of whome were undeserving of living in the Policies towards
Volksgemeinshcaft. Minorities

Asocials included groups such as homosexuals, Jews, Roma/Sinti, the homeless, physically/mental
handicap.

These people were part of the Community of aliens, who were treated inhumanely and with great hostility, in
order to “protect the racially superior.”

Treatment of asocials consisted of various ways of stripping people from their humanity:
- Sterilisation
- Demonization
- Social exclusion
- Euthanasia

Yet, the Nazis also institutionalized the persecution of minorities and anti-semitism by using legislation:

E.g→ the Nuremberg Laws in 1935

The Nazis also ensured this instituionalized repression by inciting popular hatred of these groups:

- E.g→ The Gestapo relied on Cultural Denunciation (which involved the general population) to find
those undesirables that hid amongst Germans.

- E.g→ Kristallnacht in November 1938 was when there was a nationwide arrest of Jews and
 destruction of Jewish property as an attempt to incite Jews to leave Germany.

Finally, minorities were often sent to concentration camps, such as Auschwitz and Belzec, where they would
be used as forced labour or as trial subjects for medical experiments.

E.g→ It is estimated that 320,000-350,000 were sterilised in concentration camps.

The Holocaust The Holocaust was the final solution to the Jewish question, which was mainly orchestrated by men like Policies towards
(1941-1945) Hiedrich Himmler (head of the SS) and Adolf Eichman. Minorities

The matter of the Jewish Question referred to the Nazi dilemma of what ough to be done with the
numerous Jews and minorities that had come under Nazi control. Before the euthanasia program ws
established, the Nazis pondered on a variety of alternatives to deal with this question:

- E.g→There was a plan involving the mass deportation of Jews to Madagascar in 1940, so they could
be excluded from the European population.

- However, with the development of war and the Allied naval predominance, the German navy could not
transport the Jewish to Madagascar, as they would have to break through the Royal Navy, so this plan
crumbled.

Hence, the Holocaust was decided as the policy to deal with the asocials, as it referred to the systematic
elimination of asocials from Nazi teritory.

The Nazi approach to Jews were institutionalized and eliminationist:

→ Initially forcing emigration/Ghettos (‘39/40)
- Logistical Problems once Germany expanded East due to great number of Jews.
→ Annihilation project (Wannsee Conference, January 1942)

There are 2 different schools of thought on the Holocaust:

1. The Intentionalist school: Hitler followed his consistent aim of exterminating the Jewish
population, as noted in Mein Kampf, where Hitler alluded to the destruction of “undesirables” from
the Volksgemeinschaft.

- Notable Historians: Richard Overy (British), Karl Bracher (German), Lucy Dawidowicz
(American)

2. The Structuralist/Functionalist school: The Holocaust was a result of the initiative by local Nazi
officials in occupied Eastern territories, who attempted to solve the problem of managing a great
Jewish quantity by simply systematically exterminating all of them.

- Notable Historians: Timothy Mason (British), Zygmunt Bauman (Polish), Timothy Snyder
(American)

Nevertheless, by 1945, 6 million Jews had been killed in Nazi concentration camps, through means such as
gas chambers.

The Holocaust was one of the major genocides in History. * Shoa refers to the persecution and murder of
Jews in specific, whereas Holocaust refers to all asocials.