Molluscs Culture

Bivalves :
Clams, Mussels, Oyster,
BIVALVES: Belong to the phylum Mollusca
The most prominent feature à the two valves of the shell
composed mostly of calcium carbonate
 Bivalve
§ Belong to the phylum Mollusca
§ The most prominent feature à the two valves of the shell
à Composed mostly of calcium carbonate
§ Sexes à Protandric hermaphroditism à mature in their
first year of life as males. As they age, year by year, an
increasing percentage may switch sex and become
females
§ Life Cycle (fig 1)
§ Metamorphosis is a critical time in the development of
bivalves, during which the animal changes from a
swimming, planktonic to a sedentary benthic existence.
§ Bivalves are filter feeders and feed primarily on
phytoplankton
Life cycle
of clams
Life cycle of blue mussel
(Mytilus edulis)
Life cycle
of oyster
Bivalve Hatchery
§ SITE SELECTION
- Government regulations
- Ensure that good quality seawater exists year-round at the
prospective site
- Hatchery should be located close to the ocean so that the
distance required to pump water is kept to a minimum

§ HATCHERY DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

- Seawater system à should be located as close to sea level
as possible to avoid lifting water (Fig. 2)
- The hatchery should be adaptable so that changes can be
made readily without involving major rebuilding
à A hatchery has several areas that are all inter-related
à Divided into algal culture, broodstock conditioning and
spawning, larval rearing, juvenile culture and service areas
(Fig. 3)
 P - seawater pumps
SF - sand filters
(photograph C) or
alternatively self-
cleaning drum filters
(photograph A
ST - to storage tanks (if
required)
CF - cartridge filters of 20
µm and 10 µm; CU -
seawater chilling unit
(if required);
HU - seawater heating
unit (if required -
photograph B)
FF - final filtration (5 µm
and 1 or 2 µm -
photograph D)
UV - ultra-violet light
disinfecting units (if
required).

Fig. 2 A diagram of the various stages of seawater treatment for hatchery usage
from the intake pipes (IL) to the points at which water is used in the different
aspects of the operation (1 to 5).
 AC - Algal culture
TR - maintenance
room
SCR - scale-up room
AR – autoclave room
sp - spawning trays
BC- Broodstock
conditioning
room
LC - Larvae culture
P - preparation area
JC - Juvenile culture
ET – treatment tanks
QR - quarantine room
DL - dry laboratory
MR - soundproof
machinery room
GPA - general
purpose area
O - office
BR – bathroom
S - benches and sinks

Fig. 3 A generalized floor plan for a purpose-built bivalve hatchery

 Algal Culture
§ The most important factor in bivalve hatchery
§ The culture of algae accounts for about 40% of
the costs of rearing bivalve seed to a shell
length of about 5 mm in a hatchery
§ Commonly cultured algal species used as
foods for bivalve larvae (Table 1)
§ A schematic diagram of the process of
culturing algae (Fig. 4)
§ Production-scale algae cultures (Fig. 5)
Table 1. The cell volume, organic weight and gross lipid content of some of
the more commonly cultured algal species used as foods for bivalve larvae
(species marked * are of relatively poor nutritional value).

Species: Median cell volume Organic Wt.

Lipid %
(µm3) (µg 10-6 cells)
Flagellates:
Tetraselmis suecica 300 200 6
Dunaliella tertiolecta* 170 85 21
Isochrysis galbana
Isochrysis (T-ISO) 40-50 19-24 20-24
Pavlova lutherii
Diatoms:
Chaetoceros calcitrans 35 7 17
Chaetoceros gracilis 80 30 19
Thalassiosira pseudonana 45 22 24
Skeletonema costatum 85 29 13
Phaeodactylum 40 23 12
tricornutum*
BACK
Figure 4. The process of algal culture
BACK
Fig 5. Steps in the production of algae
Figure 6. Starter cultures Figure 7. Intermediate-scale culture
of algae
 Figure 8. Two types of large-scale algae

Examples of polyethylene Examples of large-scale,

bag and solar grade, outdoor algal production
fibreglass cylinder algal
culture systems
Hatchery operation
1. BROODSTOCK CONDITIONING
- Conditioning broodstock is essential in the provision of larvae for
culture (Fig. 9)
- The procedure by which hatcheries are able to extend their
production season, removing reliance on the relatively brief period in
the year when adults of the desired species are bearing mature
gametes in the sea
- Conditioning methods:
> Tank systems and water treatment
- Seawater used need to be filtered à drain and refill the total
volume of water in the system at least twice each week à prevent
build-ups of bacteria and metabolites.
- Both salinity and temperature should be appropriate to the
species being conditioned
- Water flow rate through conditioning tanks should exceed 25 ml
per minute per adult and no more than 5 kg live weight biomass of
stock should be held in a tank of 120 to 150 l volume
Figure 9. A typical broodstock conditioning system
Figure 11. A to D - Examples of various types of flow-through
tanks used for broodstock conditioning
Figure 12. A 120 l broodstock tank stocked with 55 oysters
averaging 80 g live weight.
BACK
 > Feeding broodstock
- Cultured marine algal species are used most frequently as the
principal food supply during conditioning
- Alternative sources à natural phytoplankton bloomed in outdoor
tanks or ponds commercially available algae pastes

2. SPAWNING AND FERTILIZATION

- Precise timing depends on :
- the species being conditioned
- the initial condition of the broodstock
- stage in gametogenesis when the bivalves begin conditioning
- hatchery related factors (temperature, diet and ration)

- Induced spawning of oviparous bivalves

> Thermal cycling procedure (Fig. 13)

- Fertilization procedures
Figure 13. Diagram of a tray arrangement widely used for the spawning of
oviparous bivalves
3. Culture of larvae basic methodology

> BASIC METHODOLOGY

- Methods for embryo development
- Methods for rearing larvae
- Growing larvae more efficiently
- Growth and survival of larvae
 Bivalves Embryo Development Method
• Flat-bottomed or steeply tapering conical tanks (i.e. almost flat bottomed) are most commonly used
for embryo development.
• Surface area of the tank base rather than water depth is more important.
• Aeration during this early stage is not recommended à The mechanical effects of the disturbance
creates abnormal development.
• Culture tanks are filled with seawater filtered to 1 to 2 µm particle size, heated to the required
temperature (usually 18 to 24ºC; cooler for cold water species).
• Some hatcheries disinfect the water following fine filtration by passing it through an ultra-violet light
(UV) unit

Figure 14. Suitable rearing vessels for

embryo (and larval) development.

A. 200 l steeply tapering conical fiberglass

tank with bottom drain;
B. 125 l polyethylene flat-bottomed tank;
C. 1 000 l insulated polyethylene, square tank
with rounded corners.
 Bivalves Embryo Development Method

Figure 15. Development of embryos from the early trochophore (A) to the fully shelled D-larva stage (D). The
ciliated swimming feeding organ (velum) can be seen in B and early shell valve formation in C.

• Embryos are stocked in the culture tanks about 2 hours after fertilization and at the
appropriate density.
• Fully developed D-larvae are recovered 24 to 48 hours later, depending on species
and water temperature.
• Either no or very low aeration is used during embryo development.
 Table 2. Summary data of typical embryo densities, initial D-larva size,
densities of D-larvae and culture conditions for the culture of embryos and early
larvae of a number of bivalves.
 Bivalves Embryo Development Method

• Tanks containing newly developed D-larvae are drained 2 days after fertilization.
• D-larvae can be graded during tank emptying by suspending a slightly larger aperture sieve over one
with a smaller mesh aperture

Figure 16. The arrangement of sieves to capture D-
larvae from a tank where a smaller diameter, 60 µm
mesh sieve is suspended over a larger diameter 40
µm sieve which is partially immersed in a shallow
tray containing the discharge seawater.
Figure 17. The appearance of almost 5 million calico
scallop, Argopecten gibbus, larvae concentrated in a 20 cm diameter
sieve (A) and after transferring to a 4 l graduated jug, preparatory to
estimation (B).
 Bivalve Larvae Rearing Method
• Feed: unicellular, cultured algae
• Larvae can be grown in the same flat-bottomed
tanks used for embryo development or in conical-
based fiberglass tanks fitted with bottom drains
• Can be operated as static systems or on flow-
through.
• Water is changed in static systems periodically
• In flow-through culture, it is continuously
introduced, a fixed volume being exchanged and
replaced daily.

Figure 17. Photomicrographs of the growth and development of

Pacific oyster, Crassostrea gigas, (A) and sand scallop, Pecten
ziczac, (B) larvae.
4. FEEDING AND NUTRITION
- Dietary considerations --- mixed algal diets are beneficial.
- Diet composition and ration; size
5. FACTORS INFLUENCING GROWTH AND SURVIVAL
- Effects of temperature and salinity
- Seawater quality
- Egg and larval quality --- lipid content
Figure 79: Relationship
between total lipid as a
percentage of dry
weight and the
percentage of Pacific
oyster, Crassostrea
gigas, eggs that
develop to the D-larva
stage.

- Disease --- swift and catastrophic effect

[ End of Chapter 4]