Universal Chess Training 1st Edition

Wojciech Moranda
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 Table of Contents

Title page
Key to Symbols
Introduction

Chapter 1 – What every Russian schoolboy solves

Exercises 1-10
Exercises 11-20
Exercises 21-30

Chapter 2 – Enter at your own risk: Puzzles may bite

Exercises 1-10
Exercises 11-20
Exercises 21-30

Chapter 3 – Grandmasters wept solving these

Exercises 1-10
Exercises 11-20
Exercises 21-30

2
 Universal Chess Training

by
Wojciech Moranda

Thinkers Publishing 2020

www.thinkerspublishing.com

First edition 2020 by Thinkers Publishing

Copyright © 2020 Wojciech Moranda
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise, without the prior written permission from the publisher.
All sales or enquiries should be directed to Thinkers Publishing, 9850 Landegem, Belgium.
Email: info@thinkerspublishing.com
Website: www.thinkerspublishing.com

Managing Editor: Romain Edouard

Assistant Editor: Daniël Vanheirzeele
Typesetting: Mark Haast
Proofreading: Bob Holliman
Software: Hub van de Laar
Cover Design: Iwan Kerkhof
Graphic Artist: Philippe Tonnard
Production: BESTinGraphics
ISBN: 9789492510907
D/2020/13730/19

3
 Key to Symbols

! a good move
? a weak move
!! an excellent move
?? a blunder
!? an interesting move
?! a dubious move
™ only move
N novelty
‰ lead in development
ʘ zugzwang
= equality
∞ unclear position
© with compensation for the sacrificed material
² White stands slightly better
³ Black stands slightly better
± White has a serious advantage
µ Black has a serious advantage
+– White has a decisive advantage
–+ Black has a decisive advantage
‚ with an attack
ƒ with initiative
„ with counterplay
… with the idea of
¹ better is
≤ worse is
+ check
# mate

4
 Introduction

I. What is the purpose of this book?

I have always considered chess to be a difficult game to learn, especially for those of us who are
mostly self-taught. The literally endless number of motifs, patterns or variations may seem
overwhelming for many players. And then there is the need to apply this knowledge in practice.
When confronted with such a vast amount of data, people very quickly tend to start looking for more
general points of reference, or maybe even shortcuts intended to put them on the fast-track to mastery.
Before reaching the GM title at the age of 21 I used to be very principled, digesting book after book. I
purchased whatever title appeared on the market – this was my method. With little or no access to
professional coaching services, I believed that hard work (understood as memorizing idea after idea
and maneuver after maneuver) would eventually pay off. There was little or no order within this
‘learning process’, nor was there any understanding of how to apply this knowledge in a tournament
game. To give you an example, I knew every single pawn-structure that was ever discussed in
textbooks, but I still felt lost like a babe in the woods whenever my games diverged from these
studied structures.
Only when I started training others in my early twenties, as probably the youngest coach in the
history of the Polish National Youth Chess Academy, did I discover that this ‘learning process’ was
not the way. I witnessed some players working as I did in the past – training extremely hard, but only
seeing the fruits of their labors after a long period of time. Indeed, so long that they were discouraged
from further work. This experience as a young coach taught me one very important lesson: the
training regime of every single player needs to be not only organized around whatever might be
taking place on the board (plans and ideas in various stages of the game), but should also cover more
concrete topics pertaining to thought processes and decision making.
Over time, this prompted me to develop my own training system. It enabled me to guide my students
on their path to chess improvement in a systematic manner. Nowadays, and as a coach at my own
chess school, I prepare the curricula of my pupils in accordance with the rule of ‘three tiers’:

Exemplary training curriculum

Tier 1: Core Training Basic elements that need to be understood by every single player,
irrespective of their playing strength and current knowledge
Tier 2: Personalized Program Targeted exercises, customized to the needs of the specific player
and designed to eliminate their particular flaws
Tier 3: Universal Chess Training Thought processes and decision making in practice, whether this
infers the application of knowledge or not

5
Creating a distinct methodology for Tiers 1 and 2 was child’s play, but how about Tier 3? To devise
something truly instructive in this area I investigated a few thousand games of my students. My
purpose was to seek to establish what type of mental mistakes they made most frequently. The results
of my research surprised me. I discovered that whether the given player was rated 1600 or 2500 they
were all most likely to experience difficulties when making use of the following five skills:
1. Anticipation & Prophylaxis
2. Attack & Defense
3. Coordination
4. Statics & Dynamics
5. Weakness
Statistically speaking, the above five skills were involved in more than 80% of the strategic problems
my students were facing in their games. I quickly realized that mastering these five skills would mean
that only 20%, or every fifth problem, would potentially come as a surprise to them. Taking an
important exam and knowing upfront 80% of the material discussed therein sounds like quite a
competitive edge to me!
As you can tell by now these skills are not something particularly concrete, but rather a general set of
skills. Moreover, they are necessary if you are to learn the skill of handling your pieces properly. It
will enable you to apply all the knowledge you have in practice. However, calling them ‘soft skills’ is
not sufficient. I, therefore, prefer to speak of them as ‘Universal Chess Training’, because knowing
them will most certainly help you play a good move whether the position seems familiar or not.
And this is exactly what this book is all about. Below you will find a short introduction to the
essentials of these five aspects. It presents basic knowledge that will not only enhance your results but
also facilitate your ability to negotiate the rest of this book. The information given below represents
merely a quantum of knowledge conveyed herein: every single game is meant to bring you deeper
and deeper into the discussed subject matter.
II. Universal Chess Training
1. Anticipation & Prophylaxis
Anticipation is the ability to predict the future, to foresee the consequences of one’s actions.
Prophylaxis, on the other hand, represents the habit of constantly asking yourself ‘What does my
opponent want to do?’ and/or ‘How is the opponent going to respond to these intended actions of
mine?’. Those are questions that may (and should!) be asked all the time and paying attention to the
answers will very rarely let you down.
Those skills are so valuable because good play is all about being able to tell the future. If you can do
that you are already halfway prepared for what is about to come. In case you are wondering, the
difference between anticipation and prophylaxis is as follows: prophylaxis infers the possibility of
preventing the opponent’s intentions. Anticipation rather emphasizes the importance of understanding
the direction in which the game is going.
Prophylaxis tends to have a negative psychological effect on the opponent, it is very difficult to play

6
if your opponent predicts your actions in advance and prevents whatever you might be up to. At the
same time, we must not forget that this is not a purely defensive weapon at all. More often than not,
anticipation is going to assure us that it is the right time to attack, or even compel us to do so,
otherwise we may face some hardships ourselves.
2. Attack & Defense
Attacking and defending are like reflections in a mirror. The same set of rules applies to both
situations, with the only difference being perspective. In other words, when attacking, we are advised
to include as many pieces as we can. If we are defending, however, we are doing the exact thing
albeit with a slightly alternative goal: namely to exchange pieces to reduce the opponent’s attacking
potential.
Both approaches stem from the very same principle, known widely in chess literature as the ‘Attack-
Defense-Ratio’. In plain terms, the Attack-Defense-Ratio represents the difference between the
number of pieces taking part in the attack and the number of pieces defending. If the difference is 2 or
more the chances for success are relatively high. If it is lower than 2 do not even try! The reason for
this is as follows: whenever you start an attack you need to take into consideration that the number of
your pieces present on the board might decrease at quite a rapid pace, whether through possible
exchanges or sacrifices. The surplus of 2 or more pieces means that, at the end of the day when the
opponent’s king is left alone and defenseless, you will still have enough forces at your disposal to
mate him.
Obviously, this is a very crude rule and a multitude of reservations need to be mentioned. First, the
issue is not solely about the quantity of the pieces taking part in the attack, but also about their
quality. For example, you usually would not want to start an onslaught against a black king castled
kingside without a knight drifting somewhere around the f5-square. Also, the coordination of your
forces cannot be underestimated either. The last thing you want to see is a large number of your
pieces failing to storm the barricades of the opponent’s inferior position simply because his defensive
arrangement happens to be better organized.
3. Coordination
Coordination means the number of possibilities your pieces happen to enjoy in a given position. This
can pertain to a single piece or many pieces altogether. The most famous derivative of this rule is the
principle of the weakest piece. According to this principle it takes only one piece of yours to be ‘bad’
to spoil your entire position. For this reason, the principle of the weakest piece should be considered
as a practical guideline. Whenever you have time during a game, you may want to consider how to
improve your weakest piece. Examples of ‘bad’ pieces include the light-squared bishop in the French
Defense and knights on the edge of the board. But make sure that you do not follow this rule blindly.
After all, some hypermodern openings like the King’s Indian Defense may surprise you in this respect
more than once.
In this book we divide the means required to improve the coordination of pieces into two groups:
static and dynamic. Static means bringing one of your pieces to greener pastures. For example, re-
routing White’s dark-squared bishop in the Winawer to the splendid a3-square. Such endeavors
clearly improve the situation on the board, but usually affect only the coordination of the piece

7
involved. Dynamic means, on the other hand, imply a drastic change to the character of the position,
leading to a global modification of the capabilities of all of your pieces. This can happen in the form
of a pawn-lever (e.g. the ...e6-e5 push in the French Defense), or after the material balance becomes
disturbed (e.g. after a positional exchange sacrifice on c3 in the Sicilian Defense).
Because chess involves two players, it is not only the coordination of your own pieces that need to be
taken care of. You may also need to dedicate some time to spoiling the efforts of your opponent. If
you can kill two birds with one stone, that would be even better!
4. Statics & Dynamics
To speak of things ‘static’ in chess means everything that is stable and subject to changes only under
a considerable amount of force, e.g. the pawn-structure or the material balance in an otherwise calm
position. Enjoying a static edge usually implies that if nothing changes this type of advantage is going
to allow us to bring the full point home without any undue adventures. By comparison ‘dynamics’
take place in a game of chess when the balance is disturbed, e.g. when one of the players sacrifices
material for something intangible be it an attack or initiative. The nature of a dynamic edge tends to
be ephemeral – it can be raging at a given moment only to completely disappear two moves later if
mishandled.
The above distinction is not only of theoretical importance as we must be able to grasp what kind of
position we have in front of us. It means that we will know when we need to change the nature of the
position. Suppose we are being dominated by our opponent and we need to break his progress. When
doing so, however, there are two guidelines that need to be followed:
a. If our opponent has a strategically superior position (e.g. due to a smaller amount of pawn-
weaknesses in his camp), you would usually be advised to ‘wiggle’, that is to destabilize the position
by seeking tactical/dynamic opportunities.
b. However, when finding yourself under dynamic pressure (e.g. when under attack or when the
opponent has the initiative), the best way of countering this will be to drain the activity out of the
opponent’s position. If successful, whatever remains of the position afterwards should favor us,
especially if it was positionally advantageous for us from the start.
5. Weakness
In general, a ‘weakness’ represents an element of the position which is not defended well enough.
Moreover, this weakness should be defended due to its importance for the assessment of the position
as a whole. There can be as many types of weaknesses as there are elements in chess: pawns, pieces,
files, ranks, diagonals, even a whole color complex of squares can be a weakness. What is even more
interesting, there are elements in chess that are considered weak or strong relative to the stage of the
game (an IQP in the middlegame/endgame) or the nature of the pawn structure (bishop pair in
open/closed positions).
There is one more thing that needs to be mentioned in the context of weaknesses. Namely, if you are
ever struggling to find a plan during the game, focus your attention on the weaknesses in the position.
It is not a coincidence that more experienced players repeatedly say that ‘If you see a weakness, you
already have a plan!’. The weaknesses of your opponent may represent some kind of inducement for

8
you to start active action. However, in the absence of such weaknesses, there is nothing wrong in
fixing whatever holes you see in your position before embarking on actions directed strictly at your
foe.
III. How to work with this book?
I am a huge fan of the science of life optimization, in ‘maxing out’ whatever I can achieve in every
aspect of life to which I turn my attention. Because of that, the book that you have in your hands is
constructed in a very specific manner. Here are a few principles that I followed while writing it in
order to make sure that you profit from it the most:
1. Original content: One specific difficulty related to studying chess as a whole is the lack of high
quality material on the market. There are, in fact, some very good publishing houses out there but if
you are serious about chess you will soon notice the limited number of books that have actually
enriched you as a player. What is even worse, after a while you will notice that examples tend
endlessly to repeat themselves. For some strange reason, many authors seem to love repeating games
from the past, despite them having been commented on in other sources numerous times before.
Another typical ‘sin’ of chess authors is to give their workbook a concrete title (e.g., ‘Prophylaxis’),
when perhaps only 25% of their material is strictly relevant to their topic. They offer valuable training
material, but the remaining 75% function merely as padding. Additionally, even today many
examples cited in books are not checked with engines, which means that they are objectively
incorrect or feature two or three alternative solutions. Given all of this, you might sometimes feel
demotivated before even starting.
Why anyone would produce books like that beats me. But I do know that working with such books is
not going to profit you as much as analyzing original, well-annotated content. Hence, I decided that
this book is going to be different. The 90 games selected for this book have been cherry-picked out of
thousands, without resorting to other books or commentaries available online. Most of them come
from the years 2018-2019; only a handful are slightly older. Simply put what you are getting here is
value for what you paid.
2. Three levels of difficulty: This book is aimed to benefit a very wide chess audience starting from
1600 upwards. The first part, titled ‘What every Russian schoolboy solves’ is aimed at players rated
1600-1900. It also includes the highest number of motifs considered ‘typical’ in modern chess
literature. The second part (‘Enter at your own risk: Puzzles may bite’) is designed for 1900-2200
players. They are, therefore, more complex in nature. The third and last section is titled
‘Grandmasters wept solving these’... and there is a reason for this. The only thing I can say about
them without spoiling the fun is that they require the highest level of abstract thinking to be solved.
Although I did my best to sort these games in an order based on their complexity, this division
remains very subjective. Some of the exercises from the first part are not necessarily much easier than
the ones designed for more experienced players. At the same time aspiring amateurs stand a chance at
solving the entirety of the puzzles in every chapter. That said, some of the finer points here and there
will likely remain harder to grasp. Knowledge is surely going to help you out sometimes, but because
the majority of examples are, in a certain sense, innovative, what will matter most is how good a
“chess thinker” you are.

9
3. Mixed exercises with no hints: To further advance your learning curve I decided that the puzzles
should not be sorted according to themes. They are only sorted according to difficulty. In my view
offering a hint about the topic of a given exercise will bias the person solving them, and in so doing
neutralize the learning effect. As a result, you will not know beforehand what the given exercise is all
about and which of the skills mentioned above will be useful in solving it. It follows that training with
this book will resemble a practical game as much as possible. The solutions, however, will not only
indicate the underlying idea behind each puzzle, but will also elaborate in detail upon both the
suggested continuation and, very often, on additional problems of practical value that could also be
meaningful in the given case.
4. Focus on what remained behind the scenes: The average playing strength of the chess populace
may, indeed, be rising globally. But it has still been an arduous task to find suitable training material.
The book that you are holding represents the result of approximately 400 hours of hard work with a
quarter of these hours dedicated exclusively to the selection of games. It became apparent at the
beginning of the process that full games, as played even by strong grandmasters, are marred by bad
mistakes, and therefore seldom represent solid training material. Although some model games played
at the board are still going to be included, the vast majority of the examples in this book start only the
moment one of the players missed a great resource. There will be a particular focus on explaining
what went wrong and how this mistake could have been avoided or the play improved upon. As most
of the games constitute high-profile encounters, every puzzle you solve is simultaneously going to
mean that you did better than a strong grandmaster!
IV. Acknowledgements
This book would not have been published had it not been for the invaluable help of a few people that
I would like to mention.
First of all, I would like to thank my parents for their love and unending support. Without them I
would never have been able to pursue my chess passion.
A special thanks also goes to my dear wife who was kind enough to take over most of the duties
relating to the care of our infant daughter when I was writing – you are a real hero!
Furthermore, I cannot help but mention students of my chess school, most notably Phillip Eltakchi,
Kyron Griffith, Daniel Maxwell and Sebastian Mueer. I cordially thank them for all the invaluable
advice and comments which inspired me to go the extra mile more than once.
Lastly, I would like to thank you for purchasing this book to spend some quality time herein – may
you find it both instructive and entertaining.
Any comments or criticism you might have is very much welcome and can be sent to my e-mail
address: wojciech.moranda@gmail.com.

GM Wojciech Moranda
Wroclaw, September 2020

10
 Show in Text Mode

Chapter One
What every Russian schoolboy solves

1
Winterberg – Lubbe
Magdeburg 2019

□ 22.?

Show/Hide Solution

1
Winterberg, Lukas (2376)
Lubbe, Nikolas (2431)
Magdeburg 2019

Anticipation & Prophylaxis

What does my opponent want to do?

11
A brief review of the position reveals that a major backlash is coming in White’s direction. Black just
needs to remove the queen from e6 and make way for the e7-pawn to go all the way to e5. As a result,
White will not only be forced to concede space, but also have to spend time re-routing his minor
pieces from their overly exposed outposts on d4 and h4. But this would by no means be the end of the
story for White. With Black expanding his pieces would improve in quality, and it would only be a
matter of time before they would shift their attention towards possible weaknesses present in White’s
camp. Such a weakness is represented by the c5-pawn, which would be rather difficult to defend
should the white bishop be compelled to step aside. At the same time, if White becomes too absorbed
with maintaining control over the queenside, Black could very effectively switch to an attack against
the white king due to his space advantage by means of ...Nf7-g5. That is a grim prospect for sure but
maybe there is an antidote to this looming chaos?

22.f4!

A superb prophylactic measure! White not only prevents any of Black’s tricks related to the ...Nf7-g5
maneuver, but also significantly hampers Black’s potential ...e7-e5 push. Furthermore, should Black
be passive in his actions, White could even flirt with the idea of launching his own attack with f4-f5.
Black is, therefore, advised to handle this position with care.
A) In the game, White proceeded with 22.Nf3?!, which is simply too tame. After 22...Qc6 23.Bb2 e5
24.e3 Black could claim that he has already made great progress, but he would not stop at that as the
queenside has yet to be conquered! There would come 24...a5 25.Ba3 a4 with strong pressure against
the white b3-pawn. If it stays on that square it will fall the moment Black arranges a rook battery
along the b-file. If he loses his temper, however, and takes with 26.bxa4 Black is going to be more
than pleased to take control over c4 by means of the tactical 26...Nd6!µ

Position after: 26...Nd6!µ

12
The resultant position already looks out of control for White. His queenside pawns are falling, one
after the other.
B) 22.Bb2?!, on the other hand, allows Black to strike on the other side of the board: 22...Ng5! and
now, after 23.g4, Black could try to trade chances of a kingside attack for hopes of gobbling up the
c5-pawn with 23...Qe4+ 24.Qxe4 Nxe4 25.Rc1 Rb5!µ. Quite unexpectedly, the said pawn would be
in serious trouble again. An interim solution for White would be to move this pawn one square
farther. But without any more support out there, capturing it would most probably represent delayed
gratification for Black.

22.f4!

Position after: 22.f4!

22...Qe4+

Black’s best chance to retain at least a shadow of counterplay is probably to exchange queens on e4 in
a way that would help him contest the d-file.
A) 22...Nh6 leads to a comparable position after 23.f5 gxf5 24.Nxf5 Nxf5 25.Rxf5 Qe4+ 26.Qxe4
dxe4 27.Rff1„ whereas, in this scenario, the black central pawns are less menacing. If I were Black, I
would hurry to make sure that the e4-pawn does not get entangled and captured any time soon, should
the white king approach it from the kingside.
B) 22...f5?! rules out any f4-f5 pushes from White’s side but is strategically faulty. This not only
undermines a possible ...e7-e5 thrust, but White is even in a position to prevent that e5 push from
coming at all with something like 23.Nf3 Bxd4 24.Rxd4 c6 25.Ra4 Qc8 26.Qc3² when White would
have control of the situation on both wings, and must, therefore, be judged to be at least a tad better in

13
general.

23.Qxe4 dxe4

Now if White simply brings the king closer to the queenside and reactivates his hitherto dormant
knight, his position should be easily defensible, e.g.

24.Kf2

Position after: 24.Kf2

24...Rd5

24...f5 25.Bxg7 Kxg7 26.Ng2= and the idle white knight is brought to new, greener pastures on the
queenside via e3.

25.Be3 Rbd8 26.Rc1 f5 27.Ng2 a5 28.Ne1 Bf8 29.Rc4 e6 30.Nc2=

14
 Position after: 30.Nc2=

With everything defended and Black still far from activating his f7-knight, White would be able to
claim equality here.
What is quite important is that Black cannot freely infiltrate along the d-file, as this could cost him
the a5-pawn later on.

2
Shahinyan – Minasian
Yerevan 2019

15
 ■ 23...?

Show/Hide Solution

2
Shahinyan, David (2429)
Minasian, Artashes (2472)
Yerevan 2019

Attack & Defense

Include all your forces into the attack

Material is equal here, but both sides have at least one thing to complain about. In White’s case it is
probably the backward d3-pawn that bothers him as it is already under attack. Black, on the other
hand, is probably not too euphoric about his own b7-pawn as it could be captured any day now. At
the same time, if we ask ourselves what type of position we have in front of us we will quickly reach
the conclusion that it is very dynamic in nature. The main reason for this is that both kings are
actually quite vulnerable along the g-file. Hence, and notwithstanding some small material casualties
along the way, the player who can first launch an attack against the opponent’s king should be the one
emerging victorious at the end of the day. If you know this, you already know everything that you
need...

23...Ra6!

16
 Position after: 23...Ra6!

Well played! Black does not need to care about the pawn on b7 because it cannot be taken for the
time being. However, even if the pawn falls in a move or two, the attack coming against the white
king on the kingside is going to compensate for that with interest. Small material investments are
inherent to attacks and this game is no exception to the rule.

24.Kh1 Rg6 25.Qf3

Position after: 25.Qf3

17
25...Kh8!

Black is carrying out his attack in a text-book manner – before bringing the rest of his forces towards
the kingside, he makes sure that his own monarch is perfectly safe. In particular, he ensures that there
are no nasty surprises awaiting him should White give a check on d5. Black would also prefer to
make sure that the arrival of the white queen to d5 is not going to result in any exchanges as these
represent a natural defensive method, reducing the attacking potential of the opponent. Although
attacking chess is based hugely on agility, this little investment of time will certainly not hinder Black
from continuing his attack in a smooth manner very soon. As they say – if you want to change the
world, make sure to start off by making your own bed.
25...Qh4?! would have been too hasty in view of 26.Qd5+ Be6 27.Rxf8+ Bxf8 and now after the
mind-boggling 28.Rf1!= quite unexpectedly, Black would not be allowed to take on d5 due to the
resulting perpetual check. Furthermore, if the black bishop cannot move from e6 anymore, White’s
king immediately becomes much more secure.
Here White faltered and quickly went down for the count; still, even the logical looking

26.Qxb7

leaves White on the edge of defeat after

26...Qh4

Position after: 26...Qh4

27.Rxf5

18
27.Be1?! Qh5 28.Rf3 Rg8–+ changes nothing.
It is pleasing to witness how all of Black’s pieces are taking part in the attack while White is getting
the short end of the stick due to his misplaced pieces. It is not only that the Attack/Defense Ratio
speaks in his favor very strongly (>2), but also the pace with which he managed to include all of his
pieces into the attack. It makes a dazzling impression.

27...Rxf5 28.Rf1 Rxf1+ 29.Bxf1 Qf2 30.Bg2 Bf8 31.Bxa5 Rg3! 32.Qd5 Re3!µ

Position after: 32...Re3!µ

Due to the multitude of threats along the first and second rank, White would need to rely on some
miracle if he were to stay in the game.

3
Demchenko – Jones
St Petersburg 2018

19
 ■ 23...?

Show/Hide Solution

3
Demchenko, Anton (2679)
Jones, Gawain (2682)
St Petersburg 2018

Coordination
Principle of the weakest piece – inclusion into the attack

With equal material on board, the second thing that draws one’s attention in this position is the highly
original pawn structure. White has two pawn islands compared to Black’s three, which should, in
general, favor White. At the same time the viability of the pawn structure cannot be assessed in
isolation from the pieces surrounding it as pieces are like muscles entwining the spine (the pawns). A
bad pawn structure (let’s call it a ‘hunchback’) will severely obstruct even the strongest pieces,
whereas even the healthiest of spines completely deprived of muscles (piece support) is inevitably
going to fall. Translating this into plain chess language we can say that with a slightly worse pawn
structure Black must try hard to maintain equality unless the activity of his pieces can compensate for
his structural inferiority. For the moment, however, only the black g8-rook may brag about its
placement, occupying a semi-open file and exerting pressure against a backward white pawn. Black’s
other pieces not only seem to be uncoordinated, but their general usability leaves a lot to be desired.
What is even worse, White may wish to execute a g3-g4-g5 push in the coming future. This might

20
take some time and preparation (Bd2-e1 & Qd1-h5), but if it comes, Black’s fate would be more or
less sealed. What is your best chance here?

23...Bc8!

A splendid bishop transfer! The principle of the weakest piece is applicable here as the sad bishop
was simply terrible on d7. It does nothing but look at the white b5-pawn. Now it is being re-routed
via c8 to b7, it will not only neutralize the white light-squared counterpart, but also weaken the
position of the white king.
The only real alternative for Black would have been 23...d5!? pursuing another central breakthrough
with ...e5-e4 and massive complications thereafter, but after the accurate 24.Qxd5 Rxg3 25.Rf2!!±

Position after: 25.Rf2!!±

White would have remained in the driver’s seat, especially as the greedy 25...Rxd3? loses to 26.Bg5!
Rg3 27.Qd6!+– with Black conceding at least an exchange.

23...Bc8!

21
 Position after: 23...Bc8!

24.Qf2

White’s safest try is to remove the queen in advance from any possible attacks.
A) 24.Kh2? Stumbles, quite unexpectedly, into 24...Bxh4!‚ when the bishop is taboo because of the
powerful black g8-rook hitting the white g2-bishop as a result of the g-file opening up. It is
fascinating to observe the so-called ‘synergy effect’ of the principle of the weakest piece. With the
imminent threat of ...Bc8-b7 Black’s other pieces have improved. Remember, the f6-bishop was shut
in behind a barrier of pawns and it was difficult to find any occupation whatsoever for the black c8-
bishop.
B) On the other hand, 24.Kf2 is best met by 24...Bb7 25.Qh5 e4! when after [But not 25...Bxg2
26.Kxg2 Bxh4? which loses on the spot to 27.Rh1 Rxg3+ 28.Kf1+–] 26.Bxe4 Bxe4 27.dxe4 Qc7!©

22
 Position after: 27...Qc7!©

Black is not only threatening to recapture material on c4, but also thinking about carrying out the
dynamic ...d6-d5! Push, with an attack against both g3 and c4. In my opinion, it would be best for
White to now settle for a draw by repetition with 28.b3 Be5= 29.Qh6 Bg7 30.Qh5 Be5=

24...Bb7 25.Bxb7 Rxb7 26.Kh2

and now Black equalized with the very strong

26...d5!

23
 Position after: 26...d5!

which not only eliminates the problem of the backward d6-pawn, but also aims to create a pair of
passed pawns in the center, after a possible ...e5-e4 push. White should now handle his position with
caution and, as a first step, immobilize Black’s central pawn mass. But after

27.Rfe1

sadly, here Anton faltered with 27.cxd5?! and quickly ended up in a lost position after 27...Rxb5
28.Kh3 Qxd5 29.Qf3 Qxf3 30.Rxf3 Rc8–+. Voluntarily demolishing one’s own pawn chain,
especially one that prevented the opponent from infiltrating your camp, could not simply go
unpunished.

27...Rc7 28.Rac1 Rc5 29.b3 Qd6„

The game is very much on, with all three results still possible.

4
Lagarde – Colin
Brest 2019

24
 ■ 19...?

Show/Hide Solution

4
Lagarde, Maxime (2600)
Colin, Vincent (2383)
Brest 2019

Statics & Dynamics

Sacrifice for initiative along the squares of a color-complex

Black is not enjoying himself in this position, one that arose out of the Sicilian Kalashnikov. White
has already made significant progress on the queenside – only castling short separates him from being
able to throw everything he has got to that flank. In the meantime, Black may have managed to open
up the f-file, but the list of his pros ends here. The knight on b7 is dominated by the white b4-pawn,
and the e7-bishop is typically ‘bad’ in this structure. Having said all of this, we are in a position to
understand that Black needs to be highly creative here if he wants to obtain some chances.

19...Nc5!

An absolute must as the knight on b7 was not only Black’s worst piece, it also negatively affected the
prospects of the b8 rook.
A) In the game, Colin went for 19...Qe8? 20.0-0 Nd8 21.Ra7±

25
 Position after: 21.Ra7±

which is close to losing for more than one reason. First of all, White’s b-pawn will advance ultra-
quickly and will find itself on b6 in no time. Also, White’s c2-knight will soon be redirected via a3 to
c4, from where it will exert annoying pressure against the backward d6-pawn. In the meantime, Black
is going to find it impossible to create reasonable counterplay on the kingside as the knight still needs
a few moves to start threatening anything. Besides, Black cannot even bring his queen into play via
g6 as the e7-bishop would be hanging.
B) On the contrary, 19...Bg5 is not a bad move by itself (Black tries to trade off his ‘bad’ bishop), but
much too slow in comparison with White’s incoming activity on the queenside, e.g. 20.0-0 Bxe3
21.Nxe3 Qg5 and now 22.Qc1!? Bd7 23.Qc7+– would have left Black’s queenside pieces
defenseless because of the white queen’s infiltration.

19...Nc5!

26
 Position after: 19...Nc5!

20.Ra7

20.bxc5? is naturally not advised as, after 20...Bxa6 21.Bxa6 Qa5+ 22.Bd2 Qxa6–+ White would
lose material and, together with that, the game.

20...Nd3+!

The only logical follow-up. If you have seen this far but refrained from jumping with the knight
straight into the abyss you cannot count this one as solved.
20...Nd7?! would have sent Black back to the Stone Ages in terms of dynamic counterplay as now
after 21.Qd2 Nf6 22.b5 Bd7 23.Na3± White will be making serious progress on the queenside, while
Black’s activity on the opposite flank does not manage to get started.

21.Bxd3 exd3 22.Qxd3 Bf5©

27
 Position after: 22...Bf5©

Only now does the point behind Black’s suicidal knight venture reveal itself. For the price of a pawn,
Black manages to open up his light-squared bishop with a tempo. What is more, due to the absence of
a white counterpart, this piece enjoys superiority across squares of the whole color complex. As a
result, this not only makes it tough for White to push the b-pawn, but it also makes it difficult to
capture the bishop. The following sample lines confirm that it is White who has to be careful in the
ensuing position:

23.Qb3

23.Qd2?! allows Black to take the positional initiative with 23...Ra8 24.Rxa8 Qxa8 25.0-0

28
 Position after: 25.0-0

A) But not 25...Bxc2?! which would have been a bad mistake from the dynamic perspective as after
26.Qxc2 Qxd5 27.Rc1± material equality may have been restored but White’s pawn looks much
stronger than the black central duo as they still need to be activated. This is a typical misjudgment we
sometimes make when sacrificing material by trying to recapture the material at the first opportunity.
In reality sacrificing material implies that we are playing for something intangible that cannot be
expressed in terms of material. There is nothing wrong with regaining it but only ‘along the way’, so
to speak, as our ‘investment’, the positional or dynamic advantages for which we offered material,
matures. If you have problems understanding this concept imagine you are placing a deposit with a
bank for a decent annual percent. How much interest do you think you will get if you come back to
the teller the very next day and demand your money back?
B) 25...Qa4! 26.Ne1 Rc8ƒ Black is still a pawn down but apart from that has no reasons to worry.
White’s pieces are passively placed and enjoy no influence over the position. The b4-pawn is not
going anywhere soon, whereas its colleague represents an easy target for our light-squared bishop. It
is not that White’s position is much worse, rather, that he will likely find it unpleasant to play this
position because he has to switch to defense despite having more material.

23...Rc8

29
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
reduced outer end of the arm, and a linch-pin is driven through the
arm beyond it.
An improvement on this kind of axle is when the collar at the upper
end or shoulder is made solid by welding, and a screw nut with a
linch-pin through it is substituted for the collar and linch-pin. These
nuts are commonly made six-sided, with a mortise or slot for the
linch-pin through each side, in order to afford greater facility for
adjustment. In all other particulars this axle is the same as the last,
except that it is occasionally case-hardened to prevent wear and
friction.
In travelling, these axles require to be fresh greased every two or
three days, and the trouble thus caused is very considerable,
besides the risk of omission, in which case the axle is likely to be
entirely spoiled.
The commonest kind of oil axle is called the “mail,” because the
peculiar mode of fastening was first used in the mail coaches. The
arm is not conical, but cylindrical, in the improved kind. At the
shoulder of this axle a solid disc collar is welded on for the box to
work against. Behind this shoulder collar revolves a circular flange-
plate of wrought iron, pierced with three holes corresponding with
holes in the wheel from front to back, through which long screw-bolts
are driven, and their nuts screwed sufficiently tight against the
circular flange-plate to allow easy motion. The wheel, when in
motion, thus works round the shoulder collar, while the flange-plate
secures it against coming off. This is not neat or accurate, but it is
simple and secure, and no nut or linch-pin is required to the axle in
front, while the front of the nave can be entirely covered in. When
screwed up for work, a washer of thick leather is placed between the
shoulder collar and the box, and another between the shoulder collar
and the circular disc, which extends over the whole surface of the
back of the nave. The box of this axle is of cast iron. The front is
closed with a plate of metal, between which and the end of the axle-
arm a space is left of about 1 inch as a reservoir for oil, which is
poured in through a tube passing through the nave of the wheel and
closed by a screw pin. At the back of the box there is a circular
reservoir for oil, ¾ inch in depth and ½ inch wide. When the wheel is
in motion the revolving of the box keeps the lubricating material in
circulation between the two reservoirs; any portion getting below the
arm at the shoulder gradually works its way out and is wasted. The
oil in the back reservoir does not waste by leakage so rapidly as that
in the front; but when the leather washer becomes saturated with
water the oil is liable, by reason of its lightness, to float on the water
in or about the washer, and thus get wasted.
This axle requires frequent examination when very much in use;
but as it is neat in appearance, and under ordinary circumstances
tolerably safe in working, and is not very expensive, it is much used.
Both axle-box and axle-arm are case-hardened.
The other kind of axle used by carriage-builders is that known as
“Collinge’s Patent.” The original intention of the inventor was to make
it a cylindrical arm, with the box running round it against a coned
shoulder, and secured by a coned nut in front; but, as it was found in
practice that a leather washer was necessary at the shoulder to
prevent jarring, this part of the plan was abandoned.
The commonest form of this axle now in use consists of a
cylindrical arm with a broad shoulder collar. The box is of cast iron,
and the back of it is similar to that of the mail axle before described.
The front of it has a rebate cut in the box to receive a small conical
collar and the screw of an oil cap. The arm of the axle is turned down
in the lathe to two-thirds of the total thickness from the point where
the rebate of the box begins. A flat side is filed on this reduced
portion, and along it is made to slide a small collar of gun metal, with
a conical face in the interior to fit against the coned interior of the
rebate in the box. Against this collar, technically called the “collet,” a
nut of gun metal is screwed, and against that again a second nut of
smaller size, with a reversed thread, is tightly fixed. These two nuts,
thus screwed in different directions, become as firm as though they
were part of the axle itself, and no action of the wheel can loosen
them, because the collet, which does not turn, removes all friction
from them. But, as a further security, the end of the axle-arm projects
beyond the farthest nut, and is drilled to receive a spring linch-pin.
Over all a hollow cap of gun metal is screwed into the end of the box.
This contains a supply of oil for lubricating purposes.
 When the wheel is in motion the oil is pumped upwards from the
cap and passes along the arm to the back reservoir, constantly
revolving round the cap with the wheel. If the cap be too full of oil—
that is, if the summit of the column of oil in the cap be at a horizontal
level above the leakage point at the shoulder—it will pump away
rapidly, and be wasted till it comes to the level of the leak, where it
will be economically used. It is essential to the perfection of an oil
action that the oil should not be permanently above the level of the
leak, but that small portions should be continually washing up into
that position by the action of the wheel in turning.
In order to insure their greater durability and freedom from friction
these axles and their boxes are always case-hardened, i.e. their
rubbing surfaces are converted into steel to a trifling depth by the
process of cementation with animal charcoal for about two hours,
when they are plunged into water. The boxes are ground on to the
arms with oil and emery, either end being applied alternately, until a
true fit between the two is accomplished.
The mode in which oil acts as a lessener of friction is by its being
composed of an infinite number of movable globules, over which the
fixed surfaces of the arm and box roll without causing that friction
and wearing away which would be the result of the two iron surfaces
worked together without any lubricant. This saving in the wear and
tear of the axle-arm is accomplished by the destruction of the oil.
From this we deduce that the greater the mass of oil or grease used
the longer will the axle run, and in order to facilitate this as much as
possible there should be so much space left between the bearing
surfaces of the arm and the box as will allow of a film of oil to be
between them.
A highly polished surface is desirable in an axle and box, as the
bearing is more perfect and true. A rough surface is a surface of
sharp angles, which will pierce through the oil and cause friction by
contact.
To guard against the axle running dry, the arm is reduced in
thickness at the centre for about an inch to allow a lodgment for the
oil, and in the process of working this constitutes a circular pump,
which draws up the oil from the front cap and distributes it over the
area of the arms. But this, of course, will soon run dry, so that the
best remedy to prevent the oil being exhausted and the sticking of
the axle-arm in the box is careful attention.
A danger arising from careless fitting is the introduction of grit into
the box. This grit is composed of small grains of silex, which is very
much harder than iron or steel; the consequence is that it cuts and
scores the bearing surfaces in all directions, and keys them firmly
together, so that it is sometimes necessary to break the box to
pieces in order to get it off the arm.
A patent was taken out to remedy these defects by casting three
longitudinal triangular grooves in each box. The advantages gained
by this are, that if grit gets in it finds its way to the bottom of the
grooves and does not interfere with the action of the wheel, and,
moreover, the grooves keep up a constant surface of oil in contact
with the arm, instead of trusting to the mere capillary attraction. This
does not interfere with the bearing surface in any marked degree.
In order that the axle shall be perfect the following considerations
are necessary:—
That there be sufficient bearing surface for the arm to rest on.
That the box be of a convenient shape for insertion in the wheel.
That as large a body of oil as possible be kept in actual contact
with the arm by washing up as the wheel revolves.
That the column of oil may be in no case above the horizontal
level of the leakage point while the wheel is at rest.

Welding Steel Axles.

Many axles are now made of Bessemer steel. Generally speaking

this is neither more nor less than iron, the pores of which are filled up
with carbon or charcoal. The higher the steel the more carbon it
contains. If steel be heated it loses a portion of this carbon, and the
more it is heated the more it approaches its original state, viz. iron.
 The welding of steel axles is said to be considerably assisted by
the use of iron filings and borax. This is only true in case the steel
should be over-heated, and even then only in degree.
Borax by itself is a very useful adjunct to this process, and it
should have a small quantity of sal-ammoniac added, to assist its
fusion or melting. The furnace or fire, which is to be used for the
welding process, should be clean and free from new coal, to prevent
sulphur getting on the steel. Of course, all coal has more or less
sulphur in it; but iron or steel cannot be successfully welded when
there is much sulphur in the fire, so it is well to be as careful in this
respect as possible.
Place the ends of the axles in a clean bright fire, heat to a bright
red heat, take them out, lap them over each other, and give them a
few smart blows with the sledge. Now well cover them with
powdered borax, and again put them into the fire and cover them up
with coked coal, give a strong even blast, and carefully watch the
appearance of the steel as the heat penetrates it, and see that all
parts of the weld are equally well heated. When the heat is raised as
high as the steel will safely bear (this knowledge can only be gained
by experience, so no rule can be given for ascertaining the degree of
heat, as it varies with the quality of the steel) take them out. Have
two men ready to use the sledges. Place the axles on the anvil,
securing them to prevent their slipping, and while one man places
his hammer full on the weld, give the extremity of the lap or weld a
smart blow or two, and if it adheres then both sledges can be applied
until a true and workmanlike weld is formed.
It sometimes happens that when the axles are heated ready for
welding and lapped, a light or a heavy blow, instead of uniting the
laps, only jars them apart. This is a sure sign that they have been
over-heated, and in this case it will be very difficult to form a weld at
all. The only way of getting over this difficulty is to heat it to as high a
degree as necessary, and put it in a vice and screw it up; the
surfaces will adhere in this way when the other means fail.
Another cause of failure is the too free use of borax. If too much is
used, it melts and runs about in the fire, unites with the dirt, and
generally blocks up the nozzle of the blast, causing a great deal of
trouble to dislodge. If the blast is not sufficient, then less heat is
generated than is necessary, and it is impossible to form a good
weld unless sufficient heat is applied.
Steel axles do not find great favour with the trade, although a large
quantity of them are used. They are unreliable, breaking and
fracturing without a moment’s warning, whereas an axle of faggoted
iron would only twist under the same circumstances, and could
easily be re-forged and set right again.

Setting Axles.

Setting axles is giving them the bend and slope required, in order
to fall in with the principles of the dished wheel. It is chiefly applied to
the axle-arm, and this is the most important part, setting the beds
being mere caprice.
The great object to be obtained is, to give the arm the right pitch
every way, to make the carriage run easy and as light as possible,
even in the absence of a plumb spoke. All carriages do not look best,
when running, with the bottom spoke plumb or vertical. In some of
the heavier coaches or carriages more slope or “pitch” has to be
given to the arm to carry the wheel away from the body, so as to
bring them to some specified track, in order to suit some particular
customer, so that we must be governed by circumstances.
There is a patent “axle-set,” but it is not of much assistance, for
half the smiths know nothing about it, and if they did it would not be
generally used, as the advantages derived from its use are not equal
to the trouble of using it. Besides, the wheels are not always dished
exactly alike, and it would require adjusting to each variety of wheel;
and again, the wheels are not always (though they ought to be)
ready; and when the smith knows the sort of vehicle he is working
upon he can give his axles the required pitch, within half a degree or
so, and the patent axle-set is, unfortunately, not capable of being
adjusted to an idea.
 Fig. 21.
Fig. 21 shows a contrivance for setting the axles when cold, and
consists of an iron bar a, 2 feet 1 inch long, and about 2 inches
square at the fulcrum b. A hole is punched through the end to allow
the screw c to go through; this hole to be oval, to allow the screw to
move either way. At the end of this screw is an eye of sufficient size
to go on to the axle-arm. In setting the axle the eye is slipped on to
about the centre of the arm; the clevis, d, is placed on the bar a,
near the end; the fulcrum, b, is placed at the shoulder, either on top
or underneath, according as the axle may be required to set in or
out. When the fulcrum is laid on top, a strip of harness leather should
be placed on the axle bed, and on that, an iron e, of the shape of the
axle bed, and on the end of this the fulcrum is placed; then by
turning the screw the axle may be bent or set to any required pitch.
 Fig. 22.

Fig. 23.
The figure shows the two ways of doing this, one with the bar or
lever on top and the other with the lever below.
Figs. 22 and 23 show two improved forms of axles.

Fig. 24.
Fig. 24 shows another variety of the axle-set. It consists of a bar
hooked on to the axletree in two places. The bar is fastened by the
clamp m, and fulcrum block f. The eyebolt, l, is hooked over the end
of the spindle or arm, and the adjustment of the latter is
accomplished by the screw, s, and the nuts j, k.

Weight of Round Iron per Foot.

Diameter. Diameter.
lbs. lbs.
Inch. Inch.
¼ ·163 2⅜ 14·7
⅜ ·368 2½ 16·3
 ½ ·654 2⅝ 18·0
⅝ 1·02 2¾ 19·7
¾ 1·47 2⅞ 21·6
⅞ 2·00 3 23·5
1 2·61 3⅛ 25·5
1⅛ 3·31 3¼ 27·6
1¼ 4·09 3⅜ 29·8
1⅜ 4·94 3½ 32·0
1½ 5·89 3⅝ 34·4
1⅝ 6·91 3¾ 36·8
1¾ 8·01 4 41·8
1⅞ 9·20 4¼ 47·2
2 10·4 4½ 53·0
2⅛ 11·8 5 65·4
2¼ 13·2

Weight of Square Iron per Foot.

Side of Square. Side of Square.
lbs. lbs.
Inch. Inch.
¼ ·208 2⅜ 18·8
⅜ ·468 2½ 20·8
½ ·833 2⅝ 22·9
⅝ 1·30 2¾ 25·2
¾ 1·87 2⅞ 27·5
⅞ 2·55 3 30·0
1 3·33 3⅛ 32·5
1⅛ 4·21 3¼ 35·2
1¼ 5·20 3⅜ 37·9
1⅜ 6·30 3½ 40·3
1½ 7·50 3⅝ 43·8
1⅝ 8·80 3¾ 46·8
1¾ 10·2 4 53·3
1⅞ 11·7 4¼ 60·2
2 13·3 4½ 67·5
2⅛ 15·0 5 83·3
2¼ 16·8
 CHAPTER VIII.

SPRINGS.
Springs in locomotive vehicles are the elastic substances interposed
between the wheels and the load or passengers in order to intercept
the concussion caused by running over an uneven road, or in
meeting with any slight obstacle.
A great variety of substances have been used for this purpose,
such as leather, strips of hide, catgut, hempen cord, &c.; but these
have now been totally superseded by metal springs, so that what is
technically understood by the word “spring” is a plate or plates of
tempered steel properly shaped to play in any required mode.
It is very probable that the earliest steel springs were composed of
only one plate of metal. This was very defective in its action; and
unless it was restrained somewhat in the manner of the bow by the
string, it was liable to break on being subjected to a sharp
concussion.
There is no hard and fast rule by which the spring-maker can be
guided so as to proportion the strength and elasticity of his springs to
the load they are required to bear; and even were such a rule in
existence it would be practically useless, because the qualities of
spring steel differ so much that what is known in mathematics as a
“constant” could hardly be maintained. The only guide to the maker
in this respect is observation of the working of certain springs under
given loads, such springs being made of a certain quality of steel,
and any peculiar features that appear should be carefully noted
down for future reference and application.
 Springs are of two kinds, single and double; i.e. springs tapering in
one direction from end to end, and those which taper in two opposite
directions from a common centre, as in the ordinary elliptic spring.
The process of making a spring is conducted in the following
manner:—
The longest or back plate being cut to the proper length, is
hammered down slightly at the extremities, and then curled round a
mandrel the size of the suspension bolt. The side of the plate which
is to fit against the others is then hollowed out by hammering; this is
called “middling.” The next plate is then cut rather shorter than the
first; the ends are tapered down so as not to disturb the harmony of
the curve. This plate is middled on both sides. A slit is then cut at
each end about ¾ of an inch in length and ⅜ inch wide, in which a
rivet head slides to connect it with the first plate, so that in whatever
direction the force acts these two plates sustain each other. At a little
distance from this rivet a stud is formed upon the under surface by a
punch, which forces out a protuberance which slides in a slit in the
next plate. The next plate goes through precisely the same
operations, except that it is 3 or 4 inches shorter at each end, and so
on with as many plates as the spring is to consist of. The last plate,
like the first, is of course only middled on one side.
The plates of which the spring is to be composed having thus
been prepared, have next to undergo the process of “hardening” and
“tempering.” This is a very important branch of the business, and will
bear a detailed description. There is no kind of tempering which
requires so much care in manipulation as that of springs. It is
necessary that the plates be carefully forged, not over-heated, and
not hammered too cold; one is equally detrimental with the other. To
guard against a plate warping in tempering, it is requisite that both
sides of the forging shall be equally well wrought upon with the
hammer; if not, the plates will warp and twist by reason of the
compression on one side being greater than on the other.[1]
The forge should be perfectly clean, and a good clean charcoal
fire should be used. Or if coal be used it must be burned to coke in
order to get rid of the sulphur, which would destroy the “life” of the
steel. Carefully insert the steel in the fire, and slowly heat it evenly
throughout its entire length; when the colour shows a light red,
plunge it into lukewarm water—cold water chills the outer surface too
rapidly—and let it lie in the water a short time. Animal oil is better
than water; either whale or lard oil is the best, or lard can be used
with advantage. The advantage of using oil is that it does not chill the
steel so suddenly, and there is less liability to crack it. This process
is called “hardening.”
Remove the hardened spring-plate from the water or oil and
prepare to temper it. To do this make a brisk fire with plenty of live
coals; smear the hardened plate with tallow, and hold it over the
coals, but do not urge the draught of the fire with the bellows while
so doing; let the fire heat the steel very gradually and evenly. If the
plate is a long one, move it slowly over the fire so as to receive the
heat equally. In a few moments the tallow will melt, then take fire,
and blaze for some time; while the blaze continues incline the plate,
or carefully incline or elevate either extremity, so that the blaze will
circulate from end to end and completely envelop it. When the flame
has died out, smear again with tallow and blaze it off as before. If the
spring is to undergo hard work the plates may be blazed off a third
time. Then let them cool themselves off upon a corner of the forge;
though they are often cooled by immersion in water, still it is not so
safe as letting them cool by themselves.
After tempering the spring-plates are “set,” which consists in any
warps or bumps received in the foregoing processes being put
straight by blows from a hammer. Care should be taken to have the
plates slightly warm while doing this to avoid fracturing or breaking
the plates.
The plates are now filed on all parts exposed to view, i.e. the
edges and points of the middle plates, the top and edges of the back
plate, and the top and edges of the shortest plate. They are then put
together and a rivet put through the spring at the point of greatest
thickness, and this holds, with the help of the studs before
mentioned, the plates together.
 It is evident from the above description of a common mode of
making springs, that the operation is not quite so perfect as it might
be. The plates, instead of being merely tapered at the ends, ought to
be done so from the rivet to the points. And another thing, it would
surely make a better job of it if the plates were to bear their whole
width one on the other; in the middled plates they only get a bearing
on the edges, and the rain and dust will inevitably work into the
hollows in the plates, and it will soon form a magazine of rust, and
we all know what an affinity exists between iron and oxygen and the
result of it; as far as carriage springs are concerned, it very soon
destroys their elasticity and renders them useless and dangerous.
To prevent oxidation some makers paint the inner faces of the
springs, and this is in a measure successful, but the play of the
spring-plates one upon the other is sure to rub off some portions of
the paint, and we are just as badly off as ever. A far better plan
would be to cleanse the surfaces by means of acid, and then tin
them all over, and this would not be very expensive, and certainly
protect the plates of the spring longer than anything else.
The spiral springs, used to give elasticity to the seats, &c., are
tempered by heating them in a close vessel with bone dust or animal
charcoal, and, when thoroughly heated, cooled in a bath of oil. They
are tempered by putting them into an iron pan with tallow or oil, and
shaking them about over a brisk fire. The tallow will soon blaze, and
keeping them on the move will cause them to heat evenly. The steel
springs for fire-arms are tempered in this way, and are literally “fried
in oil.” If a long slender spring is needed with a low temper, it can be
made by simply beating the soft forging on a smooth anvil with a
smooth-faced hammer.

Setting and Tempering old Springs.

In setting up old springs where they are inclined to settle, first take
the longest plate (having separated all the plates) and bring it into
shape; then heat it for about 2 feet in the centre to a cherry red, and
cool it off in cold water as quick as possible. This will give the steel
such a degree of hardness that it will be liable to break if dropped on
the floor. To draw the temper hold it over the blaze, carrying
backward and forward through the fire until it is so hot that it will
sparkle when the hammer is drawn across it, and then cool off.
Another mode is to harden the steel, as before stated, and draw
the temper with oil or tallow—tallow is the best. Take a candle, carry
the spring as before through the fire, and occasionally draw the
candle over the length hardened, until the tallow will burn off in a
blaze, and then cool. Each plate is served in the same way.

Varieties of Springs.

The names given to springs are numerous, but the simple forms
are few, the greater part of the varieties being combinations of the
simple forms.

Fig. 25. Fig. 26.

The simple forms are the elliptic spring, the straight spring, and the
regular curve or C spring (Fig. 25). There are also one or two forms
of spring which have become obsolete. Such are the whip spring
(Fig. 26), and the reverse curved spring, which was superseded by
the last.
The elliptic spring is the one most commonly used at the present
day. Fig. 27, b, shows two of these united at the extremities by
means of a bolt; this is called a double elliptic spring. The elliptic
spring is sometimes used single in what are called under-spring
carriages, where the spring rests on the axle and is connected with
the framework of the body with an imitation spring or dumb iron to
complete the ellipse. Its technical name is an “under-spring.”
When four pairs of these springs are hinged together so as to form
four ellipses they constitute a set, and are used in carriages without
perches. Their technical name is “nutcracker spring.”
The straight springs are used in phaetons and tilburies, and are
called “single-elbow springs.”
The double straight spring is used in omnibuses, carts, &c., where
it is fixed across the angle at right angles. It is called a “double-elbow
spring.”
The regular curved spring is in form generally two-thirds of a circle,
one end of which is lengthened out into a tangent, which serves as a
base to fix it by in an upright position; the body is suspended from
the other extremity by means of leathern braces. Its general figure
has caused it to acquire the technical name of C spring. (See Fig.
25.)
The combination known as “telegraph spring” consists of eight
straight springs, when used for a four-wheeled carriage, and four
springs for a two-wheeled carriage. The Stanhope is suspended on
four of these springs. Two springs are fixed longitudinally on the
framework, and two transverse ones are suspended from these by
shackles, and on these latter the weight rests. They will bear a great
weight, and the body has the advantage of being placed two
removes from the concussion.
 Fig. 27.
Fig. 27 shows some varieties of springs.
a Has semi-elliptical springs, hung upon the ends of C springs
attached to the axles.
b Has the usual elliptical springs between the bolster and axle.
c Has elastic wooden springs, which connect the axles and
support the beds.
 d Has some elliptical springs, which also couple the axles a and b.
e Has a bolster hung upon C springs.
f Is a system of curved springs, with three points of connection to
the bed and two to the axles.
Weight of Elliptic Springs.
1¼ × 3 × 36 inch, weight about 28 lbs. per pair.
1¼ × 4 × 36 „ „ 34 „ „
1¼ × 4 × 38 „ „ 36 „ „
1½ × 3 × 36 „ „ 37 „ „
1½ × 4 × 36 „ „ 41 „ „
1½ × 4 × 38 „ „ 45 „ „
1½ × 5 × 36 „ „ 48 „ „
1½ × 5 × 38 „ „ 51 „ „
1½ × 5 × 40 „ „ 54 „ „
1¾ × 4 × 36 „ „ 49 „ „
1¾ × 4 × 38 „ „ 52 „ „
1¾ × 4 × 40 „ „ 55 „ „
1¾ × 5 × 36 „ „ 56 „ „
1¾ × 5 × 38 „ „ 60 „ „
1¾ × 5 × 40 „ „ 64 „ „
1¾ × 6 × 36 „ „ 64 „ „
1¾ × 6 × 38 „ „ 68 „ „
1¾ × 6 × 40 „ „ 73 „ „
2 × 4 × 36 „ „ 58 „ „
2 × 4 × 38 „ „ 62 „ „
2 × 4 × 40 „ „ 65 „ „
2 × 5 × 36 „ „ 63 „ „
2 × 5 × 38 „ „ 67 „ „
2 × 5 × 40 „ „ 72 „ „
2 × 6 × 36 „ „ 75 „ „
2 × 6 × 38 „ „ 78 „ „
2 × 6 × 40 „ „ 85 „ „
 FOOTNOTES:
[1] It is the plates that are tempered and hardened, not the
spring.
 CHAPTER IX.

WHEEL-PLATES AND FORE-CARRIAGES.

The following is given in the “Coachmaker’s Handbook” under the
heading of “Short and Easy Turning:”—
“To bring a carriage into a different course from a straight one
requires a circular motion, and at half a turn a carriage has
established itself in a right angle to its position when at rest.
“A two-wheeled vehicle turns on one wheel, which forms the
centre at the place where it touches the ground, and the opposite
wheel forms the circle struck from the said centre. The body in this
instance follows the circular motion exactly as the axle, and
consequently maintains a steady position above the wheels.
“A four-wheeled vehicle remains in a straight line when first the
front pair of wheels are turned under, then by the effect of the
draught the hind pair of wheels follow in a wider circle. To effect a
turning we bring the front axle first in a corresponding direction with
the desired turn.
“We make distinction between the moment of turning, or the
angular position of the axles previous to the turning itself, and the
effected turning of a vehicle round a centre or king bolt, according to
the construction of the carriage part. The wheels have to be brought
in a position corresponding with the direction of the turning. The
body must be fully supported after the turning, and the front or dickey
of a carriage must stand in a right angle to fore axletree.
“We have to consider a few points relative to the height of the front
wheel, and the elevation of the body above the ground, which
averages 30 inches. To give a front wheel its proper height (between
3 feet 4 inches and 3 feet 6 inches) and have it turn a full circle, we
sweep the body at the required place, viz. put in the wheel house of
a proportioned length, and a depth between 3 and 4½ inches.
“The front carriage part is fastened round the king bolt, turning that
part horizontal. This action causes the front wheel to describe a
circle, whose diameter is the width of the track; but as the wheel
leans over at the top through the dish, we have a larger circle in the
middle and top of the wheel. We, therefore, first find a top circle,
having a diameter equal to the width between the highest point of the
wheel, and a side circle following the termination of the cross
diameter of the wheel, having as a centre the king bolt.”
In Fig. 28, which is drawn to
quarter-inch scale, the
horizontal line a is the axletree,
b is the wheel at rest, c is the
wheel on full lock, d is the back
of the arch, e shows the circle
that the wheel will describe on
the ground as it moves
backward, and f is the circle the
back of the wheel will describe
in the air at the same
movement. It will be seen by
Fig. 28.
this that when the wheel is on
half lock the back part of it will
come in contact with the arch, and that when on full lock it will have
travelled right away from it. It follows, therefore, that if we want to
find out the right position for the perch bolt to occupy, we must not
measure the circle the wheel will describe on the ground, but the one
described in the air. We must, therefore, measure along the line f,
and carry that measurement along to d.
The length of the line a to d is exactly 3 feet. Now the position of
the perch bolt, or centre point on which the wheels lock round, need
not be, and in fact very rarely is, in the same vertical line as the
axletree. By compassing the beds or timbers on which the fore part