Summary of The Chinese Civil War (1927–37

and 1946–49)

Even after the overthrow of the Chinese government, Manchu Dynasty, in 1911 China was
still exploited by foreign powers.
The Chinese Civil War fought between the Communists and the Nationalists was to
restore control over China.
It formed two parts, starting in 1927, separated by the Sino-Japanese War in 1937, and
started again in 1946 after the war with Japan was over.
Contents
Long- term causes of the Chinese Civil War
Socio-economic factors
Political weakness and the influence of foreign powers
The overthrow of the Manchu dynasty
The rule of Yuan Shikai
Short-term causes of the Chinese Civil War
Political weakness: regionalism − the warlords (1916−28)
The May Fourth Movement
Attempt to unify China: the First United Front
Immediate causes of the Chinese Civil War: the GMD attacks on the CCP
The course of the war
The Jiangxi Soviet
Division within the CCP
GMD attempts to exterminate the CCP
The Long March
Key events of the Long March
Mao and revolutionary warfare
Setting up base areas
The organisation phase
Defending the bases
The guerrilla phase
Protracted war
Seizing power
End of the first stage of the Chinese Civil War – the Second United Front (1937)
Why was the CCP able to survive the first stage of the Chinese Civil War?
The Sino-Japanese War
The impact of the war on the GMD
The impact of the war on the CCP
Second phase of the Civil War (1945–49)
Failure of the USA
Initial victories of the GMD (1945−47)
CCP on the offensive (1947−48)
Collapse of the GMD resistance
What were the reasons for the communist success?
Strengths of the CCP
Jiang Jieshi's Errors
What was the role of foreign support in the final outcome?
The USA
The USSR
Results of the Chinese Civil War
 For China
For Asia
For the USSR
China's relations with the USA and the West

Long- term causes of the Chinese Civil War

Socio-economic factors
Peasants under the rule of the Manchu Dynasty were poor, worked on land, lived a hard life,
and paid all the taxes.
Their population grew by 8% but the land cultivated increased only by 1% in the second half
of the 19th century, and this imbalance caused famines.
Peasants, often driven to the cities by their poverty, had to pay up to 80% of their harvest to
landlords, and usually struggled with unemployment and debt due to cheap Western
technology.

Political weakness and the influence of foreign powers

China's destabilised economy was exploited and humiliated through Western imperialism
after the mid 19th century Opium Wars and the great Chinese empire had been "carved up
into spheres of influence."
China had been forced to sign unequal treaties, maintain extra-territorial courts for foreigners
who disobeyed Chinese laws, saw inflation, corruption, and financial chaos from imperialist
powers.
Large portions of the tax revenue did not reach the central government as provisional
governments were corrupt.
In 1864, the first political reform and religious movement was shut down after the regional
armies killed millions of Chinese rebellions.
Even the Chinese educated and elite in the Self-Strengthening Movement were divided on
how to modernise China.
China had lost the war with Japan in 1895, and lost land to Japan in the Russo-Japanese
settlement in 1904−5).
There was a widespread and popular anti-Western feeling, which started the Boxer
Rebellion in 1899, but without modern weaponry, any anti-foreign revolt was futile.

The overthrow of the Manchu dynasty

Chinese government felt increased tension when the death of the Emperor and succession
of two year old Pu Yi in 1908, alongside the ever-growing sensation of imminent
'Westerinisation.'
Prince Chun ruled in regent, his incompetence saw the dismissal of Jiang Jieshi, and he
increased taxation, contributing to socio-economic downturn.
In 1911, the dynasty was overthrown in a revolution known as the Double Tenth and a
republic was created.
Dr Sun Yixan, who had been in exile in the USA during the revolution, was to become the
first president of the new republic in Nanjing.
 In an attempt to over-throw the rebellion, the imperial government tried to use the Northern
Army general, Yuan Shikai, only to be double-crossed. In February 1912, Pu Yi was
abdicated.
Despite this revolution, there was no establishment of democracy and former imperial
officers held their positions.
Historian Michael Lynch argues that the revolution was essentially a revolt by the provinces
against the center government; "a triumph for regionalism."

The rule of Yuan Shikai

Yuan Shikai was military dictator from 1912 to 1915. His military dictatorship was the key
obstacle in uniting China.
Sun's party reformed to become the Guomindang (GMD) in 1912.
To win the political battle for China, a military was required; a lesson learnt by the GMD and
the Chinese communists.
In an attempt to undermine the influential Yuan Shikai's rule, Sun tried moving him from his
power base in Beijing to Nanjing.
The GMD were a regional power when Shikai refused, and the republicans were not ready
to face resistance from Yuan.
The 'second revolution' against Yuan failed in 1913, and Sun fled to Japan.
The republicans created regional assemblies, which Yuan abolished and alienated
provisional powers, and tax revenues.
However, Yuan's ultimate mistake was when he declared himself Emperor in 1916. He lost
support from the military and died soon after.

Short-term causes of the Chinese Civil War

Political weakness: regionalism − the warlords (1916−28)

After the abdication and death of Yuan, China lost the final degree of unity.
China broke up into smaller provinces controlled by warlords which lasted between 1916
and 1928.
The warlords ran their areas independently, collected taxes, had their own laws and
currencies.
The Chinese were highly embarrassed by this, and the peasants suffered.
Internal state of anarchy, division, and regionalism and provincialism was to pay for the
cause of the chinese civil war

The May Fourth Movement

Led by students in 1919, and in response to the Treaty of Versailles, a mass demonstration
was held in Beijing, against the warlords, traditional culture, and the Japanese.
China had joined the Allies in a "rebirth" as an independent nation inspired by the Bolshevik
revolution in 1917.
Imperialism was perceived as the main cause for China's problem.
 China's GMD party had grown stronger during the warlord period.

Attempt to unify China: the First United Front

Both the GMD and the CCP wanted a unified China and took up a united front to fight the
warlords in 1923.
Sun Yixan's third principle, 'the People's Livelihood,' otherwise known as socialism,
convinced Cominterm that this front could be trusted.
Though he had been educated in Moscow, and found funding from the USSR to train GMD
officers, Jiang became increasingly anti-Communist which nearly broke the front.
The GMD and the CCP went on a Northern Expedition (1926−8) to crush the warlords,
which was a success.
The GMD announced it was a legitimate government and situated the new capital in
Nanjing.

Immediate causes of the Chinese Civil War: the GMD attacks on

the CCP
The tension between the GMD and the CCP was the last of the tension in China and their
alliance was of convenience.
Their success was as a result of the CCP promise of land to the peasants and GMD
ambitions.
Jiang was sympathetic to the landlords and middle classes but began to expel all
communists from the GMD due to communist support.
The 'White Terror' in April 1927 was Jiang's peak attack. Jiang turned the powerful 'workers'
party army' under Zhou ENlai against the CCP, 5,000 communists were shot.
Jiang's 'purification movement' killed around 250,000 people, including communists, trade
unionists, and peasant leaders.
By 1927, the CCP were nearly destroyed.

The course of the war

The Jiangxi Soviet

The CCP retreated to Jiangxi, which became known as Jiangxi Soviet.
Mao Zedong's writing suggests that the White Terror was proof that the United Front
ultimately doomed.
Mao also believed that the GMD and Cominterm had the wrong strategy for China; it should
be peasant based.
Mao said "The peasants are the sea; we are the fish. The sea is our habitat," which shifted
the ideological orthodox interpretation of Marxism to Maoism.
 His tangent ideology was successful with the results of recruitment found in the Jiangxi
Soviet.

Division within the CCP

Both the CCP and the GMD suffered from 'internal factionalism' during this period of the civil
war.
Mao's beliefs were, by 1930;
Revolution carried out by the peasants,
Guerrilla warfare, and
Land reform.
Li Lisan "misinterpreted" commands and attacked the Jiangxi Soviet in what was thought as
a global end of capitalism in the Great Depression.
His attacks failed due to the parties influence in rural areas.
Lisan was dismissed from leadership in January 1931.

GMD attempts to exterminate the CCP

Between 1928 to 1934, Jiang failed to carry out Sun's Three Principles and his support (the
rich and landlords) were of no help to his ineffective government.
In 1931, the Japanese invaded Manchuria.
Still trying to destroy the Communists, Jiang initiated the 'Five Encirclement Campaigns;'
circling the reds, cutting off supplies and resources.
Mao's strategy, in a letter to Lisan in 1921 was: 'The enemy advances, we retreat; the enemy
halts, we harass; the enemy tires, we attack; the enemy retreats; we pursue.'
After Lisan, he was replaced with 28 Moscow graduates known as the 28 Bolsheviks with
the influence of Cominterm.
Mao did not like these "inexperienced men."
The first 3 campaigns were between December 1930 to September 1931 who were all
defeated under Zhou Enlai.
The CCP's knowledge of the area and support of local peasants helped.
Zhu De was involved in the fourth encirclement campaign, using the same tactics forcing
back the GMD in 1933.

The Long March

The Fifth Encirclement Campaign saw a force of 800,000 men, air cover and artillery, as a
result of German advice.
It was successful at Ruijin in 1934, and instead of surrendering Mao decided to break the
GMD's lines and set up a new base.
This was successful on the 19th of October 1934, when the CCP trekked 9,600km to
Shaanxi.
It took 368 days, 90% of the 90,000 communists died, and they passed inhospitable territory.

Key events of the Long March

The 28 Bolsheviks led the CCP to Xiang River, which was strongly defended by the GMD.
 50,000 attempting to cross the river died - they were "sitting ducks" for Jiang's forces.
In January 1935, the CCP captured the town of Zunyi using Guerilla tactics.
At this time, the 28 Bolsheviks were discredited as a result of the disaster at Xiang River.
Mao became leader.
At Zunyi, Mao declared war on Japan, led the Red Army towards Sichuan and met with
40,000 other communists.
Jiang met Mao along the western provinces of Yunnan and Tibet, the GMD destroyed all the
boats at Yangtze River, attempting to disrupt Mao's rout.
Mao deceived the nationalists by sending units 136km further along, tricking the GMD and
crossing another bridge.
The CCP covered 134km in 24 hours two weeks later, and came across Dabu River.
Local people built a bridge to help the CCP and the GMD should have blown the bridge but
this would have caused local outcry.
Jiang's forces removed the planks, stopping the CCP.
According to the CCP, 22 volunteers threw grenades to take out the machine-gun ready
GMD and let the rest of the Red Army cross.
The success here led to a massive boost in morale, encouraging members of the GMD to
switch sides.
With only 10,000 left, Mao met with 45,000 other men at Sichun under the command of
Zhang.
They quarreled on the next move of te he CCP, and split forces, Zhang taking Zhu De.
The GMD attacked Zhang's army, and Zhu De fled to meet with Mao.
Mao crossed the deadly Songpan marshes, 3,000 men died across the 400km region.
After marching 9,600km, fighting 15 major battles, Mao arrived at Shaanxi province to form
the Shaanxi Soviet in October 1935.
A new based was formed in the city of Yan'an.

Mao and revolutionary warfare

Not trying to defeat GMD, but impose revolutionary ideology onto Chinese people.
Maoism would reconstruct all of society, economy, and government.
Nationalism involved maintain the status quo.
Mao believed peasants were central to revolution; his priority was to persuade and support
them with communist cause.

Setting up base areas

Mao would set up base areas to organize and educate peasants who would accept the new
taxes and justice system.
Base areas were remote and difficult for the GMD to interfere with.
Part of 'Eight Rules of the Eighth Army' was to respect everyone - gained support with
peasants.

The organisation phase

Once one base was up, CCP leaders sent out to other villages to set up more bases.
 Aim to take over countryside, isolating cities, slowly taking control of China.

Defending the bases

Mao organized 'hit and runs' as there was good knowledge of terrain and support from
locals.
GMD tried to hunt down CCP, drawing them to hostile areas, but guerrilla tactics usually
prevailed.
Enemy became demoralised and word down and any attempt to destroy CCP (looting
villages/massive attacks/etc) only increased hostility and improved CCP status.

The guerrilla phase

Communists can survive by retreating like in the Long March to new bases or create new
bases.
This made new guerilla fighters.

Protracted war
Mao knew this would lead to a longer war, however as the number of guerillas increased,
the number of attacks increased.
Balance eventually fell in favour of guerillas.

Seizing power
Guerillas joined together to form convention army in the 'open or mobile phase'.
CCP in last stage of guerilla warfare when second civil war broke out (1946).
When the CCP were in power, consolidation occurred; removing remnants of the 'old
regime.'

End of the first stage of the Chinese Civil War – the Second
United Front (1937)
Long March essential for Mao to become unchallenged leader even though Jiang Jieshi still
determined to defeat CCP.
China was invaded in 1931 by Japan (Jieshi made this deal), taking over Manchuria.
Jieshi appealed to League of Nations, as CCP was a greater threat; called the Japanese "a
disease of the skin while communists were a disease of the heart."
Jieshi attempted to resist Japanese in Shanghai 1932, truced later. This led to an anti-
Japanese sentiment.
Mao called for another 'United Front' to fight Japanese; all agreed including northern
warlords.
It was the Comintern and not Mao who ended up pushing the alliance between CCP and
GMD as Stalin was worried about Japanese expansion.
1936, Jieshi was the only leader in China who could effectively fight them.
Jieshi was kidnapped by warlords, and was released on Cominterm orders after 13 days,
forcing the front.
Why was the CCP able to survive the first stage of the Chinese Civil War?
Long March ensured CCP survival with a defensible base in Yan'an; propaganda victory for
CCP; won support for claim to fight Japanese.
Mao became leader who consolidated the group of revolutionaries.
Mao offered to join a front with GMD won him popularity.
GMD's decision to deal with Japanese after CCP lost support.
Poor treatment of peasants by GMD degraded their popularity.
GMD failed to implement Sun's Three Principles.

The Sino-Japanese War

The impact of the war on the GMD

GMD gambled on USA defeating Japan, sending best troops to Yan'an, demoralising the
army.
Jieshi lost tax revenue as Japan occupied land; he printed more money causing high levels
of inflation, hurting the middle class - the natural GMD supporters.
Corrupt GMD army, low moral, ill treatment, and conscription that alienated peasants.
Japanese control ports and key land routes; limited supplies despite American aid.
Military failures, internal faction, and inflation caused discontent - Jieshi simply increased
repression.
GMD only controlled territory around the capital and areas in the south.
CCP had light losses with guerrilla tactics, the GMD bore the brunt of Japanese attacks and
had been damanged physically and psychologically.
GMD lost support for 'sitting back' and waiting for the Americans to win the war.

The impact of the war on the CCP

Mao: "our fixed policy should be 70% expansion, 20% dealing with the GMD and 10%
resisting the Japanese."
March 1945, communists had liberated 678/914 country towns, introducing: land reform;
village schools/soviets; reducing taxes; abolishing debt.
James Sheridan: the reason CCP achieved enthusiastic backing of peasants was "by
meeting the local, immediate needs of the peasants through reformist and radical social
polices by providing leadership for the defence of peasant communities against the
Japanese. In this fashion the communist won peasant confidence and the process began
the transformation - the modernisation - of rural China."
Women treated as equals for first time in Chinese history.
CCP gained support as egalitarians.
During Yan'an blockade in 1939, CCP became self-sufficient; taxing goods and holding
back inflation.
Jack Gray: "by 1945 about 40 per cent of their basic needs were supplied by [the garrison
system]".
 1941-1945, rectification campaign ensured Maoist ideology, with no deviation, was
established.
"Mass line" meant polices were taken from the people.
Overall successful in removing communist factions and pro-Russian groups.
CCP had good military leadership with international reputation - single largest campaign of
the Sino-Japanese War that had a brutal retaliation from the Japanese; "kill all, burn all, loot
all" policy.
Mao used guerrilla assaults with propaganda to promote them as real nationalists.
Mao said Jiang was nothing more than a puppet of the Western imperialists - fed the long-
held anti-foreign and anti-imperialist popular feeling in China.

Second phase of the Civil War (1945–49)

CCP powerful enough to exit guerilla tactics and engage in conventional fighting.
Polarisation of international political context in Cold War meant China could not be an
internal affair, it was part of a larger Soviet-American effort to establish post-war power.
Both super powers wanted stable China, weakened Japan, and a coalition GMD-CCP
government.

Failure of the USA

General Marshall got the CCP and GMD to agree on: preparing to set up a coalition
government, temporary council, and a united Army.
By 1946 no less, both CCP and GMD were moving troops to Manchuria; outcome would
determine leader of China.
By this point: CCP had 1 million army, GMD had 4 million army and heavy weaponry.

Initial victories of the GMD (1945−47)

CCP initially defensive as GMD have more troops and better equipment.
Japanese surrender in August 1945, Red Army secure importan industrial region.
Yalta Conference February 1945, USSR agreed to invade Manchuria following Germany's
surrender.
Soviets did invade, but CCP already in control, mutual assistance and CCP given Japanese
weapons.
Despite new weapons, CCP was forced out of cities - December 1945, Mao reintroduced
policy of creating bases outside of cities.
CCP on the offensive (1947−48)

Collapse of the GMD resistance

What were the reasons for the communist success?

Strengths of the CCP

Soviet troops in Manchuria gave PLA forces training
Supported by peasantry who feared revenge
Used propaganda to win support
Had a good reputation at controlling the struggle against the Japanese
Mao’s personality cult, inspired confidence
Carried out guerrilla warfare and began conventional warfare in 1948
Were able to capture transport links to isolate GMD forces in cities

Jiang Jieshi's Errors

What was the role of foreign support in the final outcome?

The USA
The Americans had economic and strategic interests in China, and they had supported the
GMD from the first phase of the civil war.
USA provided Jiang with almost $3 billion in aid and large supplies of arms throughout
WWII.
At the beginning of the second stage of the civil war, the Americans transported GMD forces
by sea and air to the north of China, and US troops occupied Tianjin and Beijing to hold
them until the GMD were ready.
Some historians believe that more military commitment from USA may have 'saved' China
from communism.
Americans were held responsible by Jiang for pressurizing him to agree to truces at critical
times during his war on the CCP.
 Americans' mere presence gave Mao excellent anti-GMD propaganda.

The USSR

Results of the Chinese Civil War

For China
After civil war, CCP consolidated its control in China
CCP pursued key ideas they had initiated in Yanan
One of key legacies of Chinese Civil War is continued authoritarian rule by CCP
China remains a single-party state in which individual rights and freedoms are suppressed
In 1989, when young protesters on streets of Tienanmen Square, Beijing, were forcibly
dispersed with guns and tanks, the battles of the war were used to justify the actions of the
state

For Asia
Mao's victory led to globalization of the Cold War, which spread from its seedbed in Europe
to Asia
Asia was now a region in which the superpowers would struggle for control and influence
Communist victory inspired insurgencies in Indonesia, Malaya, Indochina, and Thailand
Communist victory also led to the first 'hot war' of the Cold War-- the Korean War (1950-
1953)

For the USSR

Although CCP's victory should have been viewed as a victory for the spread of communism
and for the USSR, Stalin feared Mao as a rival for the leadership of the communist world,
and he had not wanted the Cold War to spread to Asia
Jiang's GMD would have recognized disputed border territory along frontiers in Manchuria
and Xinjiang as Soviet
Fundamentally, Stalin did not view Maoism as 'genuinely revolutionary' and did not agree
with Mao's 'hybrid' ideology, which was a mix of traditional Chinese culture and Marxism
Mao became convinced that Stalin planned to create a divided and weak China, which
would leave the USSR dominant in Asia
Mao saw Stalin's policies as rooted in self-interest rather than true revolutionary doctrine
Nevertheless, once CCP had won the civil war, Mao visited Moscow in 1950. This produced
the Sino-Soviet Treaty of Alliance: the first treaty between the USSR and China
USSR and Soviet press praised Mao and the new People's Republic of China (PRC),
excited about their victory. To the US, the USSR-China alliance was 'Moscow making
puppets out of the Chinese'
Such good relations between USSR and China prompted a change in the construction of
China: traditional buildings were pulled down for Soviet-style constructions and Soviet
scientific technology was prioritized over Chinese technology
Sino-Soviet relations chilled again during the Korean War, however
 Soviets gave material assistance to the one million Chinese troops engaged in battle, but
despite this support for PRC intervention in the Korean War, Mao bitterly complained when
the Soviets demanded that the Chinese pay for all weapons and materials they supplied
After death of Stalin, Sino-Soviet relations worsened dramatically

China's relations with the USA and the West

Mao's victory led to much anxiety in the US, and seemed at the time to shift the balance of
power in the Cold War in the USSR's favor.
Many saw the Communists' victory as inevitable; nevertheless, as the Cold War intensified
and McCarthyism took hold in the USA, state officials were accused of having 'lost' China.
Stalin was now seen as having been the mastermind behind Mao's CCP.
USA failed to understand the different types of communism or that there was increasing
tension and hostility between Mao and Stalin.
USA also refused to recognize the PRC as a legitimate state.
USA backed Jiang Jieshi and the Chinese nationalists, who had fled at the end of the civil
war to the island of Taiwan.
Mao's victory was a key reason for the passing of a vast new military budget to fund the
struggle against the spread of communism, and also led USA into Korean War and conflict
over Taiwan
However, by end of 1960s there was a radical change by Americans and communist
Chinese in their policies and strategies towards each other... this period of dialogue became
known as 'ping pong diplomacy'.

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The Spanish Civil War (36-39)
Contents
Introduction
I. Causes of war
II. Practices of war and their impact on the outcome
III. Effects of war
I. Causes of War
Long-term causes of the Spanish Civil War: political instability (1920−1931)
Weakness of government
The role of the Spanish Army
The role of the church
Economic causes
The role of regions
Political opposition
The fall of the monarchy and the establishment of the Second Republic
Short-term causes of the Spanish Civil War: political polarisation
The Left Republic (April 1931−November 1933)
The Right Republic (November 1933−February 1936)
The Popular Front (February−July 1936)
Immediate causes of the Spanish Civil War
Perspectives
II. The course of the Spanish Civil War
Why did the Nationalists win the Spanish Civil War?
Republican weaknesses
Political disunity
Military problems
Economic problems
Foreign assistance
Nationalist strengths
Political unity
Military unity
Economic advantage
Foreign assistance
Overview: foreign intervention
Britain
France
USSR
Germany
Italy
Portugal
The nature of the Spanish Civil War
III. Effects and results of the Spanish Civil War − Spain
Human cost
 Economic cost
Political effects
Effects and results of the Spanish Civil War
USSR and communism
Hilter's Germany and Mussolini's Italy
Britain and France
The USA
Was the Spanish Civil War a cause of World War II?

Introduction
The Spanish Civil war is a suitable topic to study for 2020 IB History Guide and is a natural fit for the
World history topic 11: Causes and effects of 20th century wars.

The Spanish Civil War of 1936 to 1939 was a class war, and a culture war. Competing
visions of Spanish identity were superimposed on a bitter struggle over material resources,
as the defenders of property, religion and tradition took up arms against a Republican
government committed to social reform, devolution, and secularisation. —Frances
Lannon, The Spanish Civil War

'A civil war is not a war but a sickness,' wrote Antoine de Saint-Exupéry. 'The enemy is
within. One fights almost against oneself.' Yet Spain's tragedy in 1936 was even greater. It
had become enmeshed in the international civil war, which started in earnest with the
Bolshevik revolution. —From Antony Beevor, The Battle for Spain: The Spanish Civil War
1936−1936, 2006

The Spanish Civil War broke out in 1936 after more than a century of social, economic and political
division. Half a million people died in this conflict between 1936 and 1939.

The prescribed content is below (2020 Guide):

I. Causes of war
Economic, ideological, political, territorial and other causes
Short-term and long-term causes

II. Practices of war and their impact on the outcome

Types of war: civil wars; wars between states; guerrilla wars
Technological developments; air, naval and land warfare
The extent of the mobilization of human and economic resources
The influence and/or involvement of foreign powers

III. Effects of war

The successes and failures of peacemaking
Territorial changes
 Political impact: short-term and long-term
Economic, social and demographic impact; changes in the role and status of women

I. Causes of War

Long-term causes of the Spanish Civil War: political instability

(1920−1931)
Struggle between conservatism and liberalism.

Weakness of government
1871 onwards Spain was a constitutional monarchy with a parliament that retained little
power.
Political control shifted between the wealthy oligarchs and their various cliques.
Two main parties, Conservatives and Liberals, with very little difference between them.
Elections were rigged or decided in private.

The role of the Spanish Army

Army had powerful political position due to imperial past.
It intervened in politics if a crisis occurred to defend its interests.
It was unpopular, had a reputation for brutality, and was expensive and required heavy
taxes.
It was ineffective, as proven by the loss of the Spanish Empire during the 19th century, the
American war in 1898, and the struggle to keep Morocco between 1906 to 1926.
It was too big with too many officers and overly middle class.
Army was conservationist, traditional, nationalistic and 'Africannistas.'

The role of the church

Catholic church was rich and powerful, with guaranteed role in education and the economy.
Its wealth was used to gain political and social influence!
It used its power for economic conservatism and to oppose modernising and liberal forces.
Defended the upper class as many of the clergy were aristocrats, who helped fund.
In many urban areas and rural areas there were protests against the church.

Economic causes
Spain was mainly an agricultural economy, and it was inefficient, thus not providing
sufficient food and its work was seasonal.
Most lived in abject poverty, with an enormous gap between rich and poor.
Rioting and disorder often broke out in the countryside, with the Civil Guard deployed to
ruthlessly repress.
 No support from churches made some groups support the anarchists who argued for land
redistribution.
Many small landholders were conservative, resisted socialist/anarchist ideas, and were
exploited by the Catholic Agrarian Federation who provided support for their beliefs, only to
later support Franco.
There was a need for modernisation and reform, and was limited by endemic poverty.
Workers in towns faced low wages, long hours, unregulated working conditions, poor
housing, and little welfare provision.
This situation led to a growth in trade unionism, which, however, failed to achieve anything
substantial.
The workers' political parties had no real political power, with no legal means and violent
uprisings.
Spain's neutrality during WWI facilitated a short period of economic boom, however the
increase in exports only increased inflation and shortages.
By 1920s, there were major economic problems.

The role of regions

Tension created by ongoing struggle between the centralist state and Catalonia and Basque
provinces, which wanted decentralization and independence.
The two regions had their own languages, cultures, economies, and churches.
Primo de Rivera took back the self-governing rights of Catalonia, and separatists forces
supported the Republican movement that overthrew Alfonso in 1931

Political opposition
Liberal movement achieved little in opposing conservative forces, though remained a
political force and supported the revolution that ousted the King in 1931.
Spanish Socialist Party (PSOE) had grown in rural areas but had minimal impact.
General Union of Workers (UGT) was more visible in organizing strikes/protests in rural
areas.
Following the Bolshevik revolution, a Communist Party emerged.
Anarchists demanded land redistribution; popular with peasants.
Anarchists argued for revolutionary methods and to boycott democratic processes.
More extreme anarchists (FAI) perpetrated bombings and assassinations.

The fall of the monarchy and the establishment of the Second Republic
Post WWI economic depression and social tensions put pressure on King Alfonso XIII, and
after 12 unsuccessful governments, a coup was thrown (1931, General Primo de Rivera).
De Rivera tried to establish an authoritarian right-wing regime; started infrastructure
programmes for railways, roads, electrification, irrigation.
Ended war in Morocco in 1925.
All his efforts to satisfy various social groups created massive debt and was not good when
Wall Street Crashed in 1929.
Resigned in 1930, and after municipal elections in April 1931, there was support for San
Sebastian Pact (republicans, liberals, socialists, Catalans) coalition.
 'Velvet revolution' occurred and the Second Republic was established as the King went into
voluntary exile.

Short-term causes of the Spanish Civil War: political polarisation

Between 1931 and 1936 Spain became polarised due to the long-term structural problems
and clear divisions.
Paul Preston: "no-one, except a tiny minority on the lunatic fringe on the extreme right or left,
believe that Spain's problems could be solved only by war."

The Left Republic (April 1931−November 1933)

When Manuel Azaña became president he declared a "democratic republic of workers of all
classes."
Key issue of tension before 'velvet revolution' in 1931 was the church's power.
Azaña removed powers from the Church, prevented its control in education, and state
payments to the clergy stopped.
Army also affected; Azaña offered early retirement and closed military academies - this all
backfired as those who remained were hard-core conservatives, nationalists, and
Africanistas.
Depression exacerbated the economic problems; agriculture prices were falling, wine and
olive exports fell, peasant unemployment was rising, industrial output fell by as much as a
half (steel).
In 1932, law allowed estates to be taken over and redistributed to peasants, however it was
expensive and ineffective; only 7,000 families benefited by 1933.
Right wing saw all this as a threat and similar to the Soviet-style system.
Government introduced Assault Guard to increase left-wing military force to deal with civil
unrest and violence.
Both the left and right were rising against the slow pace of change, however these were
suppressed as the army were loyal.
Catalonia given its own parliament, some law-making powers, and dual control over
education.
Right-wing saw this as a threat and the first step to break-up Spain's integrity.
Each reform was perceived as an attack on right-wing groups, causing new groups to protect
against these changes.
Political divisions increased under Second Republic.
Historians see the land reforms as the central failing of the government in this period,
however Paul Preston argues right-wing were never going to give Azaña a choice.
Azaña lost left-wing, working-class support and resigned in 1933 after government guards
'smoked out' anarchists, killing 25.

The Right Republic (November 1933−February 1936)

Republic swung right wing, members of CEDA (largest party) became war ministers.
These two years are known as the "black years" as right-wing systematically tried to reverse
everything; Church regained power, education, and land programme was halted.
 Catalonia declared itself independent when CEDA joined the government, but autonomy
was suspended after Asturian miners' uprising 1934.
Historians argued that violent suppression of left uprising created likelihood for civil war.
Right lost support from Basques.
Caballero suggested CEDA was Spanish Nazi party, and seek solution to Soviet-style
Spain.
Gil-Robles demanded shift to an authoritarian approach of control, which led to ...

The Popular Front (February−July 1936)

February 1936, 'Popular Front' was an anti-fascist pact made up of various left-wing groups
including socialists, anarchists and communists.
Identical front as Stalin's policy in 1935.
For many, it was final attempt to uphold democracy and peace, others associated it with
Stalin and extreme communism.
Government wanted to restore reforms of 1931-33 regime; political prisoners released.
Caballero's socialists did not join government and right did not accept restoration of old
reforms.
Increase in violence in the countryside as anarchists encourage peasants to seize land.

Immediate causes of the Spanish Civil War

Military officers began planning a coup as soon as Popular Front gained power
Catalyst of the coup was the murder of popular anti-republican, right-wing leading figure
Calvo Sotelo on 13 July 1936.
Azaña knew about the coup and moved key military figures to remote posts.
When details about the coup were discovered, it was made a day earlier on the 17th of July,
from Morocco.
Spread to mainland, took northern Spain and parts of Andalusia.
Rising failed to take main industrial areas, or Madrid.
Half of the army remained loyal to Republic, coup technically unsuccessful.

Perspectives

Historiography: The historian Paul Preston argued that: ‘... in 1931 when the Second Republic was
established, no one, except a tiny minority on the lunatic fringe on the extreme right or left, believed that
Spain’s problems could be solved only by war.’:

Task: In pairs discuss Preston’s quote, here are some questions to help you:

1. What is Preston's point in your own words?

2. Does Preston imply long (before '31) or short term causes (after '31) were more to blame for
the outbreak of war?
 3. What extent do you agree that the long term divisions in Spanish society did not make a civil
war inevitable after 1931?

II. The course of the Spanish Civil War

With assistance of Nazi Germany, Franco airlifed 24,000 Spanish troops from Africa to
Spain, using a policy of terror has the main force against Madrid.
Coup aimed to crush the 'left revolution,' but actually politicised and radicalised many
Spaniards towards the left.
Supporters of the Republican regime (1936) were 'Loyalists,' and rebels called themselves
'Nationalists.'
Workers supported Republic, and middle, upper class and the church supported
Nationalists.
Nationalists did make some progress, but the Republicans controlled major cities, key
industrial areas, Spain's gold reserves, and important elements of the military (air force and
navy).
Nationalists, slowly, pushed back the Republic.

Why did the Nationalists win the Spanish Civil War?

Republican weaknesses

Political disunity

Republicans were politically divided and subscribed to different ideologies; between the
Communists and Socialists who both believed the 'revolution' should be postponed until
after the war and the Anarchists who argued the war can only be won through a revolution.
Historians argue that the Anarchists' 'revolution from below' added a crucial hurdle for the
Republic to regain centralised control, with more influence in Madrid and Valencia.
War increased in popularity with communists; July 1936 40,000 members, October 1937
400,000 members.
Republic had clear foreign support from USSR.
Communists wanted victory in war, anarchists wanted revolutionary regime.
Communists used 'terror' tactics.
Four days of street fighting in Barcelona 1937 - communists and socialists versus the
anarchists illustrated the lack of unity.
After May Days (see above), the Worker's Party of Marxist Revolution took up a authoritarian
regime.

Military problems
Lacked strong military and no unified command.
Anarchists and communists would not work together.
Basques refused to be led by a central command structure and would not permit their forces
outside of their own territory.
Loyal army forces were not trusted by the Republic.
 Military fought series of local battles instead of overall campaign and this meant they could
not be supported by the airforces, or to sustain an offensive campaign.
Only until end of 1939 that Republicans started to replace militias with 'Popular Army'.

Economic problems
Areas under the anarchists were the industries, public utilities and transport - these were
taken over by workers' committees, however they were unable to meet the demands of the
war.
Historians argue that this was not due to a badly run government but due to the war,
however the government is partially to blame.
Production fell by two-thirds between 1936 to 1939, with many food and raw material
shortages.
Inflation was a problem; rose 300% during the war.
The Non-Intervention Committee (NIC) was set up by France and Britain in 1936.
Prevented an influx of support for warring parties in Spain, making the Republic lose all
credit and USSR was the only willing trader.
Paul Preston: communist control ultimately improved the situation by centralising control, but
too late to save Republic.

Foreign assistance

Role of foreign aid was exaggerated, but aid given to Republic was far less than that of the
Nationalists.
Republic's main ally was USSR, who saved them and enabled it to fight the civil war by
supplying aircraft (1,000) and tanks (750), but the Republic had to pay for this.
No Soviet troops were sent.
International Brigades were another ally, organised by Soviet Comintern, with 35,000
volunteers sent to fight in Spain.
Had very little overall impact, only in Madrid.
1938, Soviets withdrew support and International Brigades went home, major blow for
Republic.
France sent aid initially, but stopped when it joined the NIC - this was driven by anti-
communist sentiments.
Francisco J .Romero Salvadó (on NIC): "preserved consensus [in France] and [avoided]
confrontation with Germany and Italy."

Nationalist strengths

Political unity

1936, Nationalists almost dived as Republics; but had a common aim of overthrowing the
government.
Franco assumed political and military control and became head of government and head of
state.
 Due to his position in command of the Army of Africa because important German aid
came through him.
Merged two parties into the Spanish Traditionalist Phalanax (FET).
Franco used a mixture of propaganda and terror in areas under his control.
Historians argue that Soviet involvemenet led to this, however others suggest it was
power and authority gained during the war.
Supported by the church which denounced atheist communism and called for a crusade to
protect Christian civilisation.
Nationalistic politics of Franco were not undermined by foreign support from Germany or
Italy.

Military unity
Nationalists had similar problems to the Republicans with regard to 'columns' of militias,
however these were quickly put into a regular army unit.
The Army of Africa fought for the Nationalists and were the most effective force in the Civil
War.
Had unified command and Franco's leadership was accepted by other generals and right-
wing parties.
Italian forces under Nationalist command.
Successful in pushing on and winning offensives, and adopted effective defensive tactics.
Had sound communications, and equipped the growing army.
Franco's concern for his troops ensured the majority were obedient.
Franco was a sound military and political leader.

Economic advantage

Business communist supported Nationalists; could buy supplies.

By September 1936, Nationalists in control of main food-producing areas.
1937, in control of main industrial areas.
Benefited from International trade, with the USA giving about $700 million credit to
Nationalists.

Foreign assistance
Hugh Thomas: conflict 'became an international crisis whose solution was decided by
external circumstances.'
Rebels benefited from more aid, which were better quality than those of the Republicans,
and had continuous supply.
German's airlifted Moroccan soldiers and sent 10,000 troops, 800 aircraft, 200 tanks.
Italians sent 70,000+ troops, 750 planes, 800 aircraft, 200 tanks.
Portuguese sent 20,000 troops.
All aid allowed Nationalists to fight, and gave them air dominance.
 Most of Nationalist army was Spanish, and was modern and equipped.

Overview: foreign intervention

Foreign intervention lengthened and intensified the war.
It meant Spanish issues were submerged by wider ideological battles taking place in
Europe.

Britain
Feared the war would become a general European conflict so set up the NIC.
However, 3 key members of the NIC ignored the NIC.
Britain's not interventionist policies were limited and generally supported the Nationalists.
December 1936, signed a trade agreement with Nationalists to allow for trade.
Britain did not want to damage relations with Italy or Portugal.
Spain was sacrificed to the policy of appeasement like Czechoslovakia.

France
Support for Republic was inconsistent, and reflected complexity of its position towards the
war.
French did not want a right-wing border (joining Italy and Germany), but French politics were
also polarised, fearing a revolt if it fully supported Spain.
France was reliant on Britain, which was anti-Republic for its foreign policies.
France restricted themselves to humanitarian assistance.
Republic would have benefited from France as it was on its border.
The Republic's reliance on the Soviet polarised politics and associated it with 'Soviet
communism.'
France did not stop citizens joining the International Brigades, which was organised in
France, just like the coordination of Soviet aid.

USSR
Support not just because of ideological reasons.
Emergence of another fascist state in Europe would strengthen Hitler's position - threat to
Stalin.
Republic victory could panic Britain and France into an alliance with Hitler.
Wanted to form an alliance with Britain and France to contain Hitler.
Stalin originally welcomed the NIC, but Germany and Italy's treatment of NIC, Stalin
withdrew in October 1936.
Some historians argue that Franco protracted the war to enhance his power, but Stalin had a
tendency to drag fighting out.
Drained resources from Germany, making it less likely to turn into a general war.
Stalin withdrew support in June 1938, as the Republic seemed to be losing and Western
democracies were appeasing fascist dictaros.
Stalin wanted to create a block to resist Hitler ended with Czechoslovakia being blocked at
 Munich agreement, September 1938.

Germany
Germany not ready for general European war and was cautious when rebels appealed for
help.
Hermann Göring decided to support rebels, as he and Hitler wanted to stop the spread of
communism, and wanted to test out the Luftwaffe.
Economic and strategic benefits; raw materials (iron) could be gained, and could hamper
Anglo-French maritime communications.
Hitler thought the war would not last long, committed limited aid.
Ignored NIC, even though it was a member.
Germany played a crucial military role at critical times and other governments deterred from
getting involved due to its presence.

Italy
Gave most assistance as Mussolini was anti-comminist/-socialist and democratic outlook, he
wanted to enhance his influence in Mediterranean, and a fascist victory would weaken
France and prevent French left-wing influence.
Another fascist power would encircle France, pressurising French colonies in North Africa.
Contributed many planes, tanks, weapons, bombers, and submarines.
Historians argue that despite massive troop support, its most effective support was air
and naval.
Italy ignored membership of NIC.
Relationship between Italy and Germany were cemented in Spain.

Portugal
Only foreign force not compromised by membership of NIC.
Sent 20,000 troops and fundamental supplier of rebels in the south-west.
Provided a base for communications.
Britain's long-term alliance with Portugal made the British reluctant to count its support for
Nationalists.

The nature of the Spanish Civil War

For foreign powers it was limited, for the Spanish it was total civil war.
Propaganda was used to dehumanise the enemy.
Atrocities were common.
The targeting of civilians was a premonition of what was to come in WWII - no lines drawn
between civilian and combatant.
Some cases, cavalry charges proved effective, such as in Teruel in February 1938.
Other case, such as the crushing of Republican offensives in 1938 to 1938 with combined
arms and air strikes showed the importance of technology.
Neither side could consistently gain air control.
Control of sea was important especially for supply routes.
 Battles on land were similar to that of WWI with defense remained easier than attack.
Casualties were high, with attackers gaining little hand.
Blitzkrieg was evolving with application of tanks, artillery, and air bombardment.
It was not a guerrilla war because, from Antony Beevor, "the conditions for a universal
guerrilla war simply did not exist."

III. Effects and results of the Spanish Civil War − Spain

Human cost
100,000 Republicans were killed
70,000 Nationalists were killed

Killing continued after war, as Franco launched terror campaign to eradicate competition
(estimated death toll 40,000-200,000).
Thousands Republicans were held in concentration camps and prisons.
Republican children were taken from parents to be re-educated. this meant many families
were separated

Divisions and hatred remained in Spanish society for decades.

Economic cost
10-15% of wealth was destroyed; per capita income declined 28%; 70% of Madrid's factory
machinery need to be replaced.
Madrid's communication systems, tram network needed rebuilding.
Two-thirds of merchant ships out of action.
High inflation.
Republican land reform reversed.
Agricultural economy was inefficient and ineffective.
Labourers tolerated periodic unemployment, and landowners not interested in
modernisation.
Massive debts.
General labour shortage.
Economy improved due to outbreak of WW2; Franco began trading with Britain and France
again.
Germany's exploitation of Spain's economy during WWII weakened the economy.
France and Britain's loan to Spain gave it influence in Spanish politics.
Suffered a famine in 1946, and was fairly isolated during the war.
During the Cold War, Spain became less isolated with reforms in the 1950s and 1960s
developing a capitalist state.
Spain industralised and developed a strong service industry.

Political effects
Paul Preston: "as if it were a country occupied by a victorious foreign army."
 Franco had declared the country safe of Communism and began White Terror in order to
destroy all other traces.
Exodus of half a million Spaniards and murder of thousands of Republicans.
Teachers, lawyers, researches, doctors, writers, poets, artists, and musicians fled the
country.
1939, Law of Political Responsibility made supports of Republic liable to punishment.
Objective of new regime to restore power to the privileged class and control the working
class.
CNT and UGT destroyed.
Inequalities of social and working system in rural areas were reversed and preserved by
Civil Guard.
1950s was an 'era of the national church' as Church reforms were repealed.
Frances Lannon: "The Catholic Church enjoyed a degree of state support that was much
greater than at any time since the 18th century. Government and church combined to preach
order, hierarchy, and discipline. The counter-revolution had triumphed."
Patricia Knight: Church's creation of links to worker's movements was an attempt to infiltrate
and prevent any resurgent communist groups.
Use of Catalan, Basque, and Galician languages were forbidden.
All power centralised in Madrid.
Paul Preston: "behind the rhetoric of national and social unity, until the death of Franco
every effort was made to maintain the division between the victors and the vanquished."
Suppression and removal of political opposition created economic stability.
Army lost its pre-eminence in society after Morocco gained independence in 1946.
The country became 'frozen in time' as no moderinsation took place for 36 years.

Effects and results of the Spanish Civil War

USSR and communism

After the Communist defeat in Spain, international credibility had been lost.
Stalin's contribution caused divisions within the left wing and disillusioned supporters of the
USSR.
Lost intellectual sympathy from West.
Pushed foreign policy away from potential western alliances against Germany, only one to
appease Germany.
After NIC, obvious that Britain and France would not ally with Hitler's expansionist
ambitions.
Stalin became closer, possible ally by December 1937.
Munich Agreement in September 1938 was turning point as Britain sacrificed
Czechoslovakia and Spain to appease Germany.

Hilter's Germany and Mussolini's Italy

Importance of air power and effectiveness of applying air cover for ground troops in
Blitzkrieg.
 Germans tested bullet-resistant fuel tanks and discovered possible improvements.
Bombing of civilians was effective.
All these made differences to Hitler's 1939-40 campaign.
However, Italians defeated at Guadalajara, Blitzkreig did not work.
Germany and Italy grew closer.
The NIC, Britain's pursuit of appeasement, all strengthened Hitler's position.

Britain and France

Spanish civilians who were bombed made it clear that a general European war would
witness horrors unlike the scale seen before.
Polarised political view of appeasement; some thought warring factions should battle it
without dragging democracies into conflict.
"Weakness" of Britain and France over Spain, and their policy of appeasement, led Hitler to
change perception of Britain - 1938 lost respect and the NIC made Hitler more aggressive.

The USA
Remained neutral, yet horrified by the atrocities of the Spanish Civil War.
The civil war strengthened isolationist sentiment.
Roosevelt, October 1937: "Quarantine the Aggressors."
Called for economic sanctions against Franco in 1946. All members broke up diplomatic
relations.
Spain excluded from Marshall Aid.
1951, Eisenhower agreed to grant aid to Spain in return for using air base.
Spain became a US ally and permitted to join the UN.

Was the Spanish Civil War a cause of World War II?

It emboldened Hitler by increasing his popularity at home and abroad.
Hitler drew closer to his former enemy, Italy.
Hitler gained practical military lessons that he would later apply in the campaigns of 1940. It
was a distraction for Britain and pushed the USA further into isolation.
If fostered a new direction for Soviet foreign policy, meaning that there could be no broad
alliance in Europe to contain Hitler.
A. J. P. Taylor: The Spanish Civil War was "without significant effect" in causing WWII.

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