The Universe

● 95% Black Matter, 5% what we see

● Universe’s age: 13.8 billion years old
● Heliocentric model: Copernicus
● Hydrogen: most abundant element in the Universe
● The Big Bang Theory - by Georges Lemaitre; Hubble gave the evidence
● Sun’s age: 4.6 billion years old
● Milky Way: Spiral shaped (elliptical shaped galaxies are also present), first
observed by Galileo
● Solar system in the outer spiral rim of the MW galaxy
● Andromeda: our nearest galaxy
● Proxima Centauri: closest star to sun
● Solar System
○ Kant - Laplace Nebular Theory: A spinning cloud of dust made of
mostly light elements, called a nebula, flattened into a protoplanetary
disk, and became a solar system consisting of a star with orbiting
planets
○ Tidal Hypothesis: Given by Jeans and Jeffrey; tidal force of the
intruding star resulted in the ejection of a large mass from our sun,
from which planets are formed
● Sun
○ Inner Layers: Core → Radiative Zone → Convective Zone
○ Outer Layers: Photosphere → Chromosphere → Transition region → Corona
○ White dwarf
● Inner/Rocky/Terrestrial Planets: MVEM
● Outer/Jovian Planets: JSUNP
● Asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter
● Hayley’s Comet: 76 years
● Lonar lake, Maharashtra: meteorite lake
● Meteoroids (mesosphere) → enters earth’s orbit → Meteors or shooting stars →
ground impact → Meteorite
● Comets: orbit the sun
● Celestial bodies: objects that shine in the night sky
● All planets (except Venus and Uranus) rotate West to East, in ACW dirn.
● Mercury
○ No ozone layer
● Venus
○ Morning/Evening star, veiled planet, earth’s twin, lucifer
○ Longest day
○ Rotates East to West
○ Hottest & brightest planet
○ Thick acidic atmosphere
● Earth
○ Goldilock zone
○ 365 days, 6 hours, 9 minutes → seasonal changes
○ 23 hours, 56 min, 4 s, w.r.t. distant stars → day and night
○ 24 hours w.r.t. the sun
○ Most dense planet

○ A - farthest (slowest), P - nearest

● Mars
○ Iron oxide dust → Red planet; pink sky
○ No atmosphere
○ Nat. satellites: Phobos and Deimos
○ Contains the mountain: Nix Olympica
○ Recent missions: Tianwen - 1, China & Ingenuity (helicopter), NASA
● Jupiter
○ Largest
○ Fastest spinning
○ 12 years orbit
○ Winter planet
○ Ganymede: largest moon in the SS; 79 satellites
● Saturn
○ 2nd largest
○ Largest no. of satellites: 82; Titan - largest of them
○ Least dense planet
● Uranus
○ Greenish in looks due to high methane
○ Rotates E to W
○ Moons known by Shakespeare’s characters (Oberon and Titania
largest)
● Neptune
○ Twin of Uranus
○ Mild greenish
○ Triton - largest moon; Nereid - 3rd largest
● Pluto
 ○ International Astronomical Union - dwarf planet

The Earth
● Summer Solstice: June 21; Yoga Day
Winter Solstice: Dec. 22 (6 months later)

Spring/vernal equinox (equal day and night): March 20-21

Autumnal/Autumn equinox: September 22 (6 months later)
● Umbra: smaller shadow; Penumbra: larger shadow
● Solar Eclipse
○ Sun Moon Earth, on New Moon day
● Lunar Eclipse
○ Sun Earth Moon, on Full Moon day
● Moon
○ Huygens: tallest mountain
○ ⅙g
○ 27+⅓ days to complete orbit around the earth

Spheres of Earth
● Oblate spheroid
● Mean radius: 6,371 km
● -------: Latitude lllll: Longitude
● Latitudes
○ Horizontal lines
○ Measured in degrees; equator: 0 degree - divides earth into N.
Hemisphere and S. Hemisphere
○ Important Latitudes
■ North Pole: 90 N
■ Arctic Circle: 66+½ N in the NH
■ Tropic of Cancer: 23+½ N in the NH
■ Equator: 0
■ Tropic of Capricorn: 23+½ S in the SH
■ Antarctic Circle: 66+½ S in the SH
 ■ South Pole: 90 S
○ Equator passes through 8 Indian states: Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya
Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Tripura, Mizoram
○ 3 heat zones of the earth
■ Torrid
■ Temperate
■ Frigid
● Longitudes
○ Vertical lines
○ Prime Meridian: A line passing through
Royal Observatory, Greenwich (London) is
is chosen as the ref. - Prime Meridian
Greenwich mean line = PM
● East to PM: eastern hemisphere, west to PM: western hemisphere
● There are 360 degrees of the meridians.
● Longitude of PM = 0 degrees
● Length of all meridians are equal

● India: Entirely in the N. Hemisphere; between latitudes 8°4'N and 37°6'N and
longitudes 68°7'E and 97°25'E.
● The International Date Line passes through the mid-Pacific Ocean and
roughly follows a 180 degrees longitude north-south line on the Earth. It is
located halfway round the world from the PM.

Continents
● 7 continents
● Earth: 71% water, 29% continents and islands
● 97.5% of water in sears
● Asia
○ Largest, 30% of world’s area, 60% of world’s population (China and
India - 2 largest population)
○ Highest peak: Mt. Everest, 8.8 km
○ Lowest point on dry land: Shore of the Dead Sea - shared by Israel,
Palestine and Jordan; ~0.5 km BSL
○ Mountains
■ Himalayas, Urals (Russia), Kunlun, Tein Shen (China)
■ Pamir Knot - Roof of the World; China, Tajikistan and
Afghanistan
■ Tarim Basin: a basin b/w Kunlun and Tein Shen
○ Rivers
■ Ganges
■ Brahmaputra
■ Indus
 ■ Euphrates (Iraq)
■ Tigris (Iraq)
■ Hwang Ho - Yellow River; Sorrow of China
■ Yangtze - Asia’s largest river, 6,300 km, Three Gorges Dam
○ Deserts
■ Arabian
■ Gopi
■ Thar
○ Baikal Lake, Siberia, Russia: deepest lake in the world
● Europe
○ Asia and Europe separated by Ural mountains and Caspain Sea
○ Highest mountain in Europe: Mt. Elbrus
○ Longest lake in Europe: The Volga
○ Surrounded by water on three sides
■ Mediterranean Sea - South
■ Atlantic - West
■ Arctic - North
○ Smallest country in the world: Vatican
○ Entirely in NH
○ Peninsula of Peninsulas, Peninsula of Eurasia
○ Doesn’t have any deserts
○ Norway + Sweden + Iceland = Scandivian countries
○ Lithuania + Latvia + Estonia = Baltic states
○ Finland = land of lakes
● World’s highest mountains by continents
○ Asia: Mt. Everest (Nepal)
○ Europe: Mt. Elbrus
○ Africa: Kilimanjaro
○ North America: Denali or Mt. McKinley
○ South America: Mt. Aconcagua
○ Australia: Mt. Kosciuszko
○ Antarctica: Vinson Massif
● North America
○ 3rd largest continent
○ Disc. by Columbus in 1492 AD
○ Arctic in North, Atlantic in East and Pacific in West
○ Connected to South America through the Isthmus of Panama
○ Separated from Asia (Russia) by the Bering Strait
○ 49 degrees N latitude forms the boundary between USA and Canada
○ Mt. McKinley - largest mountain in Alaska; has active volcano
○ Lake Superior is the largest freshwater lake in the world
○ Niagara falls between Lake Erie and Lake Ontario
○ Gulf of Mexico: largest gulf in the world
○ Canada: 2nd largest country in the world after Russia
 ○ Grand Canyon is in the US
● South America
○ 4rth largest continent in western hemisphere
○ North: Caribbean Sea, West: Pacific Ocean, rest Atlantic Ocean
○ Mt. Aconcagua - highest peak in this continent
○ Andes mountain (fold) lies here
○ Capital of Ecuador - Quito - highest capital in the world
○ Brazil: largest country in South America
○ Amazon: most voluminous and 2nd longest river in the world;
Anacondas found here
○ Highest navigable lake: Lake Titicaca is on the border of Bolivia and
Peru
○ Angels Fall: highest waterfall in the world
○ Brazil has borders with 10 countries, every countries in SA, except
Chile and Ecuador
● Africa
○ 2nd largest continent
○ Tropic of Cancer, Equator and Tropic of Capricorn passes through it
○ Strait of Gibraltar, Mediterranean Sea, Suez Canal, Red Sea and
Arabian Sea separate Africa from Europe and Asia
○ Kilimanjaro: highest mountain peak in Africa
○ Nile: longest river in the world
■ Originates from the Lake Victoria and drains into the
Mediterranean Sea
○ Desears: Sahara, Kalahari
○ Dark continent
● Australia
○ Smallest continent, lies entirely in Southern Hemisphere
○ Island continent
○ Australia, Tasmania, New Guinea, Misool, Waigeo
○ Disc. by James Cooke in 1770
○ Coral Reef: eastern coast of Australia - known as the Great Barrier
Reef
○ Mt. Kosciusko: highest peak in Australia
○ Major desserts: Great Victoria, Great Sandy

Physical Features of India

● North: Indira Col (Siachen), South: Indira Point (Great Andaman), West: Sir
Creek (Rann of Kutch), East: Kibithu (Arunachal Pradesh)
● Kashmir to Kanyakumar: 3200 km
● The Himalayan Mountains
 ○ Young, fold, central axial range, runs west to east, Indus to
Brahmaputra, 2400 km, 11 states of India
○ Three parallel ranges:
■ Himadri: Northernmost, Greater Himalayas; all big peaks are
here
■ Himachal: South of Himadri, Lesser/lower/middle Himalayas;
Kashmir Valley, Kullu and Kangra valley; all famous hill stations
here; Dhauladhar Range; Pir Panchal - largest of Lower
Himalayas
■ Shiwaliks: Outermost; valley between Himachal and Shiwaliks
called as Duns - DehraDun, KotliDun, PatliDun
○ Brahmaputra - eastern boundary; after Dihang Gorge, Himalayas
bends to the south and spread easts - Purvanchal
○ Eastern-most peak of Himalayas - Namcha Barwa
○ Highest Peaks
■ K2 (largest in India, 2nd largest in the world), Kanchenjunga,
Nanda Devi Peak
○ Important passes:
■ Zoji La Pass, Ladakh - Srinagar to Leh route is here; formed due
to Indus
■ Khardung La, Chang La, Thang La, Ladakh
■ Banihal Pass, J&K (Pir Panchal)
■ Aghil Pass (Karakoram Range - Ladakh and China)), J&K;
Karakoram-Ladakh
■ Shipki La, Himachal Pradesh-China
■ BaraLacha Pass, Himachal Pradesh-Ladakh
■ Rohtang Pass, Himachal Pradesh; Atal Tunnel
■ Niti La, Uttarakhand; India-China
■ Nathu La, Sikkim
■ Jelep La, Sikkim
■ Bum La, Dihang Pass, Diphu Pass - Arunachal Pradesh
● The Northern Plains
○ Formed due to Ganga, Indus and Brahmaputra; depositional plain
○ Longitudinal division
■ Khader: new alluvial, most fertile region
■ Bhanger: largest part, old alluvial
■ Terai: Wet smarmy
■ Bhabar: pebbles and boulders; streams disappear here.
○ Regional division
■ Punjab Plain: western part; Indus and its tributaries - Jhelum,
Chenab, Ravi, Beas, Sutlej originates in the Himalayas
■ Ganga Plain: between Ghaggar and Teesta river; Haryana,
Delhi, UP, Bihar, little of Jharkhand and West Bengal
■ Brahmaputra: Eastern region; Assam and Meghalaya
● Peninsular Plateau
○ Triangle
○ Mostly made of Black soil (reggur) - igneous rock; mostly in the Deccan
Trap
○ Divided into Central
Highlands and Deccan
Plateau, with Narmada
flowing between them.
○ Central Highlands
■ Oldest folded
residual mountain:
Aravalli
■ Maikal range
connects Vindhya
and Sathpura
■ Nilgiri Hills connect
WG and EG; the
highest peak of
Nilgiri hills is
Doddabetta (2nd
highest in PP), in
Tamil Nadu
 ■ Anai mudi is the highest peak in the Western Ghats, and also in
the PP.
■ Kaas Plateau is in Maharashtra; Malnad and Maidan in
Karnataka
■ Mahendragiri: highest peak in the Eastern Ghats
■

● Indian Desert
○ Western margins of the Aravalli range
○ Luni: only large river here
● The Islands
○ Ref. printed notes
● The coasts
○ Northern part of west coast: Konkan
○ Southern part of west coast: Malabar
○ South eastern coast: Coromandel
Soil
● 8 types of soil
○ Alluvial, Black (Regur), Red & Yellow, Laterite, Arid, Saline (Usara),
Peaty, Forest
● Prevention of soil from erosion: soil conservation
● Decayed remains of living organism in the soil: humus
● Seasonal reversal of wind direction in a year: monsoon
● Alluvial Soil
○ Sandy loam to clay in nature; rich in potash, phosphoric acid and lime;
poor in humus and hence lack nitrogen and phosphor
○ Best for cultivation of cereals (rice, wheat), sugarcane, cotton, jute,
potato and vegetables
○ India is mostly covered with this soil
○ Northern Plains (Punjab, Haryana, Uttarakhand, UP, Bihar, Jharkhand,
WB, Assam) and coastal regions of peninsular regions along river
beds.
○ Two types: Khadar and Bhangar
■ Khadar: New alluvial soil; very fertile; sticky and moisture
retentive; more prone to flooding
■ Bhagar: Old soil; less fertile; sandier; less prone to flooding
● Black Soil
○ Also called as Regur soil, cotton soil
○ Derived from igneous rocks, clay and sand due to rainfall; volcanic
origin
○ For cotton, rice, wheat, sugarcane
○ Rich in Fe, Mg, CaCO3, potash; poor in phosphorus, phosphoric acid
and organic matter
○ High clay content → retains moisture for a long time; sticky when wet and
shrink when dry; during dry season develops cracks - self ploughing
○ Iron-rich granular nature → avoids water erosion
○ Most of the Deccan Plateau - Maharashtra (most black soil covered),
Gujarat, Madhya pradesh, Chattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh and some
Tamil Nadu has this soil; Deccan Trap - Basalt
● Red & Yellow Soil
○ Known as Omnibus soil; usually in low rainfall region
○ Diffusion of iron oxide in the crystalline and metamorphic rocks
○ For rice, wheat, sugarcane
○ Eastern (whole of TN) and southern Deccan plateau covered with this -
Odisha and Chattisgarh
○ Fine-grained: fertile; coarse-grained: poor in fertility due to leaching of
nutrients; respond well to fertilizers
● Laterite Soil
○ Pink/red in colour
 ○ High temperature + high rainfall
○ Leaching → humus content of the soil is removed; soil left with excess of iron
→ not suitable for cultivation; so fertilisers and manures are required.
○ Suitable for cashews in Kerala, TN and AP
○ Cashews, rubber, coconut, tea and coffee
○ Used for bricks
○ Abundant in Kerala, Karnataka, TN.
● Arid Soil
○ Sandy and saline, no humans and organic matter
○ Have Kankar layers in lower horizons
○ Barley and millet
● Saline Soil
○ Known as Usara soils
○ Large content of Na, K, Mg → infertile → not suitable for vegetation
● Peaty Soil
○ Heavy rainfall and high humidity; high humus content
● Forest Soil
○ Sufficient rainfall areas

Weather & Climate

● Troposphere: lowest layer (0 to 10 km); weather and climate changes occur
here
● Indian climate: Tropical monsoon type; as ToC passes through here
● Continentality: far aways from sea → extreme weather conditions and near to sea →
equitable weather conditions
● Indian Meteorological Dept. classified into 4 seasons:
○ Winter (Dec to April)
○ Summer/pre-monsoon (April - July)
○ Monsoon (June - September) - most rainfall
○ Post monsoon (Oct - Dec)
● Two seasonal winds
○ North-east monsoon - winter monsoon; blows from land to sea
○ South-west monsoon - summer monsoon; blows from sea to land;
brings most of the rainfall in India
● Retreating monsoon: During the months of October-November, the south-
west monsoon winds become weaker and start to retreat from the skies of
North India. This phase of the monsoon is known as the retreating monsoon.
● Tamil Nadu receives most of the rainfall due to the North-east and retreating
monsoon.
● Blossom shower wind: Blossoming of coffee flower
● Nor Westeros (Kalbaisakhi): Evening thunderstorm in WB and Assam
● Loo: hot dry wind
● Mawsynram in Meghalaya - wettest place on Earth
● Isobar: lines of equal pressure; dense lines → large pressure
● Isotherms: lines joining equal temperature
● Isohyets: lines joining equal rainfall at a time
● Types of climate in India
○ Tropical wet: Kerala, Lakshadweep, Andamman and Nicobar
○ Tropical savanna (summer dry): TN, AP
○ Tropical savanna (winter dry): MP, Odisha, Jharkhand, West Bengal;
most states experience this
○ Subtropical humid: Delhi, Bihar
○ Semi arid/steppers: Gujarat
○ Mountain: J&K, DehraDun
○ Desert: Rajasthan
Forests in India
● 25% of world’s forest - Taiga Forest of Siberia (Canada and Alaska) - largest
forest
● First National Forest Policy: 1962
● Andaman and Nicobar - combination of mangroves, evergreen and deciduous
forests
● Tropical Evergreen Forests or Rainforests
○ 200 cm rain; warm and wet
○ Lungs of Earth
○ Near equator
○ Mostly western slopes of western ghats or most of western ghats
○ Kerala, Karnataka and Andaman and Nicobar Islands; between Assam
and Meghalaya
● Tropical Deciduous Forests or Monsoon forests
○ 50-100 cm rain
○ Most widespread forest in India
○ Trees shed their leaves every year to conserve water
○ Sandalwood
○ Divided in Moist DF and Dry DF
● Thorns and Scrubs
○ Gujarat, Rajasthan, MP, Chhattisgarh, UP and Haryana
○ North west part of India
● Montane Forests or Mountain Forests
○ Pine
● Mangroves or Wetlands or Mangals or Tidal Forests
○ Submerged in water
○ Found in areas of coast affected by tides - tidal forests
○ Deltas of Ganga, Mahanadi, Krishna, Godhavari
○ Ganga - Brahmaputra Delta: Sundari tree; hard timber
○ Sundarbans Reserve Forest: World’s largest deltaic mangrove
○ Sunderbans delta: Dampier-Hodges line
● Sundari - Mangroves
● Sandalwood, Teak, Sal, Bamboo, Shisham, Salar, Kher, Palash, Dhokra -
Deciduous
● Babul, Eucalyptus, Kikar, Pine Mulberry, Shisham - Thorne and Deciduous

Rocks
● Core (NIFE): 3500 km - Fe and Ni found in abundant here
○ Inner Core (solid)
○ Outer Core (liquid)
● Mantle (SIMA)
● Crust (SIAL): 35 km
 ● 3 types of rocks: Igneous, Sedimentary and Metamorphic
● Igneous Rocks
○ Earth’s 1st crust; all other rocks are derived from this: parent/primary
rock
○ Classified as
■ Intrusive: formed inside earth’s surface - granite, dolerite
■ Extrusive: formed outside earth’s surface - gabbro, basalt
● Sedimentary Rocks
○ Formed due to deposition of sediments: lithification
○ Stratified rocks
○ Coal, limestone, chalk, sandstone, gypsum, rock salt
○ Coal ore: Anthracite (highest concentration), Bitumen, Lignite (most
harmful, brown diamond), Peat
● Metamorphic Rocks
○ Heat + pressure on rocks
○ Marble, diamond, schist, ghessis
● Marble: metamorphic
● Granite: igneous (intrusive)
● Coal: sedimentary

Minerals in India
● Chotanagpur Plateau (Gondwana rocks) - richest mineral deposits in India
● Jharkhand: Coal, Iron, Uranium and Cooking gas
● Andhra Pradesh: Ratna Garbha
● Mining near earth surface: open cast/pit/cut mining
● Coal
○ Anthracite, Bitumen, Lignite, Peat
○ 80% in Damodar Valley
○ Jharkhand (largest coal reserve in India): Jharia, Bokaro, Giridih,
Karanpur
○ Odisha: Talcher
○ West Bengal: Raniganj
○ Chattisgarh: Korba
○ Madhya Pradesh: Panch Valley and Chanda
○ Telangana: Singareni
○ Assam: Mukum
○ Tertiary coal or Brown coal found in Assam, Arunachal Pradesh,
Nagaland, Meghalaya
● Copper
○ Open cast mining
○ Madhya Pradesh: Malanjkhand Mines, Balaghat
■ Single largest Cu deposit in India
■ Largest Open Cast Cu mine in Asia
 ○ Rajasthan: Khetri Mines (Rajput), Jhunjhun, Alwar
○ Jharkhand: Rekha Mines, Jamshedpur; Singbhun
○ Andhra Pradesh: Agnigundala

● Bauxite
○ Odisha: Panchpatmali Mines
○ Katni Mines, Madhya Pradesh: most bauxite reserve in India
○ Gujarat, Chattisgarh and Maharashtra
● Iron
○ Ores: Hematite, Magnetite, Limonite and Siderite
○ Odisha: Mayurbanch, Rourkela, Sundargarh
○ Jharkhand: Bokaro, Jamshedpur
○ Chattisgarh: Bhilai, Bastar, Durg (very high grade iron ore)
○ Karnataka: Bhadrawati
○ West Bengal: Durgapur, Burnpur
● Coal (Korba, Chattisgarh) + Iron (Durgapur, WB) → Bhilai Steel Plant (Chattisgarh)
● Mica
○ India largest producer
○ Jharkhand - largest; followed by Rajasthan
○ Most needed in electrical industry
● Manganese and Dolomite
○ Orissa: Sundargarh
● Gold
○ Karnataka: Kohlar and Hutti
○ Andhra Pradesh
● Silver
○ Rajasthan: Udaipur (city of lakes)
● Diamond
○ Madhya Pradesh: Majhgawan in Panna
● Petroleum/crude oil
○ Rajasthan
○ Gujarat - biggest refinery in India - Reliance
○ Assam: Digboi - high grade; largest producer of mineral oil
○ Maharashtra
● Uranium
○ Yellow Cake
○ Ore: Pitchblende
○ Most exported by Niger
○ Jharkhand: Jaduguda
○ Andhra Pradesh: Tumamlapalle
● Chromite
○ Odisha
○ Jharkhand
○ Karnataka
 ○ Andhra Pradesh
● Thorium
○ Monazite sands of Kerala - largest
● Corundum
○ For ruby (Manikyaratnam: pink ruby) and sapphire
○ Maharashtra
● Lead, Zinc
○ Rajasthan: Zawar Mines of Udaipur (land of lakes)
● Quartz, Calcite (marble), Gypsum
○ Rajasthan
● Garnet (Ratka Mani)
○ Produced only in Rajasthan: Janakpura and Sarwar

Industry
● Tamil Nadu: largest no. of textile mills in India
● Mumbai, 1854: 1st mechanised textile mill
● Cotton Industry
○ Gujarat: Ahmedabad, Vadodara, Rajkot, Surat, Bhavnagar
○ Maharashtra: Mumbai, Sholapur, Pune, Kolhapur, Satara, Wardha,
Hajipur
● Jute
○ India largest producer in the world
○ WB: Rishra
○ AP, Bihar, UP, MP