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Adams
ANIMAL ECOLOGY
Third Edition
Third Edition
Urban Wildlife Management
Urban Wildlife Management

Urban development is one of the leading worldwide threats to conserving biodiversity. In the near
future, wildlife management in urban landscapes will be a prominent issue for wildlife professionals.
This new edition of Urban Wildlife Management continues the work of its predecessors by providing
a comprehensive examination of the issues that increase the need for urban wildlife management,
exploring the changing dynamics of the field while giving historical perspectives and looking at
current trends and future directions.
The book examines a range of topics on human interactions with wildlife in urbanized environments.
It focuses not only on ecological matters but also on political, economic, and societal issues that
must be addressed for successful management planning. This edition features an entirely new
section on urban wildlife species, including chapters on urban communities, herpetofauna, birds,
ungulates, mammals, carnivores, and feral and introduced species.
The third edition features
• Five new chapters
• 12 updated chapters
• Four new case studies
• Seven new appendices and species profiles
• 90 new figures
• A comprehensive analysis of terrestrial vertebrate locations by state and urban observations
Each chapter opens with a set of key concepts which are then examined in the following discussions.
Suggested learning experiences to enhance knowledge conclude each chapter.The species profiles
Urban Wildlife
cover not only data about the animal concerned but also detail significant current management
issues related to the species.
Third
An updated and expanded teaching tool, Urban Wildlife Management, Third Edition identifies
the challenges and opportunities facing wildlife in urban communities as well as factors that
Edition
Management
promote or threaten their presence. It gives both students and professionals a solid grounding
in the required fundamental ecological principles for understanding the effects of human-made
environments on wildlife.
K24593
Cover image: Timothy Basso
6000 Broken Sound Parkway, NW
Clark E. Adams
Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487
711 Third Avenue
New York, NY 10017
an informa business
2 Park Square, Milton Park
w w w. c r c p r e s s . c o m Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN, UK www.crcpress.com
Third Edition
Urban Wildlife
Management
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Third Edition
Urban Wildlife
Management
Clark E. Adams
Boca Raton London New York
CRC Press is an imprint of the

Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
Cover: Mama and bear cubs take over kiddie pool in Rockaway, NJ. From videos taken by Timothy F. Basso on August 18,
2015.
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business
No claim to original U.S. Government works

Version Date: 20160421
International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4987-0203-4 (eBook - PDF)
This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been
made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot assume responsibility for the valid-
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holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this
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Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at
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This book is dedicated to all those individuals, organizations,
and agencies on the front lines, addressing urban wildlife
management problems. They represent the unsung heroes of
wildlife management who receive little recognition or peer
acceptance for their attempts to confront a growing wildlife
management phenomenon. They are the futurists, involved
in the cutting-edge aspects of human–wildlife interactions in
urban environments. In other words, we dedicate this book
to all those who realize that urban wildlife management
goes far beyond controlling raccoons in garbage cans.
Contents
Preface............................................................................................................................................xvii
Author..............................................................................................................................................xix
Introduction: A New Wildlife Management Paradigm...................................................................xxi
Section I
Human–Wildlife Interface
Chapter 1
Wildlife Management: Past and Present............................................................................................. 3
Key Concepts......................................................................................................................................3
1.1 Brief History of Wildlife Management in North America...................................................... 3
1.2 Rise of the American Conservation Movement....................................................................... 4
1.3 Demographic Factors That Set the Stage for Urban Wildlife Management............................6
1.4 Separation of People and Nature..............................................................................................7
1.5 Reconnecting People and Nature........................................................................................... 11
1.6 A New Kind of Wildlife......................................................................................................... 12
1.6.1 Categorizing Urban Wildlife.................................................................................... 12
1.6.2 Unique Ecology and Behavior of Urban Wildlife.................................................... 16
Species Profile: Killdeer (Charadrius Vociferus).............................................................................. 18
Chapter Activities.............................................................................................................................. 19
Chapter 2
Principal Components of Urban Wildlife Management................................................................... 21
Key Concepts.................................................................................................................................... 21
2.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................ 21
2.2 Urban Habitats as a Dominant Focus of Wildlife Professionals............................................ 23
2.3 Need for Wildlife Management in Urban Areas.................................................................... 23
2.3.1 Urban Wildlife Populations Are Increasing, Sometimes to Nuisance Levels..........25
2.3.2 Some Insights into the Magnitude of Urban Wildlife Problems..............................25
2.3.2.1 Urban Species of Most Concern: National Analysis 1994 to 2003........... 29
2.3.2.2 Urban Species of Most Concern: Regional Analysis 1994 to 2003.......... 29
2.3.2.3 Economic Impact of Damage to Resources by Urban Wildlife:
National Overview.................................................................................... 30
2.3.2.4 Economic Impact of Damage to Resources by Urban Wildlife:
Regional Overview.................................................................................... 30
2.4 Traditional and Alternative Methods of Human–Wildlife Conflict Management................. 35
2.4.1 Traditional Methods.................................................................................................. 35
2.4.1.1 Avoiding the Problem................................................................................ 35
2.4.1.2 Getting at the Root Cause......................................................................... 36
2.4.1.3 Attacking the Symptoms........................................................................... 37
2.4.1.4 Doing Nothing........................................................................................... 37
2.4.2 Alternative Methods: A New Breed of Wildlife Control Operator.......................... 37
2.4.2.1 A Different Approach................................................................................ 38
2.4.2.2 Motivation�� 39
2.4.2.3 Financial Incentive....................................................................................40
vii
viii Contents
2.5 Need for Public Education Programs about Urban Wildlife, Management, and Habitats...... 41
2.6 Alternative Curriculum to Train Urban Wildlife Biologists.................................................. 50
2.7 Wildlife Management Research Agenda............................................................................... 51
2.8 Naturalist and Natural History............................................................................................... 54
2.8.1 What Is a Naturalist and Natural History?............................................................... 54
2.8.2 Resurrecting the Naturalist and Natural History...................................................... 55
2.9 Infrastructure for Urban Wildlife Management Is Missing................................................... 55
2.9.1 Defining Infrastructure............................................................................................. 56
2.9.2 Examination of the Infrastructure for Urban Wildlife Management....................... 56
2.9.2.1 DNR Results�� 58
2.9.2.2 University Results..................................................................................... 62
Chapter Activities..............................................................................................................................66
Species Profile: Bobcat (Lynx rufus).................................................................................................66
Urban Bobcat Research Update................................................................................ 67
2A Appendix................................................................................................................................ 68
2A.1 Numbers of Amphibian, Reptile, Bird, and Mammalian Species by State.............. 68
2A.2 Amphibian, Reptiles, Birds, and Mammals Reported as Intakes at 17 Animal
Rehabilitation Centers throughout the United States............................................... 70
Section II
Urban Ecosystems
Chapter 3
Ecological Principles in an Urban Context....................................................................................... 85
Key Concepts.................................................................................................................................... 85
3.1 Urban Context........................................................................................................................ 85
3.1.1 Urban�� 85
3.1.2 Urbanization�� 87
3.1.3 Urban Ecology.......................................................................................................... 87
3.1.4 Urbanized Areas and Clusters.................................................................................. 87
3.1.5 Urban Sprawl............................................................................................................ 88
3.2 Ecological Principles..............................................................................................................90
3.2.1 Diversity��90
3.2.1.1 Diversity Concept Analogy.......................................................................90
3.2.2 Interrelationships...................................................................................................... 91
3.2.3 Cycles�� 91
3.2.4 Energy��92
3.3 Ecosystem Structure..............................................................................................................92
3.3.1 Abiotic Structure....................................................................................................... 93
3.3.2 Biotic Structure.........................................................................................................94
3.4 Food Chains and Webs..........................................................................................................96
3.5 Symbiotic Relationships.........................................................................................................97
3.6 Biotic Communities............................................................................................................... 98
3.6.1 Urban Plant Communities......................................................................................... 98
3.6.2 Urban Wildlife Communities................................................................................. 100
3.6.3 Observations of Terrestrial Vertebrates in Urban Communities............................ 101
3.7 Ecosystem Function............................................................................................................. 103
3.7.1 Biogeochemical Cycles........................................................................................... 103
3.7.2 Energy�� 105
Contents ix
3.7.3 Thermodynamics and Conservation of Matter....................................................... 106

3.7.4 Ecological Succession............................................................................................. 106
3.8 Ecosystem Services.............................................................................................................. 107
3.9 Ecology of Urban Ecosystems............................................................................................. 109
3.9.1 Homo sapiens as a Keystone Species..................................................................... 110
3.10 Even a Peanut Butter Sandwich Has Profound Environmental Impacts.............................. 112
Chapter Activities............................................................................................................................ 113
Species Profile: Chimney Swift (Chaetura pelagica)..................................................................... 114
Chapter 4
Urban Soils...................................................................................................................................... 117
Key Concepts.................................................................................................................................. 117
4.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................... 117
4.2 Soil Formation...................................................................................................................... 119
4.3 Soil Structure....................................................................................................................... 120
4.4 Soil Horizons....................................................................................................................... 121
4.5 Soil Functions...................................................................................................................... 122
4.6 Soil Biota and Their Functions............................................................................................ 123
4.7 Impacts of Urbanization on Soil Structure and Function.................................................... 127
4.7.1 Vertical and Spatial Variability.............................................................................. 128
4.7.2 Structure Modification: Compaction and Surface Crusting................................... 129
4.7.3 Modified Soil Reaction........................................................................................... 129
4.7.4 Anthropogenic Materials........................................................................................ 130
4.7.5 Increased Soil Temperatures................................................................................... 130
4.8 Taking Better Care of Urban Soil........................................................................................ 130
4.9 Urban Wildlife Management Implications.......................................................................... 132
Species Profile: Moles (Talpidae sp.)............................................................................................. 133
Chapter 5
Urban Aquatic Systems................................................................................................................... 135
Key Concepts.................................................................................................................................. 135
5.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................... 135
5.2 Flow of Water through an Urban Community..................................................................... 136
5.2.1 Uses�� 138
5.2.2 Discharge�� 138
5.2.3 Recycle�� 141
5.3 Water Cycle: Nature’s Filter................................................................................................. 142
5.3.1 Transpiration Loop................................................................................................. 143
5.3.2 Groundwater Loop.................................................................................................. 143
5.3.3 Evaporation Loop.................................................................................................... 143
5.4 Caring for the Water Cycle.................................................................................................. 144
5.5 Riparian Corridors: Streams and Rivers.............................................................................. 144
5.6 Urban Stream Syndrome...................................................................................................... 146
5.6.1 Abiotic Effects........................................................................................................ 147
5.6.2 Biotic Effects........................................................................................................... 148
5.6.3 Stream Channelization............................................................................................ 148
5.7 Aquatic Food Chain............................................................................................................. 150
x Contents
5.8 Structural and Functional Adaptations of Fishes................................................................. 150

5.9 Fish as Indicator Species...................................................................................................... 153
5.10 Invasive and Introduced Species.......................................................................................... 154
5.11 Restoration of Riparian Habitats.......................................................................................... 156
5.12 Urban Wetlands.................................................................................................................... 158
5.12.1 Water Gardens........................................................................................................ 159
5.12.2 Constructed Wetlands............................................................................................. 160
5.13 Urban (Community) Fisheries Programs............................................................................. 162
Species Profile: American Beaver (Castor canadensis)................................................................. 163
Chapter 6
Population Dynamics...................................................................................................................... 165
Key Concepts.................................................................................................................................. 165
6.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................... 165
6.2 Survival................................................................................................................................ 166
6.3 Adaptations.......................................................................................................................... 167
6.4 Density................................................................................................................................. 168
6.5 Factors Affecting Population Densities............................................................................... 169
6.6 How Populations Grow........................................................................................................ 170
6.7 Population Growth Rate Patterns......................................................................................... 170
6.8 Effects of Habitat Fragmentation on Population Dynamics................................................ 171
6.9 Effects of Supplemental Feeding on Population Dynamics................................................ 173
6.10 Effects of Animal Damage Control Activities on Population Dynamics............................ 173
6.11 Effects of Environmental Pollutants on Wildlife Population Dynamics............................. 175
Species Profile: Tree Squirrels (Sciurus spp.)................................................................................. 176
Chapter Activity.............................................................................................................................. 178
Section III
Urban Habitats and Hazards
Chapter 7
Urban Green Spaces....................................................................................................................... 181
Key Concepts.................................................................................................................................. 181
7.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................... 181
7.2 Green Spaces........................................................................................................................ 181
7.3 Remnant Habitat Patches..................................................................................................... 183
7.4 Successional Habitat Patches............................................................................................... 186
7.5 Managed Habitat Patches..................................................................................................... 188
7.5.1 Cemeteries�� 188
7.5.2 Golf Courses�� 195
7.5.3 Nature Centers........................................................................................................ 197
7.5.4 Rural versus Urban Wildlife Populations............................................................... 199
Chapter Activities............................................................................................................................200
Species Profile: Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes)....................................................................................... 201
Chapter 8
Urban Gray Spaces.........................................................................................................................203
Key Concepts..................................................................................................................................203
Contents xi
8.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................... 203

8.2 Buildings, Windows, and Towers.........................................................................................204
8.2.1 Buildings.................................................................................................................204
8.2.2 Windows................................................................................................................. 205
8.2.3 Communication Towers..........................................................................................208
8.2.4 Wind Towers........................................................................................................... 211
8.3 Roads and Highways............................................................................................................ 213
8.3.1 Animal Mortality.................................................................................................... 213
8.3.2 Overpasses, Underpasses, and Escape Routes........................................................ 218
8.3.3 Structural Design Considerations........................................................................... 220
8.4 Bridges, Birds, and Bats....................................................................................................... 221
8.5 Landfills, Dumpsters, and Garbage Cans............................................................................ 223
8.5.1 Organic Waste Accumulations: A Concept Unique to Urban Ecosystems............. 223
8.5.2 Factors That Promote the Presence of Wildlife at Landfills.................................. 227
8.5.3 Standards Used in Landfill Siting........................................................................... 227
8.5.4 Types of Habitats Found in and around Landfills.................................................. 227
8.5.5 Human/Wildlife Conflicts at Landfills................................................................... 228
8.5.6 Wildlife Management at Landfills.......................................................................... 229
8.6 Airports................................................................................................................................ 229
8.6.1 Standards for Airport Siting and Zoning................................................................ 230
8.6.2 Types of Habitats Found in and around Airports................................................... 230
8.6.3 Wildlife Species Attracted to Airport Habitats...................................................... 231
8.6.4 Human/Wildlife Interactions at Airports............................................................... 231
8.6.5 Wildlife Management Priorities at Airports........................................................... 233
Species Profile: Mexican Free-Tailed Bat (Tadarida brasiliensis)................................................. 234
Section IV
Urban Wildlife Species
Chapter 9
Urban Herpetofauna (Amphibians and Reptiles)............................................................................ 239
Key Concepts.................................................................................................................................. 239
9.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................... 239
9.2 Amphibians..........................................................................................................................240
9.2.1 Amphibian Taxonomy of Living Orders in the United States................................240
9.2.2 Distinguishing Characteristics and Life Cycle....................................................... 241
9.2.3 Habitat Requirements............................................................................................. 242
9.2.4 National Distribution by States............................................................................... 243
9.2.5 Urban Observations................................................................................................ 243
9.3 Reptiles................................................................................................................................. 245
9.3.1 Reptilian Taxonomy of Living Orders in the United States................................... 245
9.3.2 Distinguishing Characteristics and Life Cycle....................................................... 245
9.3.3 Habitat Requirements............................................................................................. 249
9.3.4 National Distribution by States............................................................................... 249
9.3.5 Urban Observations................................................................................................ 249
Species Profile 9.1: Gray Tree Frog (Hyla versicolor)................................................................... 251
xii Contents
Species Profile 9.2: Green Anole (Anolis carolinensis).................................................................. 252

9A Appendix.............................................................................................................................. 254
9A.1 State Totals of Amphibians and Reptiles and Numbers of Each Class
Observed in Urban Communities........................................................................... 254
Chapter 10
Urban Birds..................................................................................................................................... 257
Key Concepts.................................................................................................................................. 257
10.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................... 257
10.1.1 Birds = Diversity..................................................................................................... 257
10.1.2 Bird Economics....................................................................................................... 258
10.1.3 Bird Losses Due to Urbanization............................................................................ 259
10.2 Class Aves Taxonomy of Living Orders in the United States.............................................. 262
10.3 Distinguishing Characteristics and Life Cycle.................................................................... 262
10.4 Management for Birds in Urban Habitats............................................................................264
10.4.1 Human Processes That Favor Birds in Urban Environments................................. 265
10.4.2 Concepts of Urban Adapters and Avoiders That Need More Definition................266
10.5 National Distribution by States............................................................................................ 268
10.6 Urban Observations.............................................................................................................. 271
Species Profile: Common Nighthawk (Chordeiles minor)............................................................. 274
10A Appendix.............................................................................................................................. 276
10A.1 State Totals of Birds and Numbers of Each Species Observed in Urban
Communities Somewhere in the United States...................................................... 276
Chapter 11
Urban Mammals............................................................................................................................. 279
Key Concepts.................................................................................................................................. 279
11.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................... 279
11.2 Class Mammalia Taxonomy................................................................................................280
11.3 Distinguishing Characteristics and Life Cycle.................................................................... 281
11.3.1 Body Hair�� 281
11.3.2 Mammary Glands................................................................................................... 281
11.3.3 Reproductive System.............................................................................................. 282
11.3.4 Cerebral Cortex....................................................................................................... 282
11.3.5 Teeth and Antlers.................................................................................................... 283
11.4 Management for Mammals in Urban Habitats.................................................................... 283
11.5 National Distribution by States............................................................................................ 285
11.6 Urban Observations.............................................................................................................. 286
11.7 Urban Raccoons (Procyon lotor)......................................................................................... 286
11.7.1 Pet Raccoons........................................................................................................... 287
11.7.2 Raccoon Economics................................................................................................ 287
11.7.3 Raccoons as Disease Vectors.................................................................................. 288
11.7.4 Urban Raccoon....................................................................................................... 288
11.7.5 Raccoon Diet........................................................................................................... 289
11.7.6 Raccoon Dens......................................................................................................... 291
11.7.7 Population Densities............................................................................................... 293
11.7.8 Rascal�� 294
Contents xiii
11.7.9 Raccoon Survival.................................................................................................... 295

11.7.10 Raccoon Management in Urban Communities....................................................... 296
11.8 Urban Coyotes (Canis latrans)............................................................................................. 298
11.8.1 Introduction�� 298
11.8.2 Urban Coyote.......................................................................................................... 299
11.8.3 Range Expansion.................................................................................................... 301
11.8.4 Coyote Diet�� 301
11.8.5 Coyote Economics.................................................................................................. 301
11.8.6 Coping with Coyotes Management Plans...............................................................306
11.8.7 Human and Coyote Conflicts..................................................................................307
11.8.8 Urban Residents’ Views on Coyotes in Their Neighborhoods...............................308
11.8.9 15 Years of “Co-Existing with Coyotes in Vancouver, British Columbia”............308
Species Profile: California Sea Lion (Zalophus californianus)...................................................... 313
11A Appendix.............................................................................................................................. 314
11A.1 State Totals of Mammals and Numbers of Each Species Observed in Urban
Communities Somewhere in the United States (See Appendix A.4 or Species
Lists and Sources of Information).......................................................................... 314
Chapter 12
Urban Threatened, Endangered, and Extirpated Species............................................................... 317
Key Concepts.................................................................................................................................. 317
12.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................... 317
12.2 Diversity of T/E Species...................................................................................................... 317
12.2.1 Houston Toad (Bufo houstonensis)......................................................................... 321
12.2.2 San Joaquin Kit Fox (Vulpes macrotis mutica)...................................................... 324
12.2.3 Florida Key Deer (Odocoileus virginianus clavium).............................................. 325
12.2.4 Black Bear (Ursus americanus).............................................................................. 330
12.2.5 Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrine) Delisting Story............................................... 334
Chapter 13
Urban Introduced and Invasive Species.......................................................................................... 339
Key Concepts.................................................................................................................................. 339
13.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................... 339
13.2 Introduced Species...............................................................................................................340
13.3 Invasive and Feral Species Introductions.............................................................................344
13.4 Case Studies of Invasive Species......................................................................................... 347
13.4.1 European Rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus).............................................................. 347
13.4.2 House Sparrow (Passer domesticus)...................................................................... 348
13.4.3 Nutria (Myocastor coypus)..................................................................................... 350
13.5 Case Studies of Feral Species.............................................................................................. 352
13.5.1 Pigeons (Columba livia).......................................................................................... 352
13.5.2 Domestic Cats (Felis catus).................................................................................... 354
13.5.2.1 Introduction�� 354
13.5.2.2 History of Origins and Domestication.................................................... 355
13.5.2.3 Cat Conflicts�� 357
xiv Contents
13.5.3 Hogs (Sus scrofa).................................................................................................... 365

13.5.3.1 Physical Description................................................................................ 367
13.5.3.2 Food Habits�� 368
13.5.3.3 Habitat Preferences.................................................................................. 368
13.5.3.4 Reproductive Potential............................................................................ 368
13.5.3.5 Nuisance Issues....................................................................................... 369
13.5.3.6 Environmental Damage........................................................................... 369
13.5.3.7 Management and Control........................................................................ 371
13.6 Invasive Species Management Plans.................................................................................... 375
Species Profile: Monk Parakeet (Myiopsitta monachus)................................................................ 377
Chapter 14
Resident Canada Geese and Urban White-Tailed Deer.................................................................. 379
Key Concepts.................................................................................................................................. 379
14.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................... 379
14.2 Factors That Contributed to Geese and Deer Abundance in Urban America..................... 381
14.3 Extent of the Problem: A National Assessment................................................................... 381
14.3.1 Objectives and Questions Included in the National Assessment............................ 382
14.3.2 Results of the National Assessment........................................................................ 382
14.3.3 Management Implications of National Assessment................................................ 383
14.4 Distribution of Resident Canada Geese and White-Tailed Deer in the Continental
United States........................................................................................................................ 383
14.5 Human Response to Resident Canada Geese and Urban White-Tailed Deer...................... 385
14.6 Ecological Impacts of Resident Canada Geese and Urban White-Tailed Deer................... 386
14.7 Health and Safety Issues...................................................................................................... 393
14.8 Management Strategies for Overabundant Resident Canada Geese and Urban White-
Tailed Deer Populations....................................................................................................... 395
Chapter Activity.............................................................................................................................. 397
Case Study Outline��397
Section V
Urban Sociopolitical Landscape
Chapter 15
Human Dimensions of Urban Wildlife Management..................................................................... 401
Kieran J. Lindsey
Key Concepts.................................................................................................................................. 401
15.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................... 401
15.2 The “People Factor”.............................................................................................................402
15.3 Primary Considerations When Conducting Citizen Surveys about Wildlife......................403
15.4 Surveying Wildlife Recreationists.......................................................................................407
15.5 Role of Human Dimensions in Urban Wildlife Management..............................................407
15.5.1 Public Participation in Wildlife-Associated Recreation.........................................407
15.5.2 Wildlife Values....................................................................................................... 411
15.5.3 Quality of Life Issues.............................................................................................. 413
15.5.4 Human–Wildlife Conflict....................................................................................... 415
15.5.5 HD Methods for Resolving Human–Wildlife Conflicts......................................... 422
Contents xv
15.6 Working with Urban Stakeholders....................................................................................... 423

15.6.1 Policy Life Cycle..................................................................................................... 423
15.6.2 What (and Who) Is a Stakeholder?......................................................................... 424
15.6.3 Changing the Face of Wildlife Stakeholders.......................................................... 425
15.6.4 Guide to Major Stakeholders.................................................................................. 425
15.6.4.1 Government (Public Sector).................................................................... 427
15.6.4.2 Federal�� 427
15.6.4.3 Tribal Governments................................................................................. 430
15.6.4.4 State and Territorial Governments.......................................................... 430
15.6.4.5 Local Governments................................................................................. 430
15.6.4.6 Nongovernmental Organizations (Private Sector).................................. 431
15.6.4.7 Academic Institutions.............................................................................. 432
15.6.4.8 The Public�� 432
Chapter 16
Legal Aspects of Urban Wildlife Management.............................................................................. 435
Kieran J. Lindsey
Key Concepts.................................................................................................................................. 435
16.1 Wildlife Law 101.................................................................................................................. 435
16.2 Federal Laws........................................................................................................................ 436
16.2.1 Lacey Act of 1900................................................................................................... 436
16.2.2 Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918......................................................................... 438
16.2.3 Animal Damage Control Act of 1931..................................................................... 439
16.2.4 Endangered Species Act of 1973............................................................................ 439
16.3 State Laws............................................................................................................................ 442
16.4 County and Municipal Laws................................................................................................ 442
16.5 Local Ordinances................................................................................................................. 443
16.5.1 Weed Ordinances.................................................................................................... 443
16.6 Who’s in Charge Here?........................................................................................................ 445
Species Profile: Cattle Egret (Bubulcus ibis).................................................................................. 447
Chapter 17
Zoonoses and Management Considerations...................................................................................449
Kieran J. Lindsey
Key Concepts..................................................................................................................................449
17.1 What Are Zoonoses?............................................................................................................449
17.2 Wildlife and Weaponization of Zoonotic Diseases............................................................. 451
17.3 Parasitic Diseases................................................................................................................. 451
17.3.1 Protozoa�� 451
17.3.2 Helminths�� 454
17.3.2.1 Trematodes (Flukes)................................................................................ 454
17.3.2.2 Cestodes (Tapeworms)............................................................................ 454
17.3.2.3 Nematodes (Roundworms)...................................................................... 455
17.4 Mycotic Diseases................................................................................................................. 458
17.4.1 Aspergillosis�� 458
17.4.2 Histoplasmosis........................................................................................................ 458
xvi Contents
17.5 Bacterial Diseases................................................................................................................ 459

17.5.1 Brucellosis��460
17.5.2 Lyme Disease.......................................................................................................... 461
17.5.3 Plague��465
17.5.4 Tularemia�� 467
17.6 Viral Diseases......................................................................................................................468
17.6.1 Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome..........................................................................468
17.6.2 Rabies��469
17.6.3 West Nile Virus....................................................................................................... 470
17.7 Prion Diseases...................................................................................................................... 472
17.7.1 Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy...................................................................... 472
17.7.2 Chronic Wasting Disease........................................................................................ 472
Species Profile: American Robin (Turdus migratorius).................................................................. 473
Appendix: Lists of Terrestrial Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds, and Mammals by States and
Those Observed in Urbanized Communities in the United States................................................. 475
A.1 Amphibians (n = 101/302, 33%) Observed in Some Urbanized Communities in the

United States and States That List the Species.................................................................... 475
A.2 Reptiles (n = 84/309, 27%) Observed in Some Urbanized Communities in the United
States and States That List the Species................................................................................ 478
A.3 Birds (n = 457/935, 49%) Observed in Some Urbanized Communities in the United
States and States That List the Species................................................................................ 481
A.4 Mammals (n = 98/407, 24%) Observed in Some Urbanized Communities in the
United States and States That List the Species....................................................................509
Sources of Information on National, State, and Urban Lists of Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds,
and Mammals....................................................................................................................... 513
Websites��513
Amphibians��513
Reptiles��513
Birds��514
Mammals��514
Journal Articles��514
Books��514
Animal Rehabilitation Data Locations................................................................................. 514
Endangered/Threatened Species Sources............................................................................. 515
References....................................................................................................................................... 517
Index............................................................................................................................................... 559
Preface
The first edition of this book was published in 1999, coauthored by Kieran J. Lindsey and Sara
Ash. It was written because we were unable to find one publication that addressed all the pertinent
issues related to urban wildlife management. Information was scattered throughout various books,
journal articles, conference proceedings, government documents, websites, data sets, and within
the anecdotal tales of our colleagues. Kieran and I were coauthors on the second edition, having
lost Sara to academic administration duties. We found that even after going through the process
once before, we were still rather naïve about the breadth and depth of information sources avail-
able on this subject. Information sources are so vast that it took 2 years to prepare each edition of
Urban Wildlife Management. Attempts to track down a single piece of information would lead to
a dozen others, each of which led to still others. As such, organizing the available information into
conceptual frameworks rather than in-depth presentations was a lengthy and formidable task. This
was particularly true in developing the third edition of Urban Wildlife Management, which involved
more than 1000 references. Dozens of secondary data sets were analyzed that contained a wealth of
information relevant to the story presented in the third edition. Kieran had to excuse herself from
coauthoring the third edition because new professional obligations precluded her continued involve-
ment. However, prior to her departure she did provide Chapters 15 through 17, all of the species
profiles, and much guidance in the outline for this third edition. Sara and Kieran also remained
available to examine and edit some of the new chapters that became part of this third edition.
Like the second edition, but even more so, this edition contains original research and the results
of extensive data mining and meta-analyses by myself and my students. Sara Ramirez and I con-
ducted a national survey of states departments of natural resources (DNRs) to determine the degree
to which communities within their states were having problems with overabundant Canada geese
and urban white-tailed deer (Chapter 14). Michaela Murphy repeated the national examination of the
infrastructure for urban wildlife management at state DNRs and universities with wildlife programs
(Chapter 2). She also conducted an in-depth literature review on urban deer research (Introduction).
Cassandra LaFleur conducted a meta-analysis of the relationship between a species residence by
state(s) and observation of that species in an urban setting (Appendices A1 through A4). This analy-
sis included all native species of terrestrial herpetofauna, birds, and mammals known to exist in the
United States. This analysis and results led to the production of an entire new section (Section IV)
and five new chapters (Chapters 9 through 13) in the third edition. Cassandra also provided many
figures and tables.
It has become evident that the challenges and opportunities related to urban wildlife are begin-
ning to be noticed in the wildlife profession. As a result, this book is a much-needed tool for teach-
ing and learning. In 17 chapters, we examine a range of issues that explain human interactions with
wildlife in urbanized environments. We begin with a discussion of the past, present, and future
directions of wildlife management in the United States—what we have come to see as the chang-
ing landscape of wildlife management. Selected chapters relevant to understanding the presence
or absence of wildlife species in urban communities include ecosystem structure and function,
urban soils, urban waters, and the principles of population dynamics in the context of the impacts
of urbanization. Urban habitats and hazards are discussed in terms of two chapters on urban green
and gray spaces. The sociopolitical issues of particular importance in urban wildlife management
are covered in chapters on the human dimensions of wildlife management (Chapter 15) and legal
considerations (Chapter 16). Special management considerations include six chapters on the ecology
and management of urban (1) herpetofauna; (2) birds; (3) mammals; (4) threatened, endangered, and
extirpated species; (5) introduced and invasive species; and (6) resident Canada geese and urban
white-tailed deer.
xvii
xviii Preface
The third edition of Urban Wildlife Management is a continuation of “the rest of the story,”
including those issues that are usually left out of manuscripts that focus primarily on how to allevi-
ate the problems associated with nuisance urban wildlife species. For example, this book provides
a basic framework of information that will give the reader an understanding of factors that promote
or prevent the presence of wildlife in urban communities.
Past editions of Urban Wildlife Management were used as a text or reference document by
17 colleges or universities. Others who used the book included urban wildlife biologists at state
DNRs, state and federal agencies, and urban planners and managers in urban areas. Private citizens
with a personal interest in urban wildlife management also purchased this book.
Six peer reviews of the previous editions in the Journal of Wildlife Management, The Condor,
and Human–Wildlife Conflicts; book reviews on Amazon.com; and newspaper editorials were over-
whelmingly positive. In addition, the first edition was selected as the 2007 Outstanding Book by
the Texas Chapter of The Wildlife Society, and Choice magazine’s annual “Outstanding Academic
Title List.” Since the first edition of Urban Wildlife Management, edited collections of research
reviews on urban wildlife have become available, including Urban Herpetology, Urban Carnivores,
and Urban Wildlife Conservation: Theory and Practice.
The content of this book would have been incomplete without the assistance of other wildlife
management professionals and students. Jessica Alderson provided the information for and helped
write Perspective Essay 14.1. Debra Cowman helped us assimilate the relevant literature on envi-
ronmental toxicants on wildlife population dynamics in Chapter 6. John M. Davis’ contributions
include the impacts of stream channelization in Chapter 5, a perspective essay on people’s love of
lawns in Chapter 7, and another on urbanites’ fear of wildlife in Chapter 15. John also provided
many of the photos used in this book. Thanks to Rob Denkhaus and Suzanne Tuttle for their case
study on feral hogs (Sus scrofa) in Chapter 13. Fran Gelwick and Michael Masser reviewed and
edited sections on urban streams and impoundments in Chapter 5. Marian Higgins provided the
introduction to nature centers in Chapter 7. Ardath Lawson wrote the perspective essay on cem-
eteries in Chapter 7. Roel Lopez contributed the key deer (Odocoileus virginianus clavium) case
study in Chapter 12. Linda Causey provided several figures depicting concepts presented in text.
Robert Meyers conducted an analysis of the Wildlife Services Management Information Systems
data set that led to the national and regional overview of the species of most concern and economic
impacts of animal damage in Chapter 2. The Quality Deer Management Association (Bogart,
Georgia) was the source of information concerning white-tailed deer densities in each state, as
provided in Figure 14.10. Emily Rollison and Sara Ramirez developed a spreadsheet based on a
review of more than 900 nature centers in the United States that was used to develop a new section
for Urban Green Spaces in Chapter 7. Bonnie Bradshaw is a wildlife rehabilitator who provided
some alternative approaches to animal damage control in Chapter 2. Judit Green provided one
of the first overviews of the Texas Master Naturalist Program in Chapter 2. Finally, Dan Straker
updated the coexisting with coyotes in Vancouver management program in Chapter 11. I am grate-
ful to each of these individuals for their talents and contributions. When all is said and done, I am
extremely grateful for and proud of their contributions, and take this opportunity to thank each
and every one of them.
Clark E. Adams
Author
Clark E. Adams is an emeritus professor in the Department of
Wildlife and Fisheries Sciences (WFSC) at Texas A&M University
in College Station, Texas. He holds a BS in biology from Concordia
Teachers College, Seward, Nebraska; an MS in biology from the
University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon; and a PhD in zoology
from the University of Nebraska–Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska.
He chaired the Conservation Education Committee for The Wildlife
Society (TWS), edited the newsletter for the Human Dimensions
of Wildlife Study Group, was a member of the Urban Wildlife
Management Working Group, and has chaired many committees
for the Texas Chapter of TWS. He is past president of the Texas
Chapter of TWS and the TWS Southwest Section. Since 1981, he and his students have conducted
and published many national, regional, and statewide studies on the public’s activities, attitudes,
expectations, and knowledge concerning wildlife. He developed the degree option in urban wildlife
and fisheries management for the WFSC and developed and taught the senior-level urban wildlife
management course. He is coauthor of another book titled Texas Rattlesnake Roundups (Texas
A&M Press, 2008). He was the recipient of the 2015 Outstanding Achievement in Urban Wildlife
Conservation award from the TWS Urban Wildlife Working Group. Adams completed a 51-year
teaching and research career on August 31, 2015.
xix
Introduction: A New Wildlife Management Paradigm
In the future, we’re all going to be urban biologists.
—Timothy Quinn, Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife (2003)
KEY CONCEPTS
1. There are several lines of evidence that document the need for urban wildlife management.
2. There are similarities and differences between wildlife management in urban and rural habitats.
3. The wildlife profession is still not prepared to meet the wildlife management challenges in urban
environments.
I.1 A SNAPSHOT OF THE URBAN WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT LANDSCAPE
To be absolutely accurate, the focus of this book is on wild vertebrate species found in human
dominated landscapes… but “urban wildlife” is quick, catchy, and is the accepted terminology.
Urban, in this context, includes both the cities and the suburbs. Also known as “the built environ-
ment,” an urban landscape includes places where most of the property is devoted to all things
man-made and/or maintained: buildings of all shapes and sizes, manicured lawns and landscaped
office parks, cemeteries and vacant lots, strip malls and parking structures, elementary schools and
college campuses, airports and warehouse districts. A substantial portion of this land is covered
with some kind of impervious surface, in the form of either structures or pavement. The plant life
is often native to other parts of the world or highly hybridized and thus requires much caretaking
in the form of mowing, pruning, weeding, watering, and treating with herbicides, pesticides, and
fertilizers.
Urbanization and the encroachment of people into formerly undeveloped wild habitats will con-
tinue into the foreseeable future, changing the landscape and the wildlife management agenda. In
fact, in the first edition of this book, published in 2006, we predicted that within the next 10–20 years
it was entirely possible that urban wildlife management (UWM) would become the dominant focus
of wildlife professionals. Now, a little more than 10 years later, it would be an overstatement to say
that UWM is presently the primary focus of the profession, but the issue continues to gain attention
and importance in the professional literature, the popular media, the classroom, and among state
and federal agency personnel.
I.2 CHANGING WILDLIFE VALUES
There are two spiritual dangers in not owning a farm. One is the danger of supposing that breakfast
comes from a grocery store, the other that heat comes from a furnace.
Aldo Leopold (A Sand County Almanac, 1949)
The “typical” American has changed dramatically over the past 50+ years in contrast to the
dominant rural, agricultural lifestyle of previous eras. Life in cities and suburbs has influenced
Americans’ attitudes and expectations concerning wildlife. Many, if not most, are several genera-
tions removed from a culture of living close to the land. They are more likely to value wildlife simi-
larly to the way they value companion animals and people (Mankin et al. 1999, Sterba 2012) than
as a consumptive-use resource.
xxi
xxii Introduction: A New Wildlife Management Paradigm
The Baby Boom Generation and their children were raised in a technological rather than natural
environment. As such, contemporary society retains an affinity with nature, described by biologist
E.O. Wilson as biophilia (1984), but it has also become exceptionally uninformed about the natu-
ral world (including wildlife) around them…which is not to say they’ve lost their curiosity about
wildlife and the natural world. Access to both is considered an important contribution to quality of
life. Americans are now more likely to be involved in wildlife-related recreation such as observ-
ing, feeding, and photography than traditional hunting and fishing activities (Figures I.1 and I.2).
Figure I.1 Participation in traditional consumptive-use activities has decreased over time. (Courtesy of Chris
Ware and Mark Tyson.)
Figure I.2 Interest in nonconsumptive wildlife recreation is on the rise. (Courtesy of Mason Hayes.)
Introduction: A New Wildlife Management Paradigm xxiii
The home-building industry has certainly taken note of the public’s interest in connecting to the
natural world; promoting close proximity of green space and wildlife has become a common mar-
keting strategy for developers.
If you doubt this statement, consider that in 2011 more Americans were involved in wildlife
watching (71.8 million) than the combined total of those who hunt and fish (33.1 million, U.S.
Department of the Interior 2011). The U.S. Census Bureau (2010) estimated the total population
is growing at an average rate of 1.16% each year, but societal participation in hunting, fishing, or
wildlife watching is not increasing in proportion to total population growth (Figure I.3). However,
the number of self-reported wildlife watchers has dropped less (down 6% since 1991) than the ranks
of hunters and anglers (down 10% since 1991, U.S. Department of the Interior 2011, Figure I.4).
It appears that state DNRs are losing their traditional clientele base with no signs of reversing
the trend. According to Robinson and Ridenhour (2012), little research has addressed the decline in
hunting. They proposed two hypotheses that attributed the decline of hunting to the urban publics’
(1) decreasing interest in the outdoors due to their preferences for indoor electronic media (e.g.,
called videophilia) and (2) reduced access and connection to rural areas as a result of urbaniza-
tion. State DNRs are fully aware of the declining hunting license sales revenues and game animal
overpopulations. Urban residents are often disinterested in conservation and do not see the connec-
tion with hunting as a recreational pursuit and overpopulations of game animals. DNRs, however,
have no sustainable programs that recruit the urban public back into hunting, or compete with
contemporary urban societies’ preferences for engaging with the wildlife around them. Efforts to
bring the urban public back as hunting participants causes one to recall the old southern American
phrase, “that dog won’t hunt,” meaning something just isn’t going to happen. How is all of this
relevant to UWM? Wildlife management agencies need to begin addressing the attitudes, activi-
ties, knowledge, and expectations of the majority, nonhunting, urban public concerning all things
wild. Their future may rely, in part, on the development of wildlife management programs that
specifically target the educational needs of a nonconsumptive majority. “One size will not fit all”
in this endeavor. The entire conceptual framework for Urban Wildlife Management exemplifies the
10
0
Percent change
–5
–10
–50
–20
1991–1996 1996–2001 2001–2006 2006–2011
Census 6 6 5 4
Hunting 0 –0.7 –0.4 0.9
Fishing –0.1 –0.3 –1.2 1
Watching –17 5.1 7.5 1
Figure I.3 Percent changes in U.S. population and participation in hunting, fishing, and wildlife watching (U.S.
Department of the Interior 1991, 1996, 2000, 2006, 2012). (Courtesy of Clark E. Adams.)
xxiv Introduction: A New Wildlife Management Paradigm
350
311
300 298
285
269
250 253 Census
200 Wildlife watching

Million
150 Hunting
Fishing
100
76.1 66.1 71.1 71.8
62.9
50
35.6 35.2 34 30 33.1
14.1 14 13 12.5 13.7
0
1991 1996 2001 2006 2011
Figure I.4 U.S. population changes in census and participation in wildlife watching, hunting, and fishing. (U.S.
Department of the Interior 1991, 1996, 2000, 2006, 2012). (Courtesy of Clark E. Adams.)
diversity of knowledge required to begin reframing the wildlife management paradigm to fit the
needs of twenty-first-century urban publics.
I.2.1 Disconnecting from Nature
So what does the population shift from primarily rural to primarily urban mean in terms of the
public becoming partners in ecosystem management? Though many studies have demonstrated
a connection between access to the natural world and improvements to health and quality of life,
when it comes to competing for the public’s attention, the “outdoors” is at a disadvantage compared
to smartphones and other mobile devices, laptop computers, and social network platforms, not to
mention television, video games, and the shopping mall (Sterba 2012). There appears to be a grow-
ing public disconnect with nature, described by author Richard Louv as “nature deficit disorder”
(2005). One memorable quote from his book Last Child in the Woods came from a suburban fifth
grader who said, “I like to play indoors better ‘cause that’s where all the electrical outlets are.”
In addition to Louv’s work, there are a number of books and other publications dedicated to exam-
ining the growing detachment of urbanites from the natural world, including Nature Wars (Sterba
2012) and Welcome to Subirdia (Marzluff 2014).
I.2.2 Structural Barriers
A structural barrier—restricted access to wildlife resources on private rural lands—further

aggravates public indifference toward wildlife. Causes for lack of access may include proximity (or
lack thereof), landowner resistance, high trespass prices, and loss of undisturbed wildlife habitat
due to rampant development. Some wildlife professionals lament that “the loss of access to wildlife
for a diversity of uses is likely to erode support for public custodianship of wildlife resources, a cen-
tral premise of the Public Trust Doctrine (PTD),” which views all wildlife as a public resource to be
managed by governmental trustees as a “commons” for the benefit of all people living now and in
the future (TWS 2010, p. 17). Furthermore, the public can develop antipathy toward wildlife when
they experience property damage (see discussions in Chapters 2 and 15), loss of income, fear, and
exclusion from the wildlife management decision-making process. “The resulting indifference by
the public toward their wildlife resources makes the Trust’s assets valueless, eliminating the need
Introduction: A New Wildlife Management Paradigm xxv
for trusteeship” (TWS 2010, p. 19). The trustees, in this context, are state natural resource agencies,
more commonly referred to as departments of natural resources, and these entities have legitimate
concerns over the possible loss of their raison d’etre.
I.2.3 Wildlife Values
Finally, the animal welfare and animal rights movements have introduced a different philo-
sophical approach to how humans should view and value wildlife. One of the central tenets of the
animal rights movement is that nonhuman animals (both domesticated and wild) are sentient crea-
tures capable of feelings and perception through physical senses and of responding through overt
actions and emotionally, not unlike humans. So, from the mindset of some urban publics, lethal (and
largely traditional) wildlife management options that violate this tenet are considered unacceptable.
Research suggested the attitudes of nonrural residents toward wildlife are quite similar to those held
for pets (Bjerke et al. 2003). This perspective influences opinions on how, or even if, these species
should be managed.
Concurrently, there is a growing concern about human–wildlife encounters, especially those
perceived to endanger the health and safety of people and their companion animals. Outbreaks of
zoonotic diseases such as West Nile virus, hantavirus, and chronic wasting disease make headlines
in both local and national news. The number of human–wildlife conflicts continues to rise, as does
the number of private wildlife control businesses (Lindsey 2007). Clearly, life in the urban wilds is
not a return to Eden. Which begs the question—Who is tending this garden?
I.3 NEED FOR A COMPREHENSIVE TREATMENT

OF URBAN WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT
Change often must begin at the grassroots level. The National Institute for Urban Wildlife was
the first formal organization of individuals who recognized and wanted to address UWM issues.
To start a dialogue, the Institute hosted three national symposia on urban wildlife (Chevy Chase,
Maryland, 1986; Cedar Rapids, Iowa, 1990; and Bellevue, Washington, 1994), and two proceedings
were published (Adams and Leedy 1987, 1991).
The Wildlife Society (TWS, the professional organization for wildlife biologists in the United
States) published an entire issue devoted to urban wildlife management in the Wildlife Society
Bulletin in 1997 and again in 2011 (Volume 25, No. 2 and Volume 35, No. 3, respectively; discussion
in greater detail later). This is usually the first step in the professional recognition of a subdiscipline
within the larger context of wildlife management. TWS now has both an Urban Wildlife Working
Group (UWWG) and a Human Dimensions Working Group (HDWG), both of which focus on
UWM issues. Additionally, there are now several peer-reviewed journals that publish urban wildlife
management research (Magel et al. 2012, discussed later).
The fourth national urban wildlife symposium was held in Tucson, Arizona, in 1999 (Shaw
et al. 2004). Subsequently, the Arbor Day Foundation, in cooperation with the UWWG, took on
the task of organizing and hosting a biannual national UWM conference, initially held at the Lied
Conference Center, Nebraska City, Nebraska (2001, 2003, 2005), and finally, in Portland, Oregon
(2007). A variety of topics were presented at these conferences, ranging from managing wildlife
in urban environments, human–wildlife conflicts, public education on urban wildlife, and stake-
holder recognition, among others. The TWS UWWG organized three more UWM conferences in
Amherst, Massachusetts (2009); Austin, Texas (2011); and Chicago, Illinois (2015). No records or
proceedings have resulted from these meetings thus far.
During the 2003 conference, one attendee who represented a city government asked if there
were any publications that summarized the issues and complexities of urban wildlife management
xxvi Introduction: A New Wildlife Management Paradigm
under one cover. At that time, there was no such document, but the first edition of Urban Wildlife
Management was published at the end of 2006. Since then, valuable feedback has been received
from colleagues and students, along with requests to include topics that initially had to be omitted
due to space limitations.
Ideally, a comprehensive book on urban wildlife management should have been available at
least 20 years ago. The earliest observation on urban wildlife (squirrels, raccoons, and coyotes) was
chronicled in 1897 by Ernest Ingersoll in Wild Neighbors: Outdoor Studies in the United States. The
seminal work on urban wildlife is Leonard Dubkin’s The Natural History of a Yard (1955). Both
publications have mostly escaped the attention of contemporary urban wildlife biologists. Dubkin
was a pioneer in the study of urban wildlife habitats within “parks and forest preserves, empty lots,
the industrialized riverfront, patches of open land between housing developments, tenement slums,
dank underground passages, railroad embankments, and sidewalk cracks” in Chicago (Bryson
2011). Lowell Adam’s work, Urban Wildlife Habitats: A Landscape Perspective (1994), which as
the name suggests focused on urban/suburban wildlife habitat, was a fortuitous resurrection of
Dubkin’s earlier studies. Other authors have addressed individual aspects of urban wildlife man-
agement, such as urban ecology and sustainability (Platt et al. 1994, Whiston-Spirn 1985), human
dimensions (Decker et al. 2012, Manfredo et al. 2008), human–wildlife conflicts (Conover 2002,
Hadidian 2007), urban wildlife law (Rees 2003), urban planning (Tyldesley 1994), and even urban
species identification (Landry 1994, Shipp 2000). The first edition of Urban Wildlife Management
filled a void, but the field continues to grow and evolve (Magle et al. 2012). This current edition is
my best attempt at reflecting the changes without giving short shrift to the basic ecological prin-
ciples that are the underpinning of urban wildlife management.
This is not a “how-to” book for solving specific urban wildlife conflict issues—other authors
(e.g., Conover 2002, Hadidian 2007, Reidinger and Miller 2013) have addressed these problems
admirably. Rather than providing a prescription for short-term, reactive methods that address symp-
toms, the material included here provides professionals in wildlife management and related fields
with the information and insight required to set and achieve long-term, proactive management goals
that focus on the root cause of UWM challenges.
As before, the third edition can be used as a textbook for both undergraduate and graduate
courses on urban wildlife management, urban ecology, or even urban planning. Often, if a textbook
is not available, much-needed college courses will not be taught. Urban wildlife management is not
a traditional component in university curricula for wildlife biologists, but more courses are avail-
able now than ever before. The first and second editions of this book have so far been adopted by 17
and 20 different colleges and universities, respectively, both nationally and internationally. In some
cases, the book was adopted for use in existing urban wildlife classes, but in other cases new classes
were designed with Urban Wildlife Management in mind. I am confident that the third edition will
support a continuation of this trend.
There are two key questions a teacher has to answer when preparing a class: (1) “What am I
going to teach?” and (2) “How am I going to teach it?” Answering these questions for an under-
graduate class on urban wildlife management without a textbook at hand can be a formidable task.
There’s an ever-increasing body of literature in scientific journals and the popular media (both print
and electronic) about urban wildlife. The public, and to some degree even wildlife professionals, are
largely unaware of the information on urban wildlife presented in the scientific literature, while the
primary focus of popular media is as much entertainment as education. A curriculum for training
urban wildlife biologists emerged as I examined the full range of urban wildlife issues in the context
of human history and society, natural history, ecology, politics, law, and economics. Urban Wildlife
Management captures information strewn throughout journal articles, conference proceedings,
government documents, websites, other books, secondary data sets, and personal experiences and
those of colleagues. Urban Wildlife Management gathers the essential information together under
one cover, providing a synthesis document for academic, community, and professional development.
Introduction: A New Wildlife Management Paradigm xxvii
Case Studies and Perspective Essays are included to illustrate the concepts. My approach was to
continue to tell a story based on a review of over 1000 references (see References), but there was
no way to include all of the pertinent literature without creating an encyclopedia. The information
provided in each chapter was meant to be an overview of the subjects discussed, not an exhaustive
treatment. Many chapters have been, or could be, the subject of an entire book. Readers are invited
to take the opportunity to expand their understanding of the concepts introduced here.
Urban Wildlife Management has found an audience outside of the university classroom as
well. Many individuals working for the government, nonprofit organizations, and for-profit busi-
nesses whose responsibility or job description includes some aspect of urban wildlife management
have found previous editions of this book to be a necessary addition to their reference libraries.
Developers, for example, failing to take into account the surrounding wildlife community while at
the same time hoping to attract buyers by incorporating community green space may, in spite of
good intentions, create some of the management challenges addressed in this book. An understand-
ing of the cause-and-effect outcomes could significantly change the “business as usual” develop-
ment process, leading to a planning approach that allows for increased interaction between humans
and wildlife while avoiding potential conflicts. Other fields that may benefit from a greater under-
standing of urban wildlife management issues include public health, urban planning, parks and
recreation, sanitation, tourism, transportation, and animal control (both domestic/feral and wild
species). At the very least, exposure to the subject matter will make it clear there is value to be
gained by inviting someone with urban wildlife management experience and expertise to take a seat
at the planning table.
The goals for writing this book were fairly straightforward: (1) to compile a body of information
that stimulates the reader’s curiosity about the urban world in which most of them live and present
it in a way that would be accessible for most readers, (2) to expand the reader’s knowledge about
how natural and urban ecosystems work, (3) to challenge readers to examine the role their personal
actions may have in creating at least some of the urban wildlife issues covered in this book, and
(4) to give readers an opportunity to apply their new knowledge and understanding through personal
actions that promote sustainable approaches to urban wildlife management.
I.4 UNDERSTANDING AND MEETING THE FUTURE

CHALLENGES OF WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT
The wildlife profession as a whole has been slow to respond to the shift in public interest and
need resulting from an increase in urban wildlife populations. In 1999, the TWS UWWG con-
ducted a national survey of state wildlife management agencies and land-grant universities offering
a degree in wildlife science (Adams 2003, repeated by Murphy 2014). The surveys were designed to
determine how well agencies and universities were prepared to address urban wildlife management
issues. The results were disturbing in many respects, as discussed in detail in Chapter 2, but the
general conclusion was that the infrastructure for urban wildlife management was missing in state
DNRs and land-grant universities in 1999, and it was still missing in 2014.
The role of the wildlife manager has changed significantly in the twenty-first century. So has
the role of those responsible for preparing the next generation of wildlife professionals. However,
many wildlife management faculty have yet to respond to this changing management environment
and are either completely oblivious, dismissive, or grossly misinformed as to what the discipline
entails. A telling example of the latter was observed during a meeting at one of the premier univer-
sity departments of wildlife sciences in the United States. The topic of discussion was whether or
not to add an urban wildlife management option to the department’s undergraduate curricula. One
faculty member, a nationally recognized scholar in ecology and conservation biology, commented
that he could see no reason for developing a curriculum about raccoons (Procyon lotor) in garbage
xxviii Introduction: A New Wildlife Management Paradigm
cans and consequently voted against its inclusion. Often, when we disclose that urban wildlife is our
primary research interest, we are asked how we like studying pigeons and rats (neither of which, of
course, are technically wildlife in the United States, since both urban pigeons (Columba livia) and
Norway rats (Rattus norvegicus) are an introduced species in the United States…but we digress.).
University faculties must begin to recognize the need to develop new instructional paradigms that
meet the challenges faced by wildlife professionals now, not as it was practiced during earlier eras,
or they may find they have become largely irrelevant. Human residents of urban and suburban
habitats do not stay in their own home ranges—they venture forth into previously undisturbed lands
and create urban wildlife through development, feeding (intentional and unintentional), and habitu-
ation, so even traditional wildlife professionals are likely to find themselves faced with the issues
described in this book.
Students, too, must become aware of this paradigm change. When we talk with and advise stu-
dents interested in wildlife professions, we often see a reflection of ourselves at their age and level of
educational development. Many are drawn to working with wildlife because they enjoy nature and
are looking for professional pursuits that offer a more adventurous life, hoping (somewhat naïvely)
that it won’t require much contact with “the public.” They picture themselves collecting and analyz-
ing data in the middle of a remote forest, far removed from the aggravation of the human race (other
than, perhaps, an equally adventuresome National Geographic photographer!). They want to “fight
the good fight,” gathering information that could someday save a species or an ecosystem from
extinction. These budding wildlifers can make a difference but if they want to do so while employed
they may have to change the scenery of their daydreams to residential developments instead of
remote rainforests (Figures I.5 and I.6).
In our formative years and early in our careers, we were drawn to the study of wild things for
the sake of knowledge and also because, in our opinion, they were so much more interesting than
people. Since those early days, we have come to understand there is no place on Earth that is not a
Figure I.5 The traditional image of a wildlife biologist is that of an individual collecting and analyzing data in
the middle of a remote forest, possibly even saving a species from extinction. (Courtesy of John
and Karen Hollingsworth, USFWS, Washington, DC.)
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"Madame väsyy kovin helposti", vastasi hänen miehensä, heittäen
alas hattunsa, "huulet kiukkuisessa irvistyksessä, ”liiatenkin milloin
hän on tekemässä jotain, mistä hän ei pidä."
"Olettehan matkalla Parisiin", sanoi Notredame näköjään

kummastuen. "Luulin kaikkien vallasnaisten pitävän Parisista.
Sitävastoin, jos madame olisi jättämässä Parisin ja muuttamassa
maaseudulle —"
"Maaseudulle!" huudahti de Vidoche maltittomasti kiroten. "Hän

hautautuisi sinne, jos voisi!" Ja hän lisäsi itsekseen jotakin, minkä
ydintä ei ollut kovinkaan vaikea arvata.
Madame de Vidoche pakottausi hymyilemään, naisellisesti yrittäen

peitellä. "On luonnollista, että pidän Pinatelista", hän sanoi arasti,
katse mieheensä luotuna. "Olen asunut siellä niin paljon."
"Niin, et koskaan kyllästy muistuttamaan minua siitä!" kivahti de

Vidoche. Miestänsä pelkäävät naiset virkkavat oikean huomautuksen
kerran sadasta. "Kohtsiltään kerrot tälle herrasmiehelle, että minä
olin kerjäläinen naidessani sinut! Mutta jos olinkin —"
"Oi, Charles!" sopersi toinen heikosti.
"Se on oikein! Itke nyt!" ärisi mies tylysti. "Jumalan kiitos, tässä
sentään tulee illallinen. Ja sitte me jatkamme matkaa Vernoniin. Tiet
ovat uurtuisia, ja silloin sinulla on muutakin tehtävää kuin vesistellä."
Mustapukuinen mies kuunteli aterioiden toisessa päässä pöytää

ilmeettömin kasvoin. Kaikkien ammattiveljiensä tavoin hän näytti
halukkaammalta kuulemaan kuin puhumaan. Mutta kun illallisen
mukana tuotiin vain yksi lautanen kahdelle — erehdys aiheutui
majatalossa vallitsevasta hyörinästä — ja de Vidoche sydäntyi
sättimään hyvin äänekkäästi, hän ei näkynyt kykenevän pidättymään
virkkamasta sanaa ravintoloitsijan puolustukseksi. "Ei ole kovinkaan
harvinaista miehen olla osallisena vaimonsa lautasesta", hän
huomautti tyynesti, "ja toisinaan paljosta muustakin hänelle
kuuluvasta."
Hra de Vidoche katsoi häneen hetkisen ikäänkuin haluten kysyä,

mitä se vieraaseen kuului; mutta hän malttoi mielensä ja sanoi vain
yrmeästi: "Ei myöskään ole kovin harvinaista tähdistälukijain
erehtyä."
"Puoskarien", virkahti mustapukuinen mies levollisesti.
"Aivan oikein", vastasi de Vidoche ivallisen kohteliaasti. "Hyväksyn

korjauksenne."
"Mutta niinkin ollen on yksi seikka huomattava", pitkitti

tähdistälukija, hitaasti nojautuen eteenpäin ja ikäänkuin sattumalta
siirtäen likimmän kynttilän ihan madamen ja itsensä väliin. "Olen
pannut sen merkille, hra de Vidoche. He erehtyvät toisinaan
ennustaessaan avioliittoja ja syntymiäkin, mutta eivät milloinkaan
ennustaessaan kuolemantapauksia."
Hra de Vidoche, jolla saattoi olla omassa povessaan avain toisen

sanojen täydelliseen merkitykseen, säpsähti ja tähysti häntä pöydän
yli. Mitä hän lieneekään lukenut valjuista, synkistä kasvoista, jotka
kynttilän siirtyminen esitti hänelle selkeästi ja joissa ilmaisivat eloa
ainoastaan virkeästi hehkuvat silmät, häntä värisytti. Hän ei
vastannut mitään. Hänen katseensa painui alas. Menettivätpä
posketkin hiukan verevyyttänsä. Hän pitkitti ateriaansa äänettömänä.
Kaikki neljä isoa kynttilää paloivat yhä himmeästi. Mutta de
Vidochesta ne äkkiä näyttivät olevan vainajan viereen asetettuja
vahakynttilöitä. Kuin salaman leimahduksena hän näki mustalla
sisustetun huoneen, vuoteen ja siinä hurstilla peitetyn äänettömän
hahmon — vaaleakutrisen hahmon — riutuneen naisen. Ja sitte hän
näki muuta.
Oli ilmeistä, että tähdistälukija ei ollut mikään tavallinen mies.
Tämä ei kuitenkaan näkynyt ottavan huomatakseen sanojensa

tehoa. Hän ei enää yrittänytkään tyrkyttää huomaavaisuuttansa hra
de Vidochelle. Hän kääntyi kohteliaasti madameen ja virkkoi jonkun
jokapäiväisen huomautuksen huonoista maanteistä. Toinen vastasi
siihen — tarkkaamattomasti.
"Katselette poikaa", hän jatkoi, sillä Jehan värjötteli ovipielessä

tarkaten säikkyneellä, lumoutuneella tuijotuksella isäntänsä jokaista
liikettä. "En ihmettele, että hän vetää puoleensa naisten katseita."
"Hän on sievä lapsi", vastasi madame hymyillen heikosti.
"Kyllä, hyvännäköinen hän on", vahvisti mustapukuinen. "On yksi

tietomiesten myymä tarvike, jota hän ei joudu milloinkaan
kaipaamaan."
"Mikä niin?" kysyi nainen uteliaasti, ensi kertaa tähystäen

tähdistälukijaa tarkkaavasti.
"Lemmenjuoma", vastasi tämä sävyisästi. "Hänen ulkomuotonsa,

kuten madamenkin, vastaa sen tehoa aina."
Toinen punehtui, hymyillen hiukan suruisesti. "Onko sellaisia

olemassa?" hän sanoi. "Onko se totta? Tarkoitan, olen aina ajatellut,
että se kaikki on lastensatua."
"Ei enempää kuin myrkyt ja paranteet, madame", vastasi
tähdistälukija totisena, "suolan säilyttävä voima tai ruudin tuhoisa
teho. Te nautitte pärskäjuurta Ja aivastatte — Paracelsuksen tippoja
ja nukutte — viiniä ja näette kaksittain. Miksi olisi kiinnytysjauhe
ihmeellisempää kuin nuo? Tai jos vielä epäilette", hän jatkoi
keveämmin, "niin katsokaa ympärillenne, madame. Näette nuorten
miesten rakastavan vanhoja naisia, ylhäisten liittoutuvan alhaisten
kanssa, rumien kiehtovan kauniita. Näette satoja arvoituksellisia
pareja, uskokaa minua, me ne solmimme. Puhun aiheettomasti", hän
lisäsi kumartaen, "sillä madame de Vidoche ei voi koskaan tarvita
muuta kiinnyttäjää kuin silmänsä".
Madame huokasi hypistellen hajamielisesti lautasta, katseet

pöytään luotuina. "Ja kuitenkin sanotaan, että avioliitot säädetään
taivaassa", hän mutisi hiljaisesti.
"Taivaalta — tähdistä — me johdamme tietomme", vastasi

mustapukuinen samaan tapaan.
Mutta hänen kasvonsa! — oli hyvä, että madame ei nähnyt niitä!

Ja samassa puuttui hra de Vidoche keskusteluun. "Mitä hölynpölyä
tuo on?" hän sanoi puhutellen äreästi vaimoaan. "Oletko lopettanut?
Maksakaamme siis tuolle isännän heittiölle ja lähtekäämme. Jos
nimittäin et halua viettää yötä taipaleella. Missä ne palvelijain
vätykset ovat?"
Hän nousi, astui ovelle huutamaan heitä ja palasi hyvin

puuhakkaasti ottamaan viittaansa ja hattuansa. Mutta hänen kaikissa
liikkeissään oli huomattavaa, että hän ei kertaakaan kohdannut
tähdistälukijan katsetta tai vilkaissut tämän taholle. Silloinkin kun hän
jurosti toivotti mustapukuiselle "hyvää yötä" — ohimennen virkkaen
sen hoputellessaan vaimoansa lähtökuntoon — hän puhui olkansa
yli; ja samaan tapaan hän läksi huoneesta, näköjään kokonaan
syventyneenä viittansa kiinnittämiseen.
Jotkut olisivat näin ylimielisesti kohdeltuina saattaneet loukkaantua

ja jotkut lausua pahastuksensa julki. Mutta mustapukuinen mies oli
toista lajia. Jäätyään yksikseen hän yhä istui odottavassa
asennossa, kolkoilla kasvoillaan pilkallinen myhäily, joka erityisesti
pisti silmään kynttiläin hohteessa. Äkkiä avautui ovi, ja sieltä tuli hra
de Vidoche viitassaan ja matkavaipassaan. Silmiänsä kohottamatta
hän katseli ympärilleen huoneessa — näyttäen etsivän jotakin
unohtamaansa.
"Ka, sivumennen sanoen —" hän virkahti katsettansa nostamatta.
"Osoitteeni?" tokaisi mustapukuinen mies pirullisen kerkeästi.

"Touchet-kadun pää Marais'n kaupunginosassa lähellä virtaa. Siellä,
uskokaa minua", hän jatkoi ivallisesti kumartaen, "annan teille
madamen horoskoopin mitä mieluimmin, tai mitä hyvänsä muuta
pikku palvelusta halunnette".
"Luullakseni olette itse paholainen!" jupisi hra de Vidoche äkeästi,

posket kalvenneina.
"Paljon mahdollista", vastasi tähdistälukija. "Miten olleekaan —

näkemiin!"
Kun isäntä tovia myöhemmin tuli pyytämään hra Solomon

Notredame de Paris'lta anteeksi häirinnästä, jota hän oli vastoin
tahtoansa tälle tuottanut, tapasi hän vieraansa peräti hyvällä tuulella.
"Ei väliä, hyvä ystävä — ei ollenkaan", vastasi hra Notredame
leppeästi. "Seuran kyllä huomasin hyväksi. Tuo hra de Vidoche on
näiltä tienoin, ja nähdäkseni rikas mies."
"Vaimonsa kautta", sanoi isäntä varovasti. "Voi, niin rikkaan, että
madame voisi rakennuttaa täkäläisen linnamme uudestaan pohjia
myöten."
"Madame de Vidoche oli Pinatelista."
"Tietenkin. Monsieur tietää kaikki. Jumiegesin luota pohjoisessa.

Olen käynyt siellä kerran. Mutta madamella on lisäksi talo Parisissa,
ja tiluksia etelässä, kuulemma — Perigordissa."
"Haa!" mutisi tähdistälukija. "Taas Perigord. Sepä omituista."

IV.
Kaksiovinen talo.
Henrik IV rakennutti Place Royalen vanhan Palais des

Tournellesin paikalle, missä Henrik II sai surmansa asekisoissa.
Edellistäkään nimeä ette näe millään nykyisen Parisin kartalla;
uudenaikaisella Ranskalla ei ole mitään historiaa, perinnäismuistoja
tai kunnioittavaisuutta, ja se on tarkoin pyyhkinyt pois tuollaiset
mainemerkit Grévyjensä ja Eiffeliensä — sanomalehtimiestensä ja
saippuankeittäjiensä — hyväksi. Mutta silti — ja vaikka Place Royale
nyt on menettänyt nimensäkin — se oli kolmannentoista Ludvigin
hallitessa muodin keskus. Quartier du Marais, jossa se sijaitsi
vastapäätä Pyhän Ludvigin saarta, oli silloin hoviväen kaupunginosa,
Se näki vaunujen tulevan yleiseen käytäntöön aatelin keskuudessa,
röyhelön ja primeron syrjäytyvän ja epälukuisia muita omituisia
seikkoja, jollaisia hovipiirit niinä aikoina tarkkailivat.
Palatsin takaportaat ovat kuitenkin harvoin mieltäylentävää tai

loistavaa nähtävää — tai jos niissä voi sanoa olevan mitään
loistokasta, niin se uhkeus on jotenkin synkeätä ja aaveellista.
Kuninkaan huvitukset ovat epäilemättä varsin kuninkaallisia ja
luonnollisia, ja asianmukaiselta näkökohdalta katsottuina ne vetävät
puoleensakin; mutta niillä on toinenkin puoli, ja se johtaa
takaportaille päin. Samoin on hovin ja sen ympäristön laita. Ne ovat
kankaan nurea pinta, sammalen pohja, hienon aivinan verhoama
mätäpaise. Salaisuudet eivät ole mitään salaisuuksia siellä, ja niin on
aina ollut. Asiat, joita De Thou ei tiennyt ja Brantôme vain arvaili,
olivat kuluneita juttuja siellä. Hovin manalaväki tunsi tarkalleen sen
salaperäisen taudin, johon Gabrielle d'Estées [Henrik IV:n lemmitty,
Beaufortin ensimäisen herttuan äiti. Suom.] kuoli nautittuaan
Zamet’lla sitroonin — tarkemmin kuin on koskaan tullut julkisuuteen.
Se veitsen nirhama, joka teki toukokuun toisen keskiviikon v. 1610
kuuluisaksi historiassa [Henrik lV:n murhapäivä. Suom.], oli
supateltavana tuolla takalistolla jo kuukautta aikaisemmin. Condén
Henrik-prinssin kuolema, Mazarinin avioliitto [Mazarin oli salaa
naimisissa leskikuningattaren — Itävallan Annan — kanssa. Suom.],
D'Eonin sukupuoli, Cagliostron syntymä, tuollaiset hämärät seikat
eivät olleet mitään pulmia Louvren ja Petit Trianonin syrjäsopissa.
Se, joka kirjoitti: "kuninkaan liesikiven alla on paljon siiroja" tunsi sen
maailman — nurjan, ruman, häijynilkisen, vaarallisen maailman.
Jos mikään senaikuisen Parisin katu kuului siihen, niin ainakin

Rue Touchet, viidensadan kyynärän päässä Place Royalista kulkeva
kuja Marais'n kaupunginosan laidassa. Kadun toiselle vierelle
rakennettujen talojen taustat olivat virran puolella, josta ne eroitti
ainoastaan kapea kaistale liejurantamaa. Nämä talot olivat
vanhempia kuin vastapäinen rivi, säännöttömänä rykelmänä
kohottaen korkealle päätyjänsä ja kallellisia savupiippujaan. Siellä
täällä pistäysi synkkä sola virralle, ja joka toinen asumus oli kapakka
tai pahempaa. Kahdessa isoimmassa oli miekkailukoulu ja
pelihelvetti. Lounaassa katu päättyi umpipohjukkaan; sen nimittäin
sulki laakeakattoinen kivirakennus, joka oli saatu kokoon sillä
paikalla aikoinaan sijainneen vanhan virta-holviportin raunioista.
Tämän talon ikkunoista ei milloinkaan siirretty luukkuja syrjään, ovi
avautui harvoin päivänvalolla. Se oli Solomon Notredamen asunto.
Kerran viikossa tai niille vaihein saattoi nähdä tähdistälukijan synkän
haamun astuvan taloon tai lähtevän sieltä, jolloin miehet kapakkain
ovella osoittelivat häntä sormellaan ja ikkunoista kurkistelevat
homsuiset naiset tekivät ristinmerkin. Mutta Touchet-kadun
asukkaista tiesivät harvat, että talossa oli toinen ulko-ovi, joka ei
avautunut virralle päin kuten jokivarren talojen takaovet, vaan
hiljaiselle vesirajaan johtavalle kadulle.
Hra Notredamen talo olikin kaksiosainen ja palveli kahta lajia

asiatuttavia. Ylhäiset naiset ja hovilaiset, pitkän kauhtanan kantajat
ja porvarisrouvat, tulivat hiljaisen kadun ovelle eivätkä tienneet
mitään Rue Touchet’sta. Jälkimäiseltä suunnalta taasen tulivat ne,
jotka maksoivat jauhoissa, jolleivät maltaissa: lakeijat ja
kamarineidot, hiippailevat oppipojat ja norkot — kaupunginosan
pohjasakka, lionnut paheessa ja rikoksessa — ja sen tietämisessä.
Talo oli kalustettu sikäli. Tähdistälukijan tapasivat Touchet-kadun

asiatuttavat huoneessa, joka oli jaettu kahtia tulipunaisilla esiripuilla;
nämä oli järjestetty siten, että kävijä osittain näki taemman
puoliskon, missä sulatusuunin tumma hehku osui valinkauhoihin ja
sulattimiin, huhmareihin ja tislaimiin, moninaisiin eriskummallisiin
astioihin ja pullosiin sekä kaikkeen alkemistin salaperäiseen
varastoon. Ihan ympärillään havaitsi värisevä heittiö vielä
merkillisempiä esineitä. Kunkin oven yläpuolella riippui
kuolleenkoura, eräästä seinäkomerosta kurkisti luuranko.
Rähmällään lattialla makasi täytetty alligaattori ja näytti ahjon
lepattavassa kumotuksessa joka hetki havahtuvan henkiin.
Salatieteellisiä merkkejä ja outoja kapineita ja kallosakaraisia
sauvoja näkyi kaikkialla, pergamenttikääryjä ja epämuotoisia hirviöitä
sekä kaikenlaatuista kamaa, mikä saattoi tehota tietämättömään,
jonka sopi halunsa mukaan istuutua ruumisarkulle ja huvittelun
puutteessa leikkiä jalkojensa juureen loikkivan rupisammakon
kanssa. Hämärästi nähtyinä, yhteen sullottuina ja vaillinaisesti
ymmärrettyinä tällaiset ilmiöt riittivät masentamaan pelonsekaisella
kunnioituksella alhaisoa ja olivat usein kauhistuttaneet
hurjamielisimpiäkin roistoja, mistä Touehet-katu saattoi kerskua.
Pienet portaat, jotka yläpäässä sulki vankka ovi, johtivat tästä

huoneesta siihen kamariin ja odotushuoneeseen, missä
tähdistälukija otti vastaan todelliset toimenantajansa. Siellä oli kaikki
toisenlaista. Molemmat huoneet olivat verhotut mustalla, seinät, laki
ja lattia: niissä vallitsi avara ja kolkko tyhjyys. Odotushuone sisälsi
kaksi töyrytuolia ja keskilattialla pronssitelineessä ison kristallipallon.
Ei mitään lisäksi, paitsi hopeisen riippulampun, jonka sininen hohde
tehosti huoneen haudanomaista synkkyyttä.
Sisäkamari, jota valaisi kuusi seinähaarukkoihin asetettua

kynttilää, oli melkein autio. Jonkunlaisella alttarilla peräseinustalla oli
kaksi jyhkeätä nidettä alituiseen avoinna. Keskilattialla näkyi
mustapuisen patsaan päässä astrolabi, tähtikorkeuden
määräämiskoje, ja itse lattiaverhoon oli valkoisella ommeltu
eläinradan merkit ja taivaanlaen kaksitoista "taloa" eli piiriä kehään
järjestettyinä. Alttarin lähellä oli tähdistälukijan varalla istuin. Ja siinä
kaikki. Vallitakseen sellaisia, jotka kävivät hänen luonansa täällä,
Notredame luotti korkeampaan aatostasoon, henkevämpiin
taikauskon muotoihin, synkkyyden ja äänettömyyden vaikutuksiin
omassatunnossa ja ennen kaikkea kenties siihen tuntemukseen,
mikä hänellä oli maailmasta — ja heistä.
Tähän ympäristöön joutui värjyvä, kauhistunut pikku kuolevainen,
Jehan. Hänen toimenaan oli avata ulko-ovi hiljaiselle kadulle ja
laskea taloon puheillepyrkijät. Häneltä oli mitä hirmuisimpien
rangaistusten uhalla kielletty puhuminen, niin että kävijät pitivät
häntä mykkänä. Ensimäisen viikkonsa hän eli siellä miltei
mykistävän pelon kourissa. Talon pimeys ja hiljaisuus,
haudanomaiset kynttilät ja verhot, pääkallot ja sääriluut ja muut
kammottavat esineet, joita ilmestyi hänen näkyviinsä
äkkiarvaamattomina hetkinä, olivat hämmentää häneltä järjen. Hän
värisi ja kyyristeli sinne ja tänne. Hänen kasvonsa kävivät valkeiksi,
ja hänen silmiinsä asettui niin oudosti tuijottava katse, että
jäykkäluontoisimmankin olisi saattanut tulla häntä surku. Sanalla
sanoen, ei paljoakaan puuttunut, jotta lapsi olisi sortunut
mielenvikaiseksi, eikä olisi puuttunut mitään, jollei hänellä olisi ollut
tukenaan äskeisvuosiensa karaisevaa harjoittelua ulkoilmassa.
Hän olisi saattanut paeta, sillä hänet uskottiin yksikseen ovelle,

jonka hän olisi voinut milloin hyvänsä avata pujahtaakseen tiehensä.
Mutta Jehan ei hetkeäkään epäillyt, että hänen isäntänsä kykeni
löytämään hänet ja tuomaan takaisin, joten se ajatus ei juolahtanut
hänen mieleensäkään. Noin viikon kuluttua alkoi tottumus tehota
häneen, kuten tavallista. Talo kävi vähemmän kauhistuttavaksi,
pimeys menetti hirmuisuutensa, äänettömyyden ja kaameuden tunto
hellitti herpaisevaa pingoitustansa. Hän alkoi nukkua paremmin.
Uteliaisuus voitti alaa pelolta. Hän viehättyi tutkimaan eläinradan
merkkejä ja salavihkaa kurkistelemaan kristallipalloon.
Rupisammakosta tuli hänen leikkitoverinsa. Hän ruokki sitä torakoilla
eikä enää ollut puuhan puutteessa.
Tähdistälukija näki pojassa tapahtuneen muutoksen eikä kenties

ollut pelkästään mielissään siitä. Ennen pitkää hän ryhtyi
rajoittamaan sitä. Eräänä päivänä hän tapasi Jehanin leikkimässä
rupisammakon kanssa, sävyssään jotakin poikamaista rentoutta, —
pannen ruman elukan loikkimaan käsiensä yli ja kutkuttaen sitä
oljenkorrella. Poika nousi hänen tullessaan ja väistyi pois, sillä
miehen kolkot kasvot ja ahdistava hiljaisuus eivät olleet vähääkään
menettäneet peloitustehostansa. Mutta Notredame kutsui hänet
takaisin. "Alat unohtaa", hän sanoi silmäillen lasta yrmeästi.
Poika vapisi hänen tähysteltävänään, vaan ei rohjennut vastata.
"Kenen olet?"
Jehan vilkui ympärilleen. Vihdoin hän jupisi kuivin huulin: "Teidän."
"Ei, et ole", oikaisi mustapukuinen mies. "Ajattele uudestaan.

Sinulla on lyhyt muisti."
Jehan ajatteli ja hikosi. Mutta mies tahtoi vastauksensa, ja viimein

kuiskasi Jehan: "Paholaisen."
"Se on parempi", sanoi tähdistälukija kylmäkiskoisesti. "Tiedätkö,

mitä tämä on?"
Hän otti käteensä lasikulhon. Poika tunsi sen, ja hänen tukkansa

alkoi nousta pystyyn. Mutta hän pudisti päätänsä.
"Se on vihkivettä", sanoi mustapukuinen, ja hänen julmat silmänsä

tähystivät tiukasti poikaa. "Ojenna kätesi."
Jehan ei hirvinnyt kieltäytyä. "Tämä koettelee sinua", puhui

Notredame verkalleen, "oletko paholaisen vai etkö. Jos et, niin vesi
ei sinua vahingoita. Jos olet, — jos olet ainiaaksi hänen omansa,
täyttämässä hänen tahtoansa ja halujansa, — silloin se polttaa kuin
tuli!"
Viime sanan virkkaessaan hän äkkiä ripisti vettä harjalla pojan

kädelle. Jehan poukkosi taaksepäin kivusta kirkaisten, painoi
kirvelevän kätensä poveaan vasten ja tuijotti isäntäänsä
hirmustunein silmin.
"Se polttaa", sanoi tähdistälukija armottomasti. "Se polttaa. Niin on

kuin sanoin. Sinä olet hänen. Hänen! Tästälähtein muistanet. Mene
nyt."
Jehan meni, väristen kauhusta ja tuskasta. Mutta opetuksella ei

täsmälleen ollut tarkoitettua tehoa. Hän pelkäsi yhä isäntäänsä,
mutta alkoi myös vihata häntä, lapselle harvinaisella kiihkeällä,
sitkeällä vihalla. Vaikka hän yhä tutisi ja kyyristeli mustapukuisen
läsnäollessa, ei poikaa hänen selkänsä takana enää pidätellyt pelko.
Jehan ei tiennyt mitään keinoa kostaakseen. Hän ei tehnyt mitään
suunnitelmia siinä mielessä, hän ei oivaltanut koston mahdollisuutta.
Mutta hän vihasi ja oli valmis käyttämään tilaisuutta sen tullen.
Hänet lukittiin taloon aina kun Notredame läksi ulos, ja tällä tavoin
hän vietti monia yksinäisiä ja kaameita hetkiä. Nämä johtivat hänet
kuitenkin lopulta erääseen keksintöön. Kerran joulukuun puolivälissä,
kun hän tutkiskeli paikkoja tähdistälukijan poissaollessa, hän löysi
erään oven. Sanoin "löysi"; se nimittäin ei kyllä ollut mikään salaovi,
mutta pieni ja vaikeasti keksittävissä, sijaiten alemmista ylempiin
kamareihin johtavien pikku portaitten päässä olevan suoran, kaidan
käytävän sivussa. Ensin hän luuli sitä lukituksi, mutta pelkästä
uteliaisuudesta tarkastaessaan sitä lähemmin hän havaitsi
laudoituksen syvennyksessä säpin kahvan. Hän painoi tätä, ja ovi
myötäsi hiukan.
Sillä kertaa poika säikähti. Hän huomasi komeron pimeäksi, veti
oven jälleen kiinni ja läksi pois uteliaisuuttansa tyydyttämättä. Mutta
vähän ajan kuluttua pääsi hänen pelostaan voitolle halu tietää, mitä
oli oven takana. Hän palasi talituikku kädessä, painoi säppiä
uudestaan, työnsi oven auki ja astui sisälle pamppailevin sydämin.
Hän kohotti kynttiläänsä ja näki hyvin ahtaan, paljaan kammion,

joka oli sovitettu seinämuuriin. Ja siinä kaikki, sillä paikka oli tyhjä —
siellä ei ollut muuta kuin lattian verhona pehmeä nukkamatto. Poika
tuijotti säikkyen ympärilleen, yhä odottaen jotakin kamalaa, mutta
mitään ei ollut nähtävissä. Vähitellen hänen pelkonsa häipyi ja
uteliaisuutensa niinikään, ja hän poistui.
Toisena päivänä hän kuitenkin komeroon palatessaan teki

keksinnön. Kumpaiseenkin seinään kiinnitettynä hän näki mustan
verkalapun — muutamaa tuumaa pitkän ja kolmea leveän. Hän piti
kynttilää ensin toisen ja sitte toisen likellä, vaan ei saanut tajutuksi
niistä mitään, kunnes huomasi, että alireunat olivat irrallaan. Silloin
hän kohotti toista liepukkaa. Näkyviin tuli kapea rako, josta hän näki
työpajaan, — tummana hehkuvan ahjon, kimmeltävät pulloset ja
herkeämättömästi heräämistä teeskentelevän krokotiilin. Hän kohotti
toista ja huomasi senkin alla raon, mutta kun senpuoleinen kamari —
astrolabihuone — oli pimeä, ei hän saanut nähdyksi mitään. Hän
ymmärsi kuitenkin. Komero oli vakoilupaikka, ja nämä olivat Judas-
reikiä, siten sovitettuja, että kuulumaton ja näkymätön väijyjä kykeni
näkemään ja kuulemaan kaikki mitä tapahtui hänen kumpaisellakin
puolellaan.
Tähdistälukijan tapana oli lukita Touchet-katua lähinnä oleva iso

huone mennessään kaupungille. Tästä syystä, ja koska paikka oli
kielletty, poika viivyskeli Judas-reiällä, pilkistellen siihen. Hän tiesi jo
enimmäkseen, mitä merkillisyyksiä tuo huone sisälsi, ja ahjon
punainen hohde antoi sille hänen mielestään kummallista
kodikkuutta. Hän kuunteli putoilevan tuhan ripinää ja jonkun
kellokoneiston tikitystä takaseinällä. Hän alkoi tyhjänpäiväisesti
luetella, mitä kaikkia esineitä hän kykeni näkemään; mutta vasituista
työpajaa eristävä esirippu loi huoneen poikitse suuren varjon, ja
tämän läpi hän yritti turhaan tunkea katseellaan. Paremmin
nähdäkseen hän sammutti kynttilän ja katsoi jälleen. Tuskin oli hän
kuitenkaan uudestaan siirtänyt silmänsä rakoon, kun hänen
korvaansa tunkeutui hiljaista narinaa. Hän hätkähti ja pidätti
hengitystään, mutta ennen kuin hän ehti hievahtaakaan, avautui
Touchet-kadun puoleinen jykevä ulko-ovi longalleen, ja tähdistälukija
astui sisälle.
Jonkun sekunnin ajan poika seisoi tuijottaen, uskaltamatta

hengittää tai liikahtaa. Sitten hän ponnistautuen pudotti tilkun raolle
ja hiipi hiljaa pois.
V
Ylempi holviovi.
Tähdistälukija ei tullut yksin. Kookas haamu, viitta yllä ja sen

kaulus kohotettuna poskipäihin asti, astui huoneeseen hänen
perässään ja seisoi odottamassa hänen vierellään, kun isäntä telkesi
ovea. Nähtävästi he olivat tavanneet toisensa vasta kynnyksellä, sillä
katseltuaan ympärilleen ja hiljaisesti tarkastettuaan huoneen
haaveellista epäjärjestystä vieras virkkoi käheällä äänellä: "Ette
tunne minua?"
"Aivan hyvin, hra de Vidoche", vastasi tähdistälukija ottaen hatun

päästään.
"Tiesittekö, että seurasin teitä?"
"Tulin näyttämään teille tietä."
"Se ainakin on vale!" väitti nuori aatelismies pilkallisesti irvistäen;

"sillä minä en itsekään tiennyt tulevani".
"Ennen kuin näitte minut", vastasi tähdistälukija järkkymättömästi.

"Ettekö heitä viittaa yltänne? Tarvitsette sitä lähtiessänne."
Hra de Vidoche noudatti kehoitusta ynseästi. "Tavallinen
ammattivarasto, huomaan", hän mutisi silmäten halveksivasti
ympärilleen. "Pääkalloja ja sääriluita, kuolleenkouria ja hirsipuun
naruja. Huh! Täällä löyhkää. Nämä kai ovat niitä kapineita, joita
pidätte lasten säikyttämiseksi."
"Toiset", vastasi Notredame tyynesti — hän sytytti lamppua — "ja

toiset ovat kaupan".
"Kaupan?" huudahti hra de Vidoche epäuskoisesti. "Kuka niitä

ostaa?"
"Ken mitäkin", selitti tähdistälukija huolettomasti. "Katsokaa

esimerkiksi tuota", hän jatkoi kääntyen vieraaseensa ja katsoen
häntä ensi kertaa. "Odotan tapaavani liiketuttavan tuolle varsin
väleen."
Hra de Vidoche seurasi hänen sormensa suuntaa ja värähti

väkisinkin. "Tuo" oli ruumisarkku. "Sikseen jo tämä", hän sanoi
äkeän kärsimättömästi. "Entä jos laskeutuisitte alas
suurellisuudestanne ja ryhtyisitte asioihin. Saanko istua, mies, vai
aiotteko pitää minua seisaalla kaiken yötä?"
Mustapukuinen mies otti kaksi töyrytuolia ja astui edellä esiripun

taakse. "Täällä on lämpimämpi", hän sanoi työntäen syrjään ison
saviruukun ja jalallaan raivaten tyhjäksi pikku tilan hehkuvan
hiilloksen edustalta. "Nyt olen käytettävissänne, hra de Vidoche.
Istuutukaahan."
"Olemmeko yksin?" kysyi nuori aatelismies epäluuloisesti.
"Tottahan toki", vastasi tähdistälukija. "Ymmärrän asiani."

Mutta de Vidochelle näytti käyvän hieman työlääksi mainita
asiaansa, vaikka hän oli vastikään pitänyt niin suurta kiirettä. Hän
istui päättämättömänä, luoden pahanelkisiä syrjäsilmäyksiä ensin
kumppaniin ja sitte vihaisena hehkuvaan hiillokseen. Mutta jos hän
odotti Notredamen auttavan häntä alkuun, hän ei vielä tuntenut
isäntäänsä. Tähdistälukija istui kärsivällisenä, kaikki ilmeet
hävinneinä kasvoiltaan levollisen huomaavaisuuden tieltä.
"Oh, lempo!" ärähti nuori mies viimein.
"Eikö teillä ole mitään sanottavaa? Te tiedätte, mitä tarvitsen", hän

lisäsi ärtyisesti, "yhtä hyvin kuin minäkin".
"Olen halullinen kuulemaan asianne", vastasi tähdistälukija

kohteliaasti.
"Antakaa se minulle enemmittä sanoitta, lähteäkseni täältä!"
Tähdistälukija kohautti kulmakarvojansa. "Voi,

kaikkitietäväisyydellä on raja", hän sanoi pudistaen päätänsä
säveästi. "Tosin pidämme sitä varastossa — lasten säikyttämiseksi.
Mutta se ei auta minua tällähaavaa, hra de Vidoche."
Toinen silmäili häntä myrkyllisen tuimasti. "Kyllä näen; te tahdotte

minua paljastamaan itseni", hän mutisi. Hiki kihoili hänen otsalleen,
ja hänen äänensä oli lankeennuksissa raivosta tai muusta
mielenliikutuksesta. "Olin hupsu, kun tulin tänne", hän jatkoi. "Jos
teidän pitää se kuulla, niin tahdon tappaa kissan; tarvitsen jotakin
annosta sille."
Tähdistälukija nauroi äänettömästi. "Vuoret synnyttivät, ja siitä tuli

kissa!" hän virkkoi huvitettuna. "Vain kissa! No, siinä tapauksessa
pelkään tulleenne väärään paikkaan, hra de Vidoche. Minä en tapa
kissoja. Siinä ei ole mitään vaaraa, nähkääs", hän pitkitti, katsoen
tiukasti kumppaniinsa, "eikä mitään ansionmahdollisuutta. Kukaan ei
piittaa kissasta. Kuka hyvänsä rohdoskauppias täyttää tarpeenne
vaskilantista. Joskin elukka mustenee tunnin kuluessa ja sen suu
vääntyy niskakuoppaan", hän jatkoi hirvittävästi hymyillen, "kuten
kävi Beaufortin herttuattarelle, niin cui malo? — siinä ei ole mitään
pahaa. Mutta jos olisi kysymyksessä — Luullakseni näin monsieurin
tänään ratsastamassa mademoiselle de Farincourtin seurassa?"
Hra de Vidoche, joka oli katsellut kiduttajaansa raivostuneesti ja

kauhuissaan, hätkähti odottamattomasta kysymyksestä. "No", hän
mutisi, "ja entä jos olinkin?"
"Ka, ei mitään", vastasi mustapukuinen välinpitämättömästi.

"Mademoiselle on kaunis, ja monsieur on onnellinen mies, jos saa
häneltä hymyilyn. Mutta hän on ylhäistä sukuperää, ja ylpeä,
kerrotaan." Puhuessaan hän kumartui eteenpäin ja lämmitteli pitkiä
laihoja käsiään tulen edessä. Mutta hänen killisilmänsä eivät
hetkeksikään siirtyneet toisen kasvoista.
Hra de Vidoche vääntelehti niiden tuijoteltavana. "Horna!" hän ärisi

käheästi. "Mitä tarkoitatte?"
"Hänen sukunsa kuuluu niinikään olevan ylpeätä; ja mahtavaa.

Kardinaalin ystäviäkin kuuluvat olevan." Mustapukuisen hymy oli
lähimmin verrattavissa krokotiilin irvistykseen.
Hra de Vidoche nousi tuoliltaan, mutta istuutui jälleen.
"Kardinaali kostaisi sen suvun kunnian loukkaamisen kuolemalla",

pitkitti tähdistälukija säveästi. "Kuolemalla varmastikin. Ettekö luule
samaa, hra de Vidoche?"
Hiki helmeili isoina karpaloina nuoren miehen otsalla, ja hän

silmäili tuikeasti kiduttajaansa. Mutta jälkimäinen kohtasi katseen
lauhkeasti ja näytti tietämättömältä sanojensa tehosta. "On
senvuoksi sääli, että monsieur ei ole vapaa menemään naimisiin",
hän sanoi pahoitellen pudistaen päätänsä, "sääli kerrassaan. Ei
tiedä, mitä saattaa tapahtua. Mutta toiselta puolen, jollei hän olisi
mennyt naimisiin, niin hän olisi nyt köyhä mies."
Hra de Vidoche hypähti kiroten jaloilleen. Mutta hän istuutui

taaskin.
"Naimisiin mennessään hän oli köyhä mies, luullakseni", pitkitti

tähdistälukija, ensi kertaa kääntäen tuijotuksensa toisen kasvoista ja
katsellen tuleen kummallisesti hymyillen. "Ja velkainen. Madame —
nykyinen madame de Vidoche, tarkoitan — maksoi hänen velkansa
ja lienee tuonut hänelle suuren omaisuuden."
"Josta hän ei ole sen koommin lakannut muistuttamasta minua

kahdesti päivässä!" huusi nuori mies kamalalla äänellä. Ja silloin hän
yhtäkkiä menetti kaiken itsehillintänsä, kaiken teeskentelyn, kaiken
pelokkaan viekkauden, jota oli tähän asti osoittanut. Hän ponnahti
seisaalle. Suonet paisuivat ohimoilla, kasvot hehkuivat punaisina.
Niin totta on, että pikku seikat koettelevat meitä enemmän kuin isot
tapaukset, ja pienet ärsytykset kahnaavat syvempiä lyöttymiä kuin
suuret vääryydet. "Hyvä Jumala!" hän sähisi hampaittensa raosta,
"jos tietäisitte, mitä olen kärsinyt siitä naisesta! Valjunaamainen,
kitisevä hupsu, — minä olen inhonnut häntä nämä viisi vuotta, ja
olen ollut kytketty häneen ja hänen vaikerteluunsa ja
nunnankasvoihinsa! Kahdesti päivässä? Ei, kymmenesti päivässä,
kaksikymmentä kertaa päivässä hän muistuttelee minua veloistani,

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Urban wildlife management Third

Edition Clark Edward Adams

Introducing Wildlife in Urban Ecosystems Amartya Deb

Acceptance Sampling in Quality Control Third Edition

Third Wave Feminism and Transgender Strength Through

Urban Storm Water Management Second Edition Pazwash

The Essentials of Finance and Accounting for

Knowledge Management and Engineering with Decisional

Equine wound management Third Edition Schumacher

Steve Backshall s wildlife adventurer s guide a guide

Urban Wildlife Management

Urban Wildlife Management

The third edition features

• Five new chapters

• Four new case studies

• Seven new appendices and species profiles

• A comprehensive analysis of terrestrial vertebrate locations by state and urban observations

6000 Broken Sound Parkway, NW

Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of the

No claim to original U.S. Government works

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4987-0203-4 (eBook - PDF)

3.7.3 Thermodynamics and Conservation of Matter....................................................... 106

5.8 Structural and Functional Adaptations of Fishes................................................................. 150

8.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................... 203

Species Profile 9.2: Green Anole (Anolis carolinensis).................................................................. 252

11.7.9 Raccoon Survival.................................................................................................... 295

13.5.3 Hogs (Sus scrofa).................................................................................................... 365

15.6 Working with Urban Stakeholders....................................................................................... 423

17.5 Bacterial Diseases................................................................................................................ 459

A.1 Amphibians (n = 101/302, 33%) Observed in Some Urbanized Communities in the

I.1 A SNAPSHOT OF THE URBAN WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT LANDSCAPE

I.2 CHANGING WILDLIFE VALUES

Hunting 0 –0.7 –0.4 0.9

Fishing –0.1 –0.3 –1.2 1

Watching –17 5.1 7.5 1

200 Wildlife watching

I.2.1 Disconnecting from Nature

I.2.2 Structural Barriers

A structural barrier—restricted access to wildlife resources on private rural lands—further

I.2.3 Wildlife Values

I.3 NEED FOR A COMPREHENSIVE TREATMENT

I.4 UNDERSTANDING AND MEETING THE FUTURE

"Olettehan matkalla Parisiin", sanoi Notredame näköjään

"Maaseudulle!" huudahti de Vidoche maltittomasti kiroten. "Hän

Madame de Vidoche pakottausi hymyilemään, naisellisesti yrittäen

"Niin, et koskaan kyllästy muistuttamaan minua siitä!" kivahti de

"Oi, Charles!" sopersi toinen heikosti.

Mustapukuinen mies kuunteli aterioiden toisessa päässä pöytää

Hra de Vidoche katsoi häneen hetkisen ikäänkuin haluten kysyä,

"Puoskarien", virkahti mustapukuinen mies levollisesti.

"Aivan oikein", vastasi de Vidoche ivallisen kohteliaasti. "Hyväksyn

"Mutta niinkin ollen on yksi seikka huomattava", pitkitti

Hra de Vidoche, jolla saattoi olla omassa povessaan avain toisen

Oli ilmeistä, että tähdistälukija ei ollut mikään tavallinen mies.

Tämä ei kuitenkaan näkynyt ottavan huomatakseen sanojensa

"Katselette poikaa", hän jatkoi, sillä Jehan värjötteli ovipielessä

"Hän on sievä lapsi", vastasi madame hymyillen heikosti.

"Kyllä, hyvännäköinen hän on", vahvisti mustapukuinen. "On yksi

"Mikä niin?" kysyi nainen uteliaasti, ensi kertaa tähystäen

"Lemmenjuoma", vastasi tämä sävyisästi. "Hänen ulkomuotonsa,

Toinen punehtui, hymyillen hiukan suruisesti. "Onko sellaisia

Madame huokasi hypistellen hajamielisesti lautasta, katseet