ea RESOURCES FOR TEACHING ENGLISH LEARNERS Teaching English Language and Content in Mainstream Classes One Class, Many Paths Linda New Levine Mary Lou McCloskeyStructuring and Planning Content-Language Integrated Lessons Koay cit is teaching her fourth-grade class a unit on fables. Her students have read many of Aesop's fables, ‘and Kathy has asked them to interview family members for examples of fables from their native cultures. The students have brought these stores to class and shaved them with the group. Kathy has gathered the stories together and produced copie forthe clas." ‘Today, Kathy is distributing two brief stories to each of her six classroom groups. The first is one of ‘Aesop's fables and the secoid is a fable brought by a student from home. Kathy wants the students t0 find ‘commonalities in each ofthe stores, eventually defining the characteristics ofa fable ‘Kathy has asigned jobs to each of the four children in every group. One child is the reader and has the job today of reading the stories tothe others. One Student is a teporter and will port the results of the group work ‘to the.clas asa whole. One students the writer who will write the results, and the fourth student isthe manager and timekeeper. This students ob is 10 keep the work moving along, and to make sure everyone understands his task and finishes the work on time. Kathy has assigned her English language learners (ELLs) to groups where she knows they wall be supported by-their classmates. She has assigned tasks to these students based upon their language abilities. For example, her beginning-level ELL is assigned tobe a timekeeper ina group in ‘hich another student can speak her language. Kathy has provided job tents for each student. The folded oak tag “tent” states the job name and pictues it 4s well. There ae descriptions of what the job entails on each card, along with “frames” suggesting language these leargers might use, The class has used these cards before—Kathy is sure many ofthe students understand {heir jobs-—but she wants to check tobe sure, Kathy: Mario, you dre the reader today. What will you do? Mario: [will read the stories to my group. Okay, and what will you do, Marta? Listen to the stories and find the thing in common. Kathy: (nodding) What does Marta mean by "in coinmort"? ‘Several children raise their hands and Kathy waits for five seconds for all to think about her question. Then she says, “Tur to your buddy and tell your buddy what Marta means by: “finding the things in common” in the two stories” 233234 Chapter 10 + Structuring and Planaing Content-Language Integrated Lessons How do teachers structure lessons for content-language integrated classe + Wate rssicon nt ape aig? + Ware dee in of oben ringed sn plang? «Wy dow sate poe owl? + Wat athe nl cles of ftv lnguge nd ote inp? +» Hoyrcan we suppott Guilled practices m—~ gry gg Foy rey pe te 1 wlacvidebaetppoprseticbdewates pasted | YI OS + How can stadentssummarizg what shey have Feared? + Hoban ag Et open sieve aetna LESSON CHARACTERISTICS THAT SUPPORT LEARNING Lesson planning for a grade-level classroom of diverse English language learners requires careful thought and structure in order to integrate the content and language learning needs of all students. Effective teachers make adjustments to their lessons that lead to achievement gains for ELLs. These teachers carefully structure their language use, teach grade-appropriate content, integrate all learners heterogeneously in instructional groups that support practice, and provide corrective feedback. The element that sets apart these classrooms more than any other may be the conscious planning for language development that accurs in mixed language content class- rooms. Whether our subject matter is science, math, language arts, or social studies, the language of the content is an important part ofthe learning of the content. In our discussion of lesson planning, we will keep in mind the elements af good lessons that have been found to relate to achievement gains for English language leamers. The following six factors are critical features (Fillmore, Ammon, McLaughlin, & Ammon, 1985, pp. 125-143), Teacher-Directed Instruction ‘The language of the teacher during instruction can provide valuble input to ELLs and better access to the curriculum. High-quality'student-teachet exchanges fave been fold to exist in exemplary math and science programs in Catifornia'in which teachers were trained in second language techniques (Minicucci, 1996). But these high-quality exchaniges aré not the norm in mainstream classrooms. Teachers in-ofte study (Stoops Verplaetse, 1998) commonly used imperative directives (“Open your books'to page 45”), asked few questions, and rarely asked high-level cognitive or open-ended questions of ELLS. Lindhoim-Leary (2601) found a high number of directives in math classrooms. Harklau (1994) found that by secondary school, reach- es rarely adjusted their lectures to increase comprehensibitity for ELLs. Students tuned out of the lessons for the most part and busied themselves by working on homework assignments or reading the text. Elementary and middle school classrooms additionally exhibit “astonishingly low levels of oral engagement and academic talk among ‘at risk’ Latino students in both main- stream and ESL classes” (Arreaga-Mayer & Perdomo-Rivera, 1996, p. 251). The authors report that academic talk occurred for only 2 percent ofthe day for ELLs in classrooms they studied, ‘The result of this impoverished language environment over a period.of time is dimin- ished comprehensible input and decreased access (othe curriculum, Teachers who have limited ‘or poor language interactions with students have very litle notion of their students’ language levels. Since they rarely hold extended conversations with them, they can be widely off the mark when asked to rate their language abilities. Teacher-guided collaborative didlogues (described in Chapter 5) enable teachers to engage in genuine dialogue with their students. This technique is beneficial to the development of higher-order cognitive skills and language skills, and provides better access tothe curriculum than a traditional transmission teaching model (Berman, Minicueci, McLaughlin, Nelson, & Woodworth, 1995; Doherty, Hilberg, Pinal, & Tharp, 2003; Tikunoff, 1985). Content teachers can accelerate content comprehension and language growth by adjust- ing their language patterns in order to model the language forms related to the specific content area studied, These forms change from one area of content to another. Seience lessons mayGe NNN nner en en ee (Chapter 10 + Structuring and Planning Content-Language Integrated Lessons 235 stress present tense verbs, passive voice forms, measurement terms, and specific vocabulary: Cut thin slices of a beet 80 that they can be placed on a microscope depression slide and viewed with the lowest power (4X). Social studies txts vontain many present perfect and past tense forms, use adverbials of time, and are language dense: The March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom on August 28, 1963 riveted the nation's attention. Rather than the antici- ppated one hundred thousand marchers, more than twice that number appeared, astonishing even ils organizers. Math word problems use specific language closely related tothe processes required for problem solution: Measure the following objects using the metric scale. Convert the measurements to the English scale by multiplying or dividing. Effective teachers isolate this language, create language objectives to teach it, model it, and provide épportunities for their students to use it appropriately Heterogeneous Grouping When grouped with English-speaking peers, BLLs are able to hear more correctly formed language than when isolated in ELL-only classes. In integrated classrooms, the language Input of both the teacher's directions and the students’ responses create a range of English proficiency that, if comprehended, provides a source of content-elated grammatical structures and vocabulary. Students are expected to participate more in mixed classes than in ELL-only groupings, and ifthe teacher has planned effectively, they will have reason and opportunity to prodvce language output. In addition, mixed groupings build redundancy into activities and provide opportunities for extended dialogues (Calderon, Hertz-Lazarowitz, & Slavin, 1998; Gersien, 1996; Saunders, O'Brien, Lennon, & McLean, 1996). This output potential is essen- tial to language acquisition (Izumi & Bigelow, 2000; Swain, 1985). As learners use What they know in the new language, their fellow students help them to determine whether their communication is effective. In studies of small-group interactions among ELL.-only groups ica, Lincoln-Porter, Paninos, & Linnell, 1996), researchers found thatthe group interactions assisted language learning even when the source ofthe interaction is another ELL. Help from other students, whether native speakers:or ELLs, apparently provides the language practice that can assist eamers in developing new grammar forms und learning academic vocabulary GFlmore, 1989; Pica etal, 1996). The integration of technology into the content curriculum provides other opportuni- ties for ELLs to work in heterogeneous groupings with English-only classmates. Cummins, Brown, and Sayers (2007). report on. implementing approaches to promote literacy and engagement among minority learners using technology as « means to develop higher-order earning. Dixon (1995) reports effective leaming for middle school students on spatial visual- iation tasks and concepts of reflection and rotation when compared to a traditional textbook approach. It appears that well-managed cooperative learning, on the whole, promotes higher achievement levels in ELLs (Calderén & Carreon, 1994; Calderén et a, 1998; Calderén, Tinajero, & Hert-Lazarowitz, 1992). Negotiation of meaning and adjustment of output relates to language gains. But perhaps the most important element of heterogeneous grouping is the assurance that English language learners will work on grade level and with cognitively appropriate content Appropriate Content Fillmore et al, (1985) found a relationship between the level of instruction, the level of language, and the academic outcomes of classroom programs (p. 129). ELLs excelled when the level of instruction provided was high and when the teachers were demanding. This outcome ‘was especially notable in the Hispanic students in the study. In certain classrooms, teachers were skilled at organizing and presenting grade-appropriate materials in ways that engaged English language leamers and aided their comprehension. Content-free, simplified materials could not hold leamer interest as keenly as appropriate grade-level content. Many studies have agreed that a meaningful and academically challenging curriculum is a core component of effective programs for ELLs (Berman ct al., 1995; Doherty:et al., 2003; Montecel & Cortez, 2002; Ramirez, 1992; Tikunoff, 1985). An emphasis on learning basics such as the alphs- bet, numbers, and colors does not provide appropriate content learning for older learners. Engaging learners in age-appropriate content material will provide them with the basics as well as a great deal more, RE ne i236 Chapter 10.+ Structuring and Planning Content-Language Integrated Lessons Attention to Language Effective teachers place an emphasis on communication and comprehension, and they plan Ways to help ELLs enter the instructional conversation of the classroom. Using consistent language pattems for regular routines, t2achers help their students quickly lear the transitions that occur in any lesson or school day. We saw this clearly in one kindergarten class where we observed a newly amtived Chinese student. Although he did not yet speak or understand English, he par- ticipated loudly by sing-songing his teacher's announcement: It's clean-up time. It’ clean-up time atthe end of the play periad. ‘The location of the instruction in the classroom, and the materials used help fo mark transitions between lessons. Formulaic expressions and routine beginnings and endings of lessons are further aids to English language learners’ comprehension. Clearly labeled daily agen- das and lesson outlines provide the pattemed routine so necessary for older learners. Consistent lesson formats for instruction help learners to anticipate what will come next and be prepared to participate. Merchant and Young (2000) create a weekly syllabus called the Sci Fire News atthe beginning of each week for their mixed language science classes. The syllabus alerts students to activities, announcements, and assignments for the coming week. Attention to tanguage occurs when teachers plan for the content language necessary for students to learn the content. In Dana Richmond's middle school algebra class, may of the students were not able to explain how they’ solved problems using appropriate math vocabu- lary. Dana knew the vocabulary was crucial to’ understanding the algebraic concepts and that it would be tested at the end of each unit. She provided opportunities for groups of learners to work together in creating their explanations and then presenting them to the class, along ‘with the correct problem solutions. Learning these tenis in isolation, Dana discovered, was not effective. The language and content leaming had to-be integrated and Dana needed to plan for that integration. ‘The integration of language and content objectives has been explored (Berman et al., 1995; Echevarria, Short, & Powers, 2003; Minicucci, 1996) as a way of providing better access to the curriculum and higher achievement for ELLs. Rescarch indicates that content- language integration is a key component of successful literacy development for English language leamers (Gersten, Baker, Shanahan, Linan-Thompson, Collins, & Scarcella, 2007), By creating language objectives, content teachers and their students become aware of the desired language outcomes, language proficiencies, vocabulary usage,’and grammatical elements necessary for the content to be communicated. Language objectives signal that teachers are directly and explicitly teaching language to second language-learers. Indeed, we advocate for the addition of a language development component in every content class- room containing ELLs. Supported Practice ‘Teachers support language learning when.they provide students with opportunities to prac- tice the language within a content context. Language output js as important as language input (zumi & Bigelow, 2000; Swain, 1985). The form of support can be visual, verbal, graphic, or interactional. When students work in groups or enter into teacher-guided collaborative dialogues with their teachers, the interactional support enables them to use newly aqguited language in a variety of ways. They are able to determine what works, and they are Supported by more experienced listeners to negotiate what they want to say. Filmore (1989) says teach- ers need to plan thei elicitation questions carefully in order to engage leamers at each level of proficiency. This “response tailoring” might mean the teacher plans to ak simple yes-no or cither-or questions of beginning English learners while presenting intermediate learners with open-ended questions. Planning for supported practic also means teachers plan in advance not only the kind of language they will use for various levels of learners but also the language output that wll result. They plan how fo support the output through a visual, graphic, or interactional context. And so, intermediate ELLs may describe the process of metamorphosis using a graphic organizer to structure their language and vocabulary. Beginning leamers wll describe the same provess with the same organizer but may answer only by pointing to pictues in response to the teacher's ques- tions: Where is the butterfly? Show me the caverpilla. What happens afer the caterpillar makes the cocoon?——————————————EEE= Cs: Chapter 10 + Structuring and Planning Content-Language Integrated Lessons 237 Corrective Feedback LLéamers cin receive féedback from the teacher of their language use in ways that encourige learning, and do not lead to embarrassment. These include: * repetition, + recasting language into comect academic vocabulary, + modeling correct answers in responses that address the meaning learners were trying {© convey, + providing elaboration with this modeling to expand and improve language used (reformulation), + asking questions o help learmers clarify what they méan, + prompting leamers to explain more fully and completely, + noting common errors and using them to develop mini-lessons for individuals, small groups, or the whole class, + providing rubties to help learners detect their own errors, and * pointing to models or rules on the wall o help learners correct errors and promote learner self-evaluation. Sometimes it might be important to simply ignore the language error and attend solely to the meaning a learner is trying to convey. Olivier (2003) reports thatthe ways in which teachers tise language affect how leamers modify their language. If teachers give constructive feedback, | Jearers tend to use the feedback to rephrase. Feedback and open-ended questions from fellow students in small-group settings also provide the data for modification of output and develop- ‘ment of grammar (Pea etal, 1996). A LESSON FORMAT FOR INTEGRATED LEARNING Keeping in mind the six characteristics of lessons that work, we propose @ lesson format for integrated content and language instruction that is based upon a three-part structure: Into, ‘Through, and Beyond (some teachers call this structure Before, During, and After). The ‘rganization of our lesson is based upon work in cognitive psychology, particulary on the view that kiowledge is constructed and that the focus of instruction should be helping students «0 develop learning: and thinking strategies rather than helping them memorize and acquire facts. Mayer's cognitive model of knowledge construction (1992) lists three leaming, processes necessary to meaningful learning: 1L Selection of information to be learned and added to the “working memory” 2. Organization of information in the “working memory” into a coherent whole 3. Integration of the organized information into prior knowledge structures already existing in the “working memory” and the permanent memory For meaningful learning to occur, learners must proceed through all three processes (see Table 10.1), They first select information that is necessary to the learning experience, focusing on this information and not attending to other information in the environment, the textbook, or lecture, In order to select appropriately, learners must comprehend the information and make their selections based upon their understanding of the new information. In reading a textbook passage, for example, leamers must understand some of the information in the text before they are able to select the information that is most important for the learning experience. Tn listening to a lecture, learners must pay close attention tothe information they need to leam and remember and ignore all other auditory input. "After the selection process, learners organize the selected information into a coherent ‘whole, Organizing the totality of a story might mean learners are able to answer specific ques- tions about the story and retell the story according to an organizing principle. The organization ‘of auditory input might mean that leamers aze able to take notes and organize that information ito an outline according to an organizing principle. Or i might mean that they are able to summarize the major concepts orally. "The final step is integration of the whole topic into the schema of what learners already _ know about the topic —their prior knowledge and information already existing in permanent238 Chapter 10 + Structuring and Planning Content Language Integrated Lestons TERIA Sa = : Theme: What “big idea” or topic will connect this lesson to others | will teach this week or month? Lesson Phase Lesson Components Questions for Lesson Planning into the Content Objectives What specifically do want my suidents t know or Lesson be able to do at the end of the lesson? How can | Communicate the objectiveto my students? & my ‘objective measurable? What contextual supports can i provide for learning? Language ‘What specifically do | want my students o be able Objectives ‘to understand, say, read, or write by the end of my lesson? How car | communicate the objective to my students? Will be able to measure this objective? What contextual sypports cen | provide for leamin g? Learning Strategy What learning strategy will teach or demonstrate Objectives to help my students learn better? How can t communicate the objective to my students? is my Objective measurable? What contextual supports can | provide for learning? = ‘Activating Prior How wil help students to focus tar attention on Knowledge what they already know abot the information or the Skil in today’s lesson? Throughthe Vocabulaiy ‘Wat vocabulary wil te students be uaing? Row wil Lesson they use the vocabulary? Does the vocabulaty reflect the content lam teaching? Langiage and <~ owwil theinew information be conveyed tary Content Input students? Wil they listen toi, read it, or engage in ‘esearch to dscover it? How can | support the input Hi with context and scaffolding? ' i Guided Practice" How will help mi students practice the new it information or skilin a way that wil help them to be successful? Can incorporate a collaborative activity into this practice? How will | check their comprehension of the new information? Beyond the Independent What assignments or horiework shall ave my Lesson Practice students complete to facilitate long-term retention? Does the assignment reflect the variety in my students’ learning styles? 3 ) Summarizing How ean |help my students to demonstrate, tI, ‘orwnte what they have ested today? Assessment How wil know what each of my students has earned n this lesson? : ‘memory. This presupposes learners are aware of what they already know and theit current information has been activated through’ classroom experiences, suchas interactions with the teacher or their peers. Integeation of the information requires learners to arrange the new information in some way, perhaps hierarchically, temporally, or spatially. Forexample, ‘in Tearning about Juan Ponce de Leon, leamers might place his name within the category of known explorers. ‘The timeline of de Leon's tife and the location of his explorations also can be meshed with known histories of other explorers and areas of exploration in the New World. Without this integration of the new information, long-term leaming does not take place, ‘The three-part lesson format described here corresponds to: Mayer's description of the cognitive processes leading to meaningful learning. eeLE, (Chapter 10 + Structuring and Planning Conteat-Langusge Integrated Lessons 239, INTO THE LESSON: DEFINING OBJECTIVES, ACTIVATING, AND PREPARING FOR LEARNING In the Into phase of the lesson, teachers prepare for the new learning, Preparation involves deter mining and clearly communicating objectives, activating what learners already know about the topic, motivating them to leam more, providing a perspective for the learning, and stimulating learners to begin processing the new information. Defi ing Content Objectives ‘This is the first step in planning a lesson. When teaching English language leamers, we want to think about three different kinds of objectives: 1, Content objectives that are grade appropriate and cognitively challenging. 2, Language objectives that identify the language needed for the content to be processed, teamed, and communicated 3. Leaming strategy objectives that promote thinking about learning, analysis, and reflection As shown in Table 10.1, the questions we ask ourselves when planning for instruction concer the specificity of the objectives, our ability to communicate them and measure their effectiveness, and the degree to which we can support the learning. + Content Objectives: What specifically do T want my students lo know or be dble 10 do at the end of the lesson? Is my objective measurable? How can T communicate the ‘objective to my students? How can I support their learning? + Language Objectives: What specifically do I want my students to be able to under- stand, say, read, or write by the end of my lesson’ How will I communicate the objective tomy students? Will Ibe able to measure this objective? How can I suppor their learning? * Learning Strategy Objectives: — What leaming strategy will I teach or demonstrate to help my students eam more effectively? How can J communicate the objective to iy students? Is my objective measurable? How can I support thir learning? Specificity in defining objectives helps us to focus more clearly on what it is we want students to lear during our lessons. This is more effective than thinking about the activities wwe are going to use or how to get the students involved inthe learning. We have to think about those aspects of the lesson, too, but they do not determine learning outcomes in the same Way as specific and clearly communicated content and language objectives: . Objective writing is best done in terms of what the students will do and not what the teacher will do. Thus, we like to think in terms of language where the student is the subject of the “objective, for example: The students will be able to state three causes for the fall ofthe Roman Empire, ot Learners will illustrate the four stages in the life cycle of a frog. We advocate the use of Bloom’s Taxonomy of Thinking Skills (Bloom, Engichart, Fast, Hill, & Krathworl, 1956) to bring more specificity to our.thinking about objectives. Table 10.2 lists the Taxonomy or six levels of cognitive thinking defined by Bloom and his colleagues; the next columns indicate cue words that are highly specific to that level of thinking, These cue words are active verbs. When used to write content or language objectives, they bring clarity to our thinking and to the thinking of our students concerning what they are going to learn or be able to do. For this reason, we prefer not to use cue words such as review when writing objectives. This verb does not specifically tell us what the students are going to know ot be able to do, More likely itrefers to what the teacher is going to do—and that is still not very clea. ‘The six levels of cognition on the Taxonomy begin at the Knowledge level, the level of naming and labeling, equivalent to the level ofthe two-year-old who asks Mom What's dat? ‘This is the level of vocabulary learning and it is a good place to start content lessons. As we Proceed through our lessons, we move through the hierarchy, giving students opportunities to ‘comprehend and apply knowledge. It would be a mistake to end learning at this point, however. Students will nt achieve meaningful learning unless they algo analyze the information, syathe- size the learning to form new whole, and evaluate the material fora given purpose. Although it ‘may not be possible to achieve each level ofthe hierarchy for every lesson, it is essential to teach240 Chapter 10 + Structuring and Planning Content-Language Integrated Lessons Thinking Level Recall + Observe > Recall Reniembering «+ Repeat Recount { previously learned j material + LabelName + Sort | * Cluster * Outline format | | Stated) ik Define i Comprehension Recognize Destibe Cte Trandate ° weae + Tel + DocuriettSupport | Grasping the mearing ‘ of material + Identify © Report © summarize \ + Restate + Bxoress + recse/abstact + Paraphrese + Blin ! * Select + Use + Dramatze Generaize + Manipulate + Frame + tustrate Using eared material in new and concrete * Sequence + Apel, + Testo ti situations * organize + Howto + imagine informa “ae «show tion known) | Demonstrate | ‘Analysis, > Eamine * Map + Compare and | Break downiDiscOVer Classy emia Contrast Breaking down material Research intoits component parts * Distinguish © Characterize (Debate and Defend so that it nay De more piferentate pray easily understood «petite + Qutlne ino format» Conclude Seal + Question idk | ‘Synthesis + Propose + Create © Construct Compose + Pens «invent © imitate Putting material yt fogetherto formanew * Compose + Design + imagine . whole + Formulate Speculate Evaluation + Compare @raiCon) «Rate + Convince Judge ' PricrtiadRank ——« valuateé * Peduade Judging the value of : tmateral foragiven —* Judge + Criticize + Asses purpose « Decide + Argue + Value | + sustify + Predict B axinki “Source: Adied from Zalnaddin, Yaya, Momlcs-Yones, & Aza (2002, pp. 257-258), to the higher levels for a substantial part of each leaming unit, Standardized testing requires students to compare-contrast, compose, persuade, and argue—all higher-order skills. And it is, through teaching at these higher levels that ELLs ate able to develop the language and cognitive skills they need to communicate about complex contént. . Defining Lariquage Objectives Language objectives are essential for English language leamers to become language users (Gersten, 1996), We cannot assume that learners will develop language through classroomRRR NEN Chapter 10 + Structuring and Planning Content-Lunguage Integrated Lessons 241 jmmersion. Academic language is used primarily in schools and textbooks, not in casual conver sitions. In order for learners to acquire it, teachers must create language objectives and provide opportunities for structured practice of the language. ‘The kinds of language objectives we focus on are determined by the age of the students, the standards, and the nature of the content learning. Although there are general similarities ‘embedded in learning all content (the ability to read, to construct meaning, Ww understand oral discussions, to make inferences, and determine causation), there is also a great deal of know!- ‘edge variation among subject areas, which requires a high degree of differentiated knowledge by teachers and students, This differentiated knowledge is so complex and abstract that generalities “are not sufficient to leapfrog the middle ground of differentiated knowledge” (August & Hakuta, 2002, p. 27). In other wérds, students need to leam and be taught specific academic language proficiencies that are aligned with specific subject matter content Science uses language tha is ‘ructured quite differently from that of language arts and mathematics. Teachers who are aware ‘ofthe language requirements of each content course willbe better able to create language objec tives for teaching those language structures and functions. ‘The social studies are particularly challenging for language leamers. If, for example, the lesson is devoted to the Gold Rush, we will expect leamers to use past tense verbs and adver- bial clauses to describe historical events. The description of the Gold Rush will likely include complex sentences with independent and dependent clauses. The topic may also include cause and effect structures in addition to a chronological text structure, Vocabulary related to the Gold Rush may include words with multiple meanings: mine, pan, and prospect for example: The language of maps entails place names and passive voice verb constructions (e.g., The center of gold panning was located in the Yukon. The Yukon is situated in... .): Communicative func tions will also be utilized during the course of study, and these can be included in the language objective, Students may be asked to describe, explain, sequence, ot analyze aspects of the Gold Rush, They will also be required to develop language skills related to these functions: speaking, Jistening, reading, and writing. ‘Writing language objectives is one, of the hardest skills that classroom teachers of ELLs ‘have to learn. For one thing, teachers are excellent English language users, but they may be ‘unused to working with students who are multilingual or listed in English proficiency. Because of this, they find it difficult vo identify the academic language and grammatical structures that ‘will pose problems for their students. In much the same way that a fish is unaware of water, teachers may be unaware of the grammatical structures tha are required to explain a math word problem. In addition, teachers may not have had opportunities to speak to their language-leam- ing students and may be unaware ofthe levels of their language proficiency. If this isthe case, designing appropriate language objectives for a content lesson will be guesswork. Some teach- cers feel they have litle time during their content classes to also teach language. They feel this is the job of a specialist such as the ESL teacher. The truth of the mater is that many schools have limited ESL teacher services and ELLs are with their grade-level teachers for most of the © day. For these reasons, increasing numbers of school districts require teachers to be proficient in © delivering content instruction and language development lessons to their students. The following * section will structure the process of developing language objectives. | "We like to determine. language objectives by thinking backwards, After determin- 5 ing content objectives and the activities required to achieve those objectives, we think about | what students need to do with language to complete those activities successfully. For example, | students may read a passage ina textbook, report on information either orally or in writing, listen to and communicate with others in small-group work, or take notes from an oral presentation. | Bch ofthese cvs invelvesa language hil och sen speaking, reading, or writing. ‘Language content such as performing a language function, using content-specific Vocabulary, of required grammatical constructions is also involved. We like to run the lesson through our minds as if viewing a movie. We imagine our students working on the activities We have chosen and try to identify the language they will need to be successful at these tasks. Often, we will discover the language we want to teachin the textbook or in other materials used to inform the class. All students need to understand this language, regardless of whether they are English language leamers. Tn addition to the language required by the content subject, students also need language to communicate with thers in the classroom environment, For example, when discussing a text passage, group members may be asked to indicate their level of word knowledge, to predict242 Chapter 10 + Structuring and Planning Content-Language Integrated Lessons ‘hat the ericle will be about, or to summarize major concepts. Not all students will have academic language skills to respond to these tasks appropriately. The teacher can teach ap pate responses and structure laguage objectives to communicate the purpose ofthe langu task, Examples are: + Suidents will be able to ask for and respond to questions in the present tense regar word knowledge. + Shudents will be able to make predictions about informational text using specific verbs the present tense. + Students will oraily summarize the one major concept in the text reading using the pres tense and appropriate academic modifiers (primarily, mainly, on the whole), In addition to writing Language objectives for communication purposes; it is always helpful provide students with sentence frames that wll scaffold their language attempts. Aer i tifying the language requirements of the lesson, we suggest writing a sentence frame that f an ideal response, suited to the grade-level requirements atid the language proficienties of students: * Do you know what. means? + Are you familiar with the word ? + F(don’s) know what ‘means. + Lam (not) familiar with the word. + [predict that the article will be about. * [predict that the article will discuss/focus on + Lbelieve that the article is mainly about, + The overall thesis ofthis article appears to be that. Eifective language objectives descrite wat Kate Kinsella (2011) calls “portable” tai guage. That is, academic structures, grammatical forms, and functions that are sed routinely in academic discourse. She suggests the following characteristics of language objectives (Kinsella, 2011). They: + stem from the linguistic demands of a standards-based lesson task * focus on high-leverage (portable) language that will serve students in many contexts + emphasize expressive language domains: speaking and writing (but not excluding listening and reading) + use active verbs to explain fumetions.and tasks + name the. specific language students will use ‘The language of school requires that students learn both grammatical forms and language functions. Form describes the intemal grammatical structure of words. Funetion relates to the purpose for which language is being used. Examples of grammatical form include: + comparative adjectives (greater than, less than, more complicated) , + prepositions (divided into, multiplied by) * active or passive voice (The people vote...Cars are manufactured in.;.) * past and present perfect fenses (it was, they have gone) * historical present (Lewis writes in his journal that.) + pronoun referents (be, she, they, them, her, ou, thei) * agreement of subject and verb (she was, they were) * signal words (however, also, finally, for example, die to) * compound sentences (Evaporation is part of te water cycle; and sois condensation.) * complex sentences (Evaporation, which is part ofthe water eycle, i a process... Language functions include the following, among others + retelling, describing, explaining + matching, labeling, illustrating + summarizing * identifying characteristics * sequencingeee, ——eeaeEeEeEeEeeeeEeEeEeEeEeEy0yO_ mn CChaptsr 10 » Structuring and Planning Content-Language Integrated Lessons 243 outlining comparing emdlor contrasting properties and entities classifying inferring persuading asking, requesting predicting outcomes identifying cause and effect researching When teachers combine both form and function in a language objective, they ean be very precise about the language they intend their students to learn. Kinsella (2011) proposes that teachers refer to a group of precise, active verbs that indicate Ianguage functions. For example, the verb articulate indicates that students will be retelling, explaining, or describ- ing in an oral modality. The verb compare indicates that students will be identifying similar- ities among entities or characteristics of entities. These active verbs correlate to the listing of cue words on Table 10.2—Bloom’s Taxonomy of Thinking Levels. On Table 10.2 itis Clear that certain verbs are appropriate for comprehension level tasks and others more suited to analysis tasks, For this reason, we advocate using the Taxonomy listing when creating language objectives. ‘The cue words, ail active verbs describing language functions, ean be combined with Janguage forms—grammatical structures—that are necessary for academic communication. “Therefore, teachers might imagine a sentence frame such as (Kinsella, 2011): Students wilt function: active verb phrase) using (language target: grammatical form). From this frame, we can generate language objectives with sentence fraines for various content classes that are precise and clear. ‘+ Students wil define target vocabulary using precise nown and verb phrases:in the present tense. The word means 10 orto + Suudents vill sequence events ina narrative using chronological signal words (rst, next, soon, fini). First, (noun phrase + past tense verb). Next, (noun phrase + past tense verb). + Stadents will summarize experimental results using precise terminology in the present and past tense where appropriate. The problem of my experiment was L hypothesized that . The method of the experiment included the following steps: __.. The result of the experiment was can explain the results by staring/showing Students will use mathematical terminology 10, express an. equation in the present k tense, to the third power equals 7 ‘+ Students will describe a geographic diagram in the tex using the passive voice, the terms longitude and latitude, and numbers in the 100s. Serbia is _at__ degrees longitude and leattude. degrees Examples of unclear language objectives usually do not refer tothe form or the function of the language that is being taught. Many of these objectives are confused with typical language atts objectives: Students will write a summary of the reading in the text Students will determine the main idea of the text reading. Students will deliver an oral report. Language ats objectives are content objectives. As such, they describe the kinds of learning that will take place around the skills of reading, speaking, and waiting about written text. These content objectives generally indicate a language skill involved in the lesson outcome, but they ‘usually do not mention the form and functions involved. In this way, language arts objectives are different from language objectives. ii 244 Chapter 10 + Strvcturing and Planning Conteat-Language Integrated Lessons 1 English Language Arts ojenesmay te dived fom andar und sembetemlosey Foroxamps thelaguage ars obectes std abowret othe following Commonte hee Standards (pvr corextandards ort taardlengishlnguage estate | * Write informative explanatory tes examine an convey comple ideas and information clearly and accurately through the effective selection organ, and analy conten, * Determine cenrl ideas or themes ofa tert and anatye their development; uunmarie fe} key supporting details and ideas. - } *+ Present information, findings, and supportive evidence such that listeners can follow the| tne of rauning and make sure he orgonaton, development and we ae appropri to task purpose, and audience. ‘The Common Core Standards and most laiguage arts objectives i general will cite a language Function (write, speak, read, describe, record, et.) because these functions ae related to the use| of language for learning purposes. However, language arts objectives and standards differ from language objectives in that they do not specify the form of the language to be used for oral and ‘writen purposes—the productive language, ‘The next step in defining lesson objectives is to communicate the content and language objectives to students both orally and in writing. Communication of learning goals is critical i to achieving those goals, We have heen told by principals and supervisors that the most effev- tive teachers are very clear about the goals of their lessons. After spending five minutes in their i Fooms, you are sure to know exactly what the learners are being taught to know or do. In addition li ‘o orally informing students, it is important to write the objectives on the board where they can i) be referred to easily. ELLs who cannot clearly understand the oral language will have a second chance to understand the written commu ‘Once leamers know what they need to learn to be successful, they are able to set about learning. Communicating this information gives all students the opportunity to be a part of he instructional coriversation. Determining how to assess your objectives is another part of the preparatiot phase of the lesson. You may want leamets to-end the lesson by writing a short summary in thei learning logs, shaving their summary with a partner, creating an illustration, answering a quick question ona sticky note, responding to your summary questions through signals (uch as “thumbs up” and thumbs down’ signals), or writing a “Dear Teacher” leter. Remember that you will be assessing both content «and language knowledge, and the nature of the lesson determines the nature of your assessment. I you have a reading-skill goal in mind, you may want leamers to demonstrate comprehension by i ‘completing graphic organizer that summarizes the lext passage. Assessing oral skills will require ‘an oral response either in large- or small-group format. Listening skills ean be the most difficult {i language mode o assess because you cannot see inside your students’ heads, You can, however, ask students to produce language orally or in writing that demonstrates comprehtsion, Defining Learning Strategy Objectives ‘Learning strategies are an important past of lesson preparation for all students. These strategies form the core of the CALLA approach, which is described in Chapter 4, For English language learners, learning strategies are particularly important. ELLs use these strategies to help them ‘compensate for their lack of classroom language proficiency. Strategies that help them become better leamers include: * organizing main ideas * planning how to complete a learning task * listening to information selectively * checking their own comprehension * planning when, where, what, and how to study Leamers also need to know how to: * use teferenice materials take notes summarize relate new learning to prior leaming predict and infer meanings DieeEeEeEeEeEEEEEEEE—————— (Chapter 10 + Structuring and Planning Content-Language Integrated Lessons 245 During class, they must be able to: + ask questions of the teacher and their peers + work with others in a group ‘Once again, we cannot assume our students have learned thése essential strategies. If we ‘want Ieamers to use leaming strategies to- achieve, we have to plan for their use. TAN Rona Wilson begins each year with her seventh-grade students by concentrating on sociel | jearning strategies of questioning, praising, participating, and cooperating. She plans lessons in ‘which she defines the social skill, models the skill, and then soi up situations that require her Students to practice each of the skills. Rona supports the English lmguage leamers in her class by ‘writing the language necessary to the skill on large charts that she keeps hanging on the wall. For praising, she writes items such a8 That's a good idea, Well done, and Good jab. Question stat rs might include phrases such as What do you call. ..? How can. .2and Do you have. . .? ‘After a while, students no longer need the wall words as they incorporate the language into their growing language systems: Performance Indicators Performance indicatots are observable, measurable language behaviors that teachers can assess fs students engage in classroom tasks (TESOL, 2006). Performance indicators are similar to laguage or content objectives, but they contain three elements of classroom progress critical to the success of ELLs: 1. Content information derived from the content curriculum, state, and national standards. Examples include: math operations, human body systems, or initial consonant clusters. 2. Language functions that indicate bow the language is used in communicating, Examples of functions include: persuade, defend, and interpre. 3. Suppor or sirategy that scatflds the communication act enabling ELLs to be successful with developing language skills, Examples include: using manipulatives, visuals, graphic organizers, or working in small groups (TESOL 2006, p. 43), Performance indicators provide the three essential elements needed for successful instruction of ELLs in content classrooms. Both content and language objectives are clearly specified. In ad dition, an element of support, a scaffold, is indicated to ensure that the learning experience is struc- tured in a way to help ELLs be successful. Examples of supports and strategies for content and language learning include social interactional) supports, material supports, and leaming supports. Social Supports + Small group learning Interactive structures that encourage discussion and active participation (Buddy Talk, ‘Think-Pair-Share, and so on) + Cooperative leaming structures (Numbered Heads Together, group work with designated roles, Roundtable/Round Robin, Jigsaw, and $0 on) + Study buddies + Study groups ‘Material Supports *+ Graphic organizers, diagrams + Pictures, props, and gestures + Advance organizers, outlines, structured notes, T-lists Picture dictionaries, leamer dictionaries, translation dictionaries, word source software Alternative and modified texts Learning Supports «+ Leaming strategies (note-taking, selective listening and reading, summarizing, organiza~ tional planning, effective memorization, prediction, advance organization. and 50 on) * Vocabulary learning tools (personal dictionaries, Word Squares, visualization, and so on) When supports and scaffolds are combined with language and content objectives, teachers can modify instruction for differing proficiency levels. For example, a performance246 Chapter 10 + Structuring and Planning Content-Language Integrated Lessons indicator targeting the content of plants (grade levels 1 to 3) might require beginning leyg learners to Draw and label local plant or animal species from real life observations, experiences, op pictures (TESOL, 2006, p. 65). The same content for an intermediate level leamer might require a different language ! funetion and a different support structure such as: Compare pls! enue f oa plant or aninalspeies fom re fe observa, | experiences, or pictures, using graphic support (TESOL, 2006, p. 65). In this Iast example, the language function (compare) requires a comparison graphic organizer a8 a support structure. As teachers respond to multiple levels of language proticieney in classrooms, they modify the language functions and support structures while teaching the | required content to all learners i "Note that performance indicators as defined by TESOL. (2006) do not require thatthe form of | the language be specified. [n our opinion, adding the form in adition tothe function of the language | provides more specificity and assists teachers in being aware of precisely what kind of language ig I) to be taught and Jeamed. Let us look agnin atthe performance indicators described eacier With the | | addition ofthe form ofthe language and a sentence frame to make that language explicit: j + Draw and label local plant or animal species with proper nouns using real life observa: tions, experiences, or pictures (TESOL, 2006, p. 65). White Oak, Red Maple, En, White Ash, Spruce, Red Cedar * Campare physical aitributes of local plant or animat species from red-life observations, experiences, or pictures, using graphic support, precise adjectives, and comparative signal words (TESOL, 2006, p. 65), White Oak leaves have _ lobes while Red Maple leaves have lobes. (rounded, pointed) Activating Prior or Current Knowledge Activation takes place while procetding Into the Lesson, immediately after the communicd- tion of objectives. [vis one of the most important ways teachers help ledming to occu. The ih educational psychologist, David Ausubcl (1968), has said isthe “single most important factor . influencing leaming.” Why is this so? Once leamers are aware that they already know something . about a topic, it is no longer viewed as totally new. Learners won't give up on themselves before they star, but will be willing to continue the learning dialogue, especially once they lave made an initial contribution tothe conversation, Learners feel empowered atthe outset of instruction. Leamers also fee! cognitively engaged and focused onthe new learning. We like to think of it as ataching Veleroto the bran, The new leaming “sticks” because our students have become participants in the exploration of knowledge in our classrooms. Activation also serves the teacher’s purpose of finding out what leamtsalfeady know about the topic and clearing up any misconceptions they may have about it. This information helps teachers to adjust instruction to learners” previous Knowledge as well as to thei interests and cultures. The teacher may discover her students mistakenly believe all rivers low from the north tothe south or seasons occur because ofthe distance of the Barth from the'San, This nnisinformation will need tobe clarified before further leaming can take place: ‘The question that needs to be asked during this phase of the lessou is; How itl 1 help students to focus their attention on what they already know about the information or the skill in today's lesson? There are many techniques used by teachers to activate learning, Alt of them have in common the effect of getting leamers cognitively engaged and ready to accept the ew leaming. Let us look ata few we have found to be useful ata variety of grade levels SEMANTIC MAPPING This is sometimes called Spider Mapping. We like to use large pieces of chart paper to create our semanitic maps (Figure 10.1): We draw a cirelé with the edntent topic printed inthe center and then lead students in a brainstorming session to tell what they know about the topic. With ELLs, you'll notice that few of them will raise their hands to contribute to. theseChapter 10 + Structuring and Planning Content-Language Integrated Lessons 247 ‘Community Bulaings ‘School Chures Police Station Hospital “Transportation Stores seo Supermaret Trains Drugotore Tos Hardware store cars Toy store FIGURE 10.1 The Semantic Map Isa Visual Picture of How the Vocabulary inthe Unt Is Related ‘radoniig Sessids! th order to'overcomié tis problem, we like to ask students to brainstorm ‘nbuddy pairs first setting a goal of two to ten ideas per pair depending on the age of the students, This rehearsal time gives ofr suudétits more opportunity to prepare their language and then conitib- uteto the group. Once the semanticmaps are complete, we can begin the process of grouping ideas. Inthe Our Community map, the various vocabulary words relating to the Community have been srouped under headings such as Stores, People, Transportation, and Commiinity Buildings. The srouping process teaches an important learning strategy to young leamers; and the language used to process the grouping leads to vocabulary and grammatical structures, such as Trains go under transportatign, and The policeman belongs in the People group. ‘THE K-WAL CHART . The chart (Ogle, 1986) shown in Figure 10.2 is afisture in many classrooms. U,works.as a useful activator asking students about the lesson content: What J Think I Know What 1 Want to Know What I Leamed. We like to, use it with students at every grade level. The first ‘question, What do I think. I know? is similar to the question we ask when brainstorming semantic ‘maps. In this situation, however, we may need more than 4 one-word answer. We used the K-WL. What | What | } Think | Know Want to Know | Christopher Where did he live? | Columbus was an explorer. |. When did he live? He wae Chinese? | Where did he explore? He lived in 957? | Why is he famous?248 Chapter 10 + Structuring and Planning Content-Language Integrated Lessons + Divide parca it home groups” of bout our sens, nine : { Assanesch nen na oe gee "ere anh ene read © Assign each expen Students reassemble in ‘Based on thie nab, : SP le cepa tae Os td ed dagen Ga AW fe rou r ' + Expeits Tetum to tei? ide gtoups nd tak® tues reiching the eontest leaned in their expert \groups'tothcirtiome groups. a252. Chapter 10 + Structuring and Planning Content guage Tntegrated Lessons Using a semantic map listing Navajo characteristics, we can model sentences that describe the Navajo lifestyle then invite students to orally deseribe the Navajo, using the same Key sentence’ frames, while heing supported by the semantic map. The Navajo______ for used bows and arrows hunting | rode and tamed horses work | wore woven headbands decoration raised cattle and sheep food Further practice occurs as students interact with each other using the new language, Instructing students to Tell your buddy four characteristics of the historic Navajo people is an opportunity to provide English language learners with supported practice in using the new language and structures. ‘Naney Wong provided guided practice for her third-grade students in their science unit | based on the life cycle of the salamander. After students had opportunities to observe the animals, | listen to stories about them, and fea through many picture books, Nancy wanted her students to | ‘become responsible for the care and feeding of the animals. Each day, she gave a nini-esson on i cone aspect of care such as feeding, cleaning the aquarium, handling, and so on. She supported a} the major points by writing them on a chart. She then gave her students opportunities to tell each | ‘tier whet they had leamed about the care oftheir classroom pets. Eventually, Nancy waned the students to create a Salamander Care and Feeding manual to be used in the third grades in the i school. The daily oral language practice helped her students not only to lear the information but, i algo to be able to talk about it and write about it. { ‘We can clearly communicate the need for classroom activites if we crete a practical purpose for learning. Betty Wein accomplished this goal by helping her students to present the results of the Guatemala unit at an open school night. "Barbara Agor (2002) invited inter- feted groupe from the school to see and hear her students tlk about the Middle Ages, Nancy Wong created a practical purpose for her third graders when she suggested her students use thai Salamander Care and Feeding mana teach the classroom next door how to care forthe salamanders they would have in their own classroom fr the following mont TTaachers such as Betty Wein, Barbara Agor, and Nancy Wong ere able to guide their students’ learning step by step because they are always aware of what their students undes- stand and what they do not. They check for comprehension throughout the lesson. This is an jmnportant element in teaching that is sometimes forgotten because of the lack of time and the large number of students in classrooms. But checking for ‘comprehension is essential to knowing which students are with us and which ones are not | ‘Keep in mind the need to check everyone's comprehension inthe classroom. If you ask a question and one learner answers well, it does not mean.that the rest understand, Many ELLs might not choose to raise their hands in class or might not volunteer quickly enough after autemping to comprehend the teacher's question. Sowe need strategies to include them in ou | comprehension checks and in classroom learning in general. | We need to-ind ways to check comprehension: | of all of our students ‘roquently ‘on the same topic or concept daring instruction Madelyn Hunter has called this kind of checking dipsticking (Saphier & Gower, 1997). | In the same way that mechanics use a dipstick to check for oil in a cars engitte, teachers use techniques to check for comprehension in the minds of their students Dipsticking can be accomplished using either recall ot comprehension questions or both. If we use only recall questions, however, we may not be sure students have a good understand ing of the concept. ELLs may be able to recall a one-word answer forthe teacher, but they ray not really understand how that word relates to the whole topic. Comprehension questions aChapter 10 + Strocturing and Planning Content-Language Integrated Lessons 253 are better at assessing complete understanding. To answer a comprehension question, students must understand the concept ot guiding principle that is being assessed, For example. in order to answer the question What have we read about Geronimo that rells us he was not a Navajo? students must understand the characteristics ofthe historic Navajo people. The question, Does: refrigeration represent a physical or a chemical change? also requires an understanding of an underlying principle of chemistry. ‘hus, we may need to ask a number of questions al several different levels, both recall and comprehension, so that each student can communicate the extent of his or her current understanding and also achieve success with the realization ofthat learning. ‘Checking every student in the class frequently may seem an impossible task. But there are techniques that can help us to accomplish this goal. The one-question-quiz is used when the teacher wants to check comprehension of all stuJents. The teacher asks a summarizing question tnd students write the answer while she circulates through the room noting which students can respond correctly, ‘Asking questions tothe entire class and telling them to answer with a buddy is another way to check understanding. We have seen teachers who float around the toom listening to answers ‘and then say, Tell me what your buddy told you, to assess students they haven't yet heard from. ‘Thumbs up/thumbs down is a signal response that provides a quick check of which students are confident in their answers and which ones are hesitating. The teacher says, Paul Revere was a silversmith who made a midnight ride to warn that the British were coming, and students respond with thumbs up, If she says, John Paul Jones once said, "Give me liberty or sive me death,” students respond with thumhs down. Other signat responses involve the use of response cards (Cavanaugh, Heward, & Donelson, 1996; Heward, Gardner, Cavanaugh, Courson, Grossi, & Barbetta, 1996). These are cards or other items such as.pictures held up by learners sitnultaneously in response to teacher Prompts. The use of response cards greatly increases student participation in the class (Heward et al, 1996). They give the teacher instant feedback on the level of student understanding, and they provide a form of scaffolding to students Who can use pictures and the responses of other learners to support their own learning. ‘ne thirdograde teacher we know gives her students cards with a multiplication sign on ‘one side and.a division sign on the other. She reads word problems and asks her students to show the appropriate sign for solving the problem. In English class, her students use cards to identity ‘correct punctuation, pasts of speech, or:run-on sentences (RO). "We like to se hand signals, too. We teach a letter from sign language such as rto signify reptile and mio signify mammal, Students enjoy using these signals to identify animals or animal characteristics, We model sentences such as These animals are cold blooded, and students use the sign for the letter r. Or we say, These animals provide milk for their young, and students show the m sign Checking vocabulary can be done quickly using signals. Write two words on the chalkboatd labeled number 1 and number 2. Define one word and ask students to show the correct number ‘by raising one ér two fingers. As students listen to the teacher definitions there is opportunity for modeling of academic language required for the topic. Students will listen eafefully at these moments because they want to participate in the group activity and they are supported by the responées of other leamets. Imagine describing the word reptile by using more general and then more specific clues to the meaning: This isa class of vertebrates. These vertebrates frequently crawl on stubby legs or on their bellies. These vertebrates are cold-blooded: A crocodile is an ‘example of these vertebrates, A snake is another example. ‘One of our favorite comprehension checking devices is using the slate, We have used slates ‘with students ofall ages and found them to be one of the most effective techniques for gauging ‘comprehension of simple recell information; assessing math computation; and practicing phonics skills, language mechanics, or spelling. We model the process by holding our own slates, asking ‘question, quickly writing the answer, and then asking stents to Show your slates. We take a quick scan of the room and show our slate withthe correct answer. Students can quickly self-comect with this immediate feedback. Our students are strongly motivated to participate in this task. It is low stress and fun, and even beginning English language learners will fel comfortable participating, Individual slates resembling miniature chalkboards are‘sold in educational supply stores. ‘These can be expensive and require the use of chalk and an eraser that may be messy. We have also used dry erase board cut into 9-inch by 12-inch rectangles as a cheaper alternative. These require the use of special dry erase markers and are bulky. The cheapest and easiest slate we254 Chapter 10 + Structuring and Planning Content-Language Integrated Lessons Signals are Quick Assessment Tools That Encourage Students 10 Be Actively involved in the Learning Experience a) have used is a piece of white paper Slipped into a see-through page protector. Must of these can be written on and crased with a tissue (we suggest you check before buying, though, as they can be made of many different matetials). If the page protector has been three-hole punched, students can keep these in ther ring binders for easy access. ‘As they listen to teacher input in the form of definitions, sentences, of characteristics, ali of our students are involved in leaming and all of ther ate listening to our language. This is an important time in the classroom. These moments create excellent opportunities for language input. The students are attentive, they are listening, and they are primed to respond to out language. Even though the time spent in checking is registered in minutes, the gains for leamers are enormous. There is 100 percent participation. We, too, learn @ great deal about our students at these moments. This learning helps us to know if students need additional guided practice or if they aze ready to move into the next phase of leaming—inidependent practice. ‘The Through phase of the lesson requires using language in multiple ways. Examples of related Common Core Anchor Standards (http:/www.corestandards.org/the-standards/ ‘english laniguage-arts-standards) for this phase of the lesson include: + Apply knowledge of language to understand how language functions in different contexts, to make effective choices for meaning or style, and to comprehend more fully when reading or listening. + Determine or clarify the meaning of unkaown and multiple-meaning words and phrases by using context clues, analyzing meaningful word parts, and consulting general and specialized reference materials, as appropriate. BEYOND THE LESSON: PROVIDING REASONS FOR FURTHER COMMUNICATION Independent Practice Tadependenit practice is the phase of the lesson during which we want our students to intemalize the new learning by integrating it into the other Knowledge structures or schemas that they already have. During this phase we ask outselves + What assignments or homework shall I have my students complete to facilitate long-term retention? * Does the assignment reflect the variety in my students’ learning styles, interests, knowledge ud proficiency levels? levels, aBe caer sce prem Chapter 10 + Structuring and Planning Content-Language Int ‘The arena of the classroom is a “here and now’” situation. We have advocated for the ‘useof situational activities with scaffolding supports, such as visuals and reals. We have also etd fora great deal of peer interaction within the classtoom to provide opporunitis fr real language use. At some point, our learners need to move beyond this “here and now” context ‘order to expand language use into more abstract arenas and promote learning retention. ‘Blows has described the leamer’s siwuation as “four concentric spheres with the Tearner at the center” (1961, pp. 9-12): «+ ‘Sphe no. 1: This is “what the Teamer can se, hear. and touch dieetly." This i the rena of the classroom. : «Sphere no. 2: This is “ha the iarner knows from his own experience his daly Hf, wit ‘hohas seen and heard directly but cannot sce or hear at the moment.” This might deseribe the student's neighborhood, home, oF native country «Sphere no. 3 This sphere represents what the leamer “has not yet experienced dire! pat what he ean call to mind with an effort of the imagination, with the help of pictues, «dramatization, charts and plans.” + Sphere no, 4; Te fourth sphere is “what is brought into. . mind though the spoken. ‘eritten or psinted word alone, without help through audio-visual aids.” ‘The role of the teacher is to support earners as they move outward through these four spheres to achieve he last sphere, where leaers can read printed text with no visuals or context) ‘tppors and achieve comprehension through the language alone. Billows' work precedes the Sradual release of responsibility model (Brown Campione, & Day, 1981; Fitzgerald & Graves, 5904) described in Chapter 8 (Figure 8:7) Teacher scaffolding is abundadt inthe inital earning Spheres where teachers take on mest of the responsibilty for stent success. This scaffolding is ‘adually redoced as students acquire more skills and display competency inthe leaming ask “The progress ofthis movements in line with what we know about good teaching. We suggest effective teachers begin instruction with the “bre and now" and attempt to help earners setvate what they already know about the topic from prior learning or experience. As leamers fhogress in thir understanding, teachers use technigues and materials fo promote leagning Sojond the realm ofthe clasroora—startng with concrete experiences and leading into absfact Teaming, The fina! outeome results when leamers can ead a textor take a standardized examina tion and comprehend the material well. “The movement from Sphere number 1 to Sphere number 4 requires careful planning, as we have suggested: Tn addition, it is helpful to think about the movement of the language frowth oocuring a learners move through thes four spheres. Mok (1986, p. 120) deseribes qe progrest az an increase in the distance between the speaker and hearer of the Ianguage, He arranges the discourse in order of increasing distance: 4. Refiedtion 2. Conversation 3. Correspondence 4, Publication Reflection oceus' within the Teamner. There is no distance because the speaker and hearer re one, Conversation occurs between a speaker and hearer who are face to face. Correspondence ‘writing fora known audience—for example, a leter to a pen pal or an esay forthe teacher Publicatton is “impersonal coinmnication” for an unknown audience where feedback does pot cat at a newspaper article. As the distance between the speaker and hearer grows, the level of eifteulty ofthe language increase, The lack of fesback tthe fourth evel requires the high tt lovel of language skill hecause there is no context other than that created by the language ‘Teale As our learners progress in their language skills and cognitive growth, their goul isthe level of publication, nemosher kind of distance, Mohan (1986, p. 110) describes the distance from the speaker to the topie ofthe language, The levels reflect the “increasing abstraction” created between the ‘experience and the description or verbalization of the experience. 4. Drama 2. Narrative 3. Exposition ‘A. Argumentation sgraed Lessons 255256 Chapter 10 + Structuring and Planning Content-Language Integrated Lessons ‘Drama, forexample, in the form ofa role-play, is closely related to telling a story about conten, ‘experience. Narrative is more abstract as students atempt to report back on a leaming experience, Exposition relates to generalizing about learning, pechaps in the form of an essay. Finally, argumen.. tation isthe most abstract, atthe theory level. Here students might engage in a debate These two kinds of distances reflect yrowing cognitive and language abilities in our, students. Mohan (1986) describes the “Show and Tell” experience of kindergarten or irst-grade students a a face-to-face, conversational exchange “somewhére between drama and narrative." ‘This experience also reflects Spheres | and 2 in Billows” (1961) scheme. The child makes ‘transition between home experience and school experience. ‘Older English language learners still require concrete classroom experieices characteristic of “Show and Tell,” such as science experiments, but these experiences need to be reflective of appropriate grade-level content leatming. Older leamers also need to move beyond the level of free face conversation and role-play into the world of interviews, reporting, researc, gener- alization, and theory. ‘During the Beyond phase af the lesson, we sitinpt to move our students beyond the “here ‘and now” aspect of practice and application, and into a more abstract realm of using language to ‘communicate beyond the classroom. We have discussed a few examples of teachers who took their Jeamners beyond the classroom experience and created culminating activities atthe end of a unit to communicate to a wider audience in a more abstract form of discourse. Barbara Agor's (2000) students reported on the Middle Ages to members ofthe school community. Nancy Wong’s students taught other third graders how to care for salamanders and. wrote,a Care and Feeding manual to support their instruction. Fifth-grade teachers we have worked with created opportunites for Beyond classroom experiences when they culminated their experiential science unit wit a science fit. The fair was attended by parents, school board members, and members ofthe community. Each student was responsible for presenting a science experiment visually in the form of a display and also for reporting to others about the experiment, answering questions, and clearing up misunderstandings ‘Another interesting. and challenging form of Beyond the classroom experience. is called service learning. Service leaming gives students the chance. to apply the content oftheir studies to real problems in their communities (Allen, 2003), Service learning is more than volunteerism. ‘because of the academic goals that are integral to the program, In the most rigorous forms of service learning, students analyze real problems in their communities, such as traffic congestion or pollution, and then plan ways to create social change. Planning bus routes to save fuel, Going research on plants that will reduce pollution, and convincing local authorities to plant drought resistant plants in states with water shortages are some of the projects students might tackle, The language requirements of these projects help students to communicate beyond the level ofthe classroom and connect thei withthe eal world in which they live ‘The Beyond phase of the lesson allows leamers to participate in lesson formats that are varied and that provide novelty. For many of our students, paper-and-pencil tasks donot relate to their learning styles and may not reflect their intelligence and creativity. The notion of vatiely in leaming is an important one when there are diverse language learners in the classroom. The variety of languages and cultures will surely reflect a variety in leaming styles as well. If we can appeal to our students to use language to communicate, tease, entertain, and inform, we are enlarging their levels of discourse. Using language to create songs, poetry, plays, radio shows, and debates for an audience ensures our students will retain their leaming over time. ‘Examples of Common Core Anchor Standards, (httpi//www.corestandards.org/ the standards/english-language-arts-standards) related to the Independent Practice phase of the lesson include; © Integrate and evaluate content dnd media ‘presented in diverse media and forimits, including visually and quantitatively, as well asin words. + Delineaté and evaluate the argiiments and specific claims ik a tex, inctiding the validity of the reasoning as well as the relevance and sufficiency of the evidence. Summarizing ‘The summary phase of the lesson felates bick to our content, language, and learning strategy objectives. In this phase of the lesson, we ask: . + How can I help my students to tell or write what they have learned today?