CLASS- 8

LESSON 2: PLATE TECTONICS

1.The Theory of Continental Drift:

• Throughout the history, scientists around the world were curious to know
about the Earth and it’s dynamic (ever changing) nature.
• Scientist like Alfred Wegener (German Climatologist) introduced the
theory of Continental Drift (1912) which describes the idea that
continents moved over time and are still in motion.
• Evidences include- One type of evidence that strongly supported the
Theory of Continental Drift is the fossil record.
• The Atlantic coasts of Africa and South America appear to fit together
neatly, like the pieces of a jigsaw puzzle.
• Identical rocks, of the same type and age, are found on both sides of the
Atlantic Ocean. Wegener said the rocks had formed side-by-side and that
the land had since moved apart.
• Mountain ranges with the same rock types, structures, and ages are
now on opposite sides of the Atlantic Ocean. The Appalachians of the
eastern United States and Canada, for example, are just like mountain
ranges in eastern Greenland, Ireland, Great Britain, and Norway.
• There is also much climate evidence supporting continental drift, most
notable of which is glacial activity.
• Ancient glaciation events left traces in the form of deposits Scratch marks
on rocks (glacial striations) even indicate the direction in which the ice
was flowing. The extent and distribution of such deposits tell us where past
climatic conditions were cold enough for glaciation to occur.
 • There have been evidences of coal deposits in Antarctica. Coal requires a
warm & lush climate. The coal deposits only mean that Antarctica might
have positioned in a part of the Earth where it once supported the large
quantities of life.
• A scientific idea that was initially ridiculed and soon, mostly, forgotten.
Wegener never lived to see his theory accepted—he died at the age of 50
while on an expedition in Greenland.
• But this theory of continental drift ignited the fire among the scientific
community across the globe to find out about the continental plate
movements and resulting changes over the earth’s crust.
• This finally paved the way for the concept of plate tectonics (1960’s), that
scientists have now accepted to explain how Earth’s continents move.
• The theory of plate tectonics is more complete and has also gained
widespread acceptance.
Structure of the Earth-

• The structure of the earth is divided into three major components: the
crust, the mantle, the core.
• Each layer has a unique chemical composition, physical state, and can
impact life on Earth's surface.
• Movement in the mantle caused by variations in heat from the core, cause
the plates to shift, which can cause earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
 Crust –

• The crust is the outermost solid part of the earth.

• The thickness of the crust varies under the oceanic and continental areas.
(Continental crust is commonly about 35km thick. Its maximum thickness
is 60km, beneath mountain range).
• Oceanic crust is thinner but denser as compared to the continental crust.
The continental crust is thicker in the areas of major mountain systems.

Mantle-

• The portion of the interior beyond the crust is called the mantle. It is in a
solid-state.
• It has a density higher than the crust portion. The thickness ranges from
35-2,900 km.
• The asthenosphere is the upper portion of Mantle. It is the chief source of
magma that finds its way to the surface during volcanic eruptions.
• The crust and the uppermost part of the mantle are called the lithosphere.

Core –

• The core-mantle boundary is positioned at the depth of 2,900 km.

• The inner core is in the solid-state whereas the outer core is in the liquid
state.
• The core is made up of very heavy material (NIFE).

The Concept of Plate Tectonics-

• Plate tectonics is a scientific theory that explains how movements in the
earth’s crust causes different geographic phenomena including mountain
building events, volcanoes, and earthquakes.
• In plate tectonics, Earth’s outermost layer, or lithosphere—made up of
the crust and upper mantle—is broken into large rocky plates. These plates
lie on top of a partially molten layer of rock called the asthenosphere.
• Plate is a geographic word which means massive slab of solid rock made
up of Earth's lithosphere (crust and upper mantle). Also called lithospheric
plate or plates (lithosphere broken into large rocky plates).
• Tectonics means related to the processes of building and movements that
result in the changes of the Earth's crust and its evolution through time.
• The place where two plates meet is called a plate boundary or plate
margin.
 The Layered Earth

Major and Minor Tectonic Plates

The seven major plates include the African, Antarctic, Eurasian, North American,
South American, India-Australian, and the Pacific plates. Some of the minor plates
include the Arabian, Caribbean, Nazca, and Scotia plates. Here is a picture showing the
major tectonic plates of the world.
Though smaller in size, the minors are no less important when it comes to shaping the
Earth.
YouTube link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jPLU8ZRJqM4
The Convectional Current Theory-
• Convection is the process by which heat is transferred by movement of a
heated fluid such as air or water.
• Convectional currents are movements of fluid caused by a temperature or
density difference within a material.
• An example of convection current is shown in the diagram. Inside a
beaker, hot water rises at the point where heat is applied. The hot water
moves to the surface, then spreads out and cools. Cooler water sinks to the
bottom.

• Arthur Holmes theorized that convection currents move through the

mantle the same way heated air circulates through a room or a hot water
beaker, and reshape the Earth’s surface in the process.
• Magma is the molten rock below the crust, in the mantle. Tremendous heat
and pressure within the earth cause the hot magma to flow in convection
currents.
• These currents cause the movement of the tectonic plates that make up the
earth’s crust.
• Holmes also understood the importance of convection as a mechanism for
loss of heat from the Earth and of cooling its deep interior.
 • Tectonic plates ‘float’ on the magma beneath them in the
mantle. Convection currents, that occur within the molten rock in the
mantle, act like a conveyor belt for the plates.
• Tectonic plates move in different directions. The direction of movement
and type of plate margin is determined by which way the convection
currents are flowing.
• The heat from the core is transferred to the mantle. Liquid rock, close to
the core, is heated and rises. When it reaches the crust, it is forced sideways
as often it cannot pass through the crust.
• The friction between the convection current and the crust causes the
tectonic plate to move. The liquid rock then sinks back towards the core as
it cools. The process then repeats.

Tectonic plate movements or motions along the plate boundaries

• The tectonic plates move in broadly three directions.
• These plates move relative to each other, typically at rates of 5 to 10 cm (2 to
4 inches) per year, and interact along their boundaries, where they converge,
diverge, or slip past one another.
• The movement at these plate boundaries can cause earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions and mountain building to occur.
 The Three Kinds of Plate Boundaries

Divergent/Constructive
Convergent/
Destructive
Plate Margins or Transform
Boundaries Plate Margins
Plate Margins or
Boundaries or Boundaries

Forms a mountain chain known as a ridge.

This feature forms as magma escapes into
Forms mountain ranges
the space between the spreading tectonic Transform plate
like – Himalaya, as
Earth’s crust is
plates. Example: Mid Oceanic Ridge (an boundaries or margins

crumpled and pushed oceanic ridge in the Atlantic Ocean). is mainly responsible
upward. for “Earthquakes”.
Volcanic activities are commonly found in
these areas. Example: San Andreas
Fault, California, US.

CONVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARIES-

• Convergent plate boundaries are locations where lithospheric plates are
moving towards one another. The plate collisions that occur in these areas
can produce earthquakes, volcanic activity, and crustal deformation.

• Three distinctive types of convergence are recognized:

1. The convergence of two continental plates

2. The convergence of a continental plate and Oceanic plate, and
3. The convergence of two oceanic plates.
Convergence of Two Continental Plates-
• When two continental plates move towards each other, neither is
subducted. Instead, the crust buckles, forming high folded mountains like
the Himalayas.
• The convergence of two predominantly continental plates generates an
orogenic belt or range.
• The Himalayan Mountains are example of continental – continental plate
collision. Million years ago, the Indian plate came very close to Eurasian
plate. As the two continents collided, India (the relatively smaller plate)
was thrust under the Eurasian plate, and the Himalayan Mountains were
formed.
• Earthquakes are frequent in this region.
• The Alps and the Ural Mountains are other examples.
• The European Alps result from the convergence of the African and
Eurasian plates.
• The Urals were formed when the Siberian continental mass collided with
Europe.

Convergence of Continental and Oceanic Plates-

• When one continental and other oceanic plates collide due to their
convergence along subduction, the oceanic plate boundary being heavier is
subducted below the continental plate.
• Subduction zones are where subduction takes place.
• As you would expect, where plates collide there are lots of intense
earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. The subducting oceanic plate melts as
it renter the mantle.
• The magma rises and erupts. This creates a volcanic mountain range near
the coast of the continent. This range is called a continental arc. The
Andes Mountains, along the western edge of South America, are a volcanic
arc.
Convergence of Two Oceanic Plates
• When two ocean plates collide with each other, the relatively denser plate
subducts under the lighter plate.
• The density of the ocean crust depends on the proportion of silica and
magnesium.
• The subduction portion of plate after reaching about 100 km starts melting
due to high temperature prevailing in the upper mantle.
• In a complex ocean to ocean collision, it results into crustal deformation,
as well as volcanic activity, producing a complex island arc.
• Example- Japanese and Philippines islands. The mountains of Japan
(especially the Honshu Island) and Philippines are largely of volcanic
origin.