Research

JAPAN INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION AGENCY (JICA)
THE PROJECT FOR COMPREHENSIVE TRAFFIC

MANAGEMENT PLAN FOR METRO MANILA
TECHNICAL REPORT NO. 9

GUIDEBOOK ON TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT
November 2022
ALMEC CORPORATION
ORIENTAL CONSULTANTS GLOBAL CO., LTD.
TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH INSTITUTE CO., LTD.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Purpose ............................................................................................................ 1-1
1.2 Intended Users ................................................................................................. 1-1
1.3 How to Use ....................................................................................................... 1-2
1.4 Scope ............................................................................................................ 1-3
1.5 Out of Scope .................................................................................................... 1-5
1.6 Origin of this Guidebook.................................................................................... 1-5
1.7 No Copyright .................................................................................................... 1-5
2 FUNDAMENTALS OF TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT
2.1 What is Traffic Management ............................................................................. 2-1
2.2 Core Objectives................................................................................................. 2-3
2.3 Road Hierarchy ................................................................................................ 2-4
2.4 Basic Traffic Variables and Relationships .......................................................... 2-8
2.5 The Stochastic Nature of Traffic Behavior ....................................................... 2-13
3 TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES
3.1 Traffic Signs...................................................................................................... 3-2
3.2 Pavement Markings........................................................................................... 3-5
3.3 Traffic Signal Control ........................................................................................ 3-9
3.4 Geometric Modifications.................................................................................. 3-20
4 TOOLKIT FOR TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT
4.1 Microcomputer Simulation................................................................................. 4-1
4.2 Social Media for IEC......................................................................................... 4-11
4.3 Traffic Impact Assessment .............................................................................. 4-16
4.4 Road Safety and Blackspot Analyses .............................................................. 4-18
4.5 Enforcement and Legal Underpinnings............................................................ 4-20
5 MOST COMMON PROBLEM: TRAFFIC BOTTLENECKS
5.1 Causes and Identification of Congestion ........................................................... 5-1
5.2 Typical Countermeasures ................................................................................. 5-5
5.3 Case 1: Unsignalized Intersection .................................................................... 5-6
5.4 Case 2 Multiple Bottlenecks on Same Road ................................................... 5-10
5.5 Economic Benefits of Traffic Management ...................................................... 5-19
6 LESS COMMON PROBLEMS IN TM
6.1 Roadworks........................................................................................................ 6-1
6.2 Corridor Management ...................................................................................... 6-4
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6.3 Event Traffic Management ................................................................................ 6-7
6.4 Dealing with Public Transport........................................................................... 6-11
7 SYSTEM-WIDE SOLUTIONS
7.1 Allure of “Shotgun” Schemes ............................................................................ 7-1
7.2 High Occupancy Vehicle Lanes ........................................................................ 7-2
7.3 TDM and Volume Reduction ............................................................................. 7-6
7.4 Reclaiming Public Roads .................................................................................. 7-8
7.5 TM Measures Tried in the Past ....................................................................... 7-12
8 FUTURE TRENDS IN TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT
8.1 Innovative Designs for Intersections ................................................................. 8-2
8.2 Mobility as a Service ........................................................................................ 8-6
8.3 Intelligent Traffic System (ITS) .......................................................................... 8-7
APPENDICES
Appendix A Glossary of Terms
Appendix B Standard Road Traffic Signs
Appendix C Pavement and Curb Markings
Appendix D Active Transport aka Non-Motorized Transport
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1: Parts of the Guidebook ................................................................................. 1-3

Table 2.1: Administrative and Functional Classification of Roads................................... 2-6
Table 2.2: Road Classification for Traffic Management .................................................. 2-7
Table 2.3: Passenger Car Equivalents ........................................................................ 2-11
Table 2.4: Road Capacities for Planning Purposes ......................................................2-11
Table 2.5: Detailed Description of Level of Service ...................................................... 2-12
Table 3.1: Fuzzy Traffic Signs........................................................................................ 3-4
Table 4.1: GEH Scores per Movement .......................................................................... 4-8
Table 4.2: Proposed Remedies for the Intersection and Their Impacts .......................... 4-8
Table 4.3: Alternative Scenarios for the Samson Rd.-New Abbey Rd............................ 4-9
Table 4.4: Key Performance Indicators Results ...........................................................4-10
Table 4.5: Cost-Benefit Analysis ..................................................................................4-10
Table 5.1: Congestion Levels Based on Speed.............................................................. 5-2
Table 5.2: Data Sheet for Manual Travel Speed Survey ................................................ 5-3
Table 5.3: Traffic Counts on Example Intersection .........................................................5-6
Table 5.4: Signal Timing Parameters Determined using Vistro and Capacity Analysis .5-12
Table 5.5: Revised Offset Timings ...............................................................................5-13
Table 5.6: Alternative Scenarios Examined ................................................................. 5-16
Table 5.7: Key Performance Indicators on Network Performance ................................5-17
Table 5.8: KPI Results on Network Performance .........................................................5-17
Table 5.9: Estimated Costs by Scenario.......................................................................5-17
Table 5.10: Cost-Benefit Analysis of Network Performance.......................................... 5-18
Table 5.11: Vehicle Fuel Cost per Thousand Km.......................................................... 5-19
Table 5.12: Fuel Cost Savings Due to Speed Improvements (Php/1000km)................. 5-19
Table 5.13: Fuel Cost Savings Due to Speed Improvements (Php/min) ....................... 5-19
Table 6.1: Threshold Number of Vehicles on the Road per Hour.................................. 6-17
Table 7.1: Experimentations in Traffic Management .................................................... 7-12
Table 8.1: Design Factors for Roundabouts .................................................................. 8-2
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1: Three Elements of Road System ................................................................ 2-1
Figure 2.2: Mobility and Accessibility Issue ................................................................... 2-4
Figure 2.3: Administrative Classification........................................................................ 2-5
Figure 2.4: Functional Classification.............................................................................. 2-5
Figure 2.5: Mean Speed Formulas ................................................................................ 2-9
Figure 2.6: Speed Volume Relationship ...................................................................... 2-10
Figure 2.7: Speed and Density .................................................................................... 2-10
Figure 2.8: Levels of Service ....................................................................................... 2-12
Figure 3.1: Examples of Pavement Markings and their Meanings.................................. 3-8
Figure 3.2: Relationships Among Elements of Traffic Signal Operation ....................... 3-12
Figure 3.3: Terminologies in Traffic Signal Operation.................................................... 3-12
Figure 3.4: Overview of Adaptive Traffic Signal Control System................................... 3-13
Figure 3.5: Traffic Platoons.......................................................................................... 3-14
Figure 3.6: Headways Departing Signal ...................................................................... 3-15
Figure 3.7: Short and Long Cycle Times ..................................................................... 3-16
Figure 3.8: Movements in 4-Legged Intersection ......................................................... 3-17
Figure 3.9: A Two-Phase System Solution .................................................................. 3-17
Figure 3.10: Trivial Phase Plan.................................................................................... 3-17
Figure 3.11: Alternative Phase Plan ............................................................................ 3-18
Figure 3.12: Alternative Phase Plan ............................................................................ 3-18
Figure 3.13: Elements of Intersection Design .............................................................. 3-20
Figure 3.14: Treatment of Skewed Intersection............................................................ 3-21
Figure 3.15: Curved Radii ............................................................................................ 3-22
Figure 3.16: Bulb Outs ................................................................................................ 3-23
Figure 3.17: Crosswalks and Ramps............................................................................ 3-24
Figure 3.18: Channelization for Right Turns................................................................. 3-24
Figure 3.19: Examples of Different Types of Roundabouts........................................... 3-27
Figure 4.1: Traffic Study and Simulation Models............................................................ 4-1
Figure 4.2: LocalSIM Screen ........................................................................................ 4-3
Figure 4.3: Menu Structure of LocalSIM......................................................................... 4-5
Figure 4.4: LocalSIM Menu Bar ..................................................................................... 4-5
Figure 4.5: Canvas Menu ............................................................................................. 4-6
Figure 4.6: Causes of Congestion ................................................................................. 4-7
Figure 4.7: Simulation Scenarios................................................................................... 4-9
Figure 4.8: Popular Social Media Platforms ................................................................. 4-12
Figure 4.9: Traffic Enforcer .......................................................................................... 4-22
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Figure 5.1: Travel Speed Dashboard for Alabang-Zapote Avenue ................................. 5-4
Figure 5.2: Base Situation of a Gridlock-prone Intersection............................................ 5-6
Figure 5.3: Volume and Directions of Movements.......................................................... 5-7
Figure 5.4: Layout of Proposed Solutions ..................................................................... 5-8
Figure 5.5: Ortigas Avenue Case Study ...................................................................... 5-10
Figure 5.6: Sample Data from Waze ........................................................................... 5-10
Figure 5.7: Geometric Improvement of OrtigasAve.-Club Filipino Drive Intersection .................................. 5-11
Figure 5.8: Geometric Improvement on South Approach of OrtigasAve.-Santolan Road............................ 5-11
Figure 5.9: Geometric Improvement on West Approach of OrtigasAve.-Santolan Road Intersection ... 5-12
Figure 5.10: Proposed Cross-section of Pilot Project Area with Bike Lanes.......................................................5-14
Figure 5.11: Proposed Layout of Bike Lanes at Intersection and Sample Intersection in Japan................. 5-14
Figure 5.12: Sample of Transit Stop Loading and Unloading Bay (with Transit Platform) ............................ 5-15
Figure 5.13: Proposed Loading and Unloading Bay with a Transit Platform at a Transit Stop .................... 5-15
Figure 5.14: Proposed Loading and Unloading Bay at a Transit Stop .......................... 5-15
Figure 5.15: Layout at/near Problem Intersection ...................................................... 5-16
Figure 5.16: Routing Rules for Left Turning Bicycles ................................................... 5-16
Figure 6.1: Typical Roadworks ...................................................................................... 6-1
Figure 6.2: TMP Scheme 1........................................................................................... 6-3
Figure 6.3: TMP Scheme 2........................................................................................... 6-3
Figure 6.4: Means-Ends Tree for Corridor Management ............................................... 6-5
Figure 6.5: Typical Static Events ................................................................................... 6-7
Figure 6.6: Non-Static Event.......................................................................................... 6-8
Figure 6.7: Events of the Third Kind .............................................................................. 6-8
Figure 6.8: Main PT Mode in Cities .............................................................................. 6-11
Figure 6.9: PT Loading/Unloading Facilities................................................................. 6-13
Figure 6.10: Pavement Markings for PU Lanes.......................................................... 6-13
Figure 6.11: Mass Transit Options ............................................................................... 6-15
Figure 6.12: Bus Ridership on EDSA, End-to-End (2005) ............................................ 6-16
Figure 6.13: Passenger Load by Time of Day .............................................................. 6-17
Figure 7.1: Bus Only Lane in Selected 3 Cities.............................................................. 7-3
Figure 7.2: Raised Pavement Markers/Separators ........................................................ 7-3
Figure 7.3: Illustrative Road Signs for Bus Lanes .......................................................... 7-3
Figure 7.4: Array of TDM Tools...................................................................................... 7-6
Figure 7.5: CM Recto after Clearing.............................................................................. 7-8
Figure 8.1: Basic Features and Dimensions of Roundabouts......................................... 8-2
Figure 8.2: Displaced Left Turn...................................................................................... 8-3
Figure 8.3: Median U-Turns .......................................................................................... 8-4
Figure 8.4: Quadrant Roadway...................................................................................... 8-5
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ABBREVIATIONS
CLUP Comprehensive Land Use Plan

DOTr Department of Transportation
DPWH Department of Public Works and Highways
EDSA Epifanio delos Santos Avenue
ETMP event traffic management plan
HOV high-occupancy vehicle
ICM integrated corridor management
IEC Information, education, and communication
JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency
KPI key performance indicator
LGU local government unit
LOS level of service
LTFRB Land Transportation Franchising and Regulatory
Board
LTO Land Transportation Office
MMDA Metropolitan Manila Development Authority
NCR National Capital Region
OVR ordinance violation ticket
PCE passenger car equivalent
PCU passenger car unit
PNP Philippine National Police
PTV Planung Transport Verkehr
PUJ public utility jeepney
PUV public utility vehicle
TDM transportation demand management
TIA traffic impact analysis
TOP temporary operators permit
TSP transit signal priority
UVVRP unified vehicle volume reduction program
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The Project for Comprehensive Traffic Management Plan for Metro Manila
TECHNICAL REPORT NO. 9: GUIDEBOOK ON TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Purpose
The purpose of this Guidebook to Local Traffic Management is to provide local government
units in the Philippines the basic know-how to cope with their current – and emerging -
traffic problems. It is recognized that only a handful of the 1,600+ towns and cities in the
country has traffic engineers in their organization – full-time or part-time; neither can these
communities afford to employ them full-time, aside from the fact that there is not enough
supply of trained personnel.
In addition, this Guidebook seeks to harmonize the discipline and practice of traffic
management throughout the Philippines in accordance with international principles and
best practices.
The Local Government Code (RA# 7160) obligates and empowers LGUs in the delivery of
basic services and facilities that includes the construction and maintenance of
city/municipal roads and bridges, traffic signals and road signs, and other similar facilities
(Rule V, Art. 25). It gave local government units or LGUs a lot of autonomy, as well as
responsibilities. Ensuring the accessibility to schools, to places of work and leisure, to
markets, and to health and social points of interests are essential to their vitality. The Code
also includes the power to open (or close) roads, alleys, parks or squares, whether
temporarily or permanently (IRR Rule VIII, Articles 43, 44 and 45).
1.2 Intended Users

This guidebook is one of several outputs from the JICA technical assistance to MMDA
entitled “The Project for Comprehensive Traffic Management Plan for Metro Manila”. Thus,
its intended users are the traffic management personnel employed by MMDA and the 17
local governments comprising the Metropolitan Manila region. However, it is deemed
relevant and useful also to the other LGUs (numbering more than 1,600, of which 33 are
deemed Highly Urbanized) in the Philippines – albeit the latter group’s traffic problems are
of smaller scale and of lesser complexity.
The need for a handy reference material becomes imperative with the observed turnover
of personnel employed at the local level - including traffic enforcers from the PNP who often
get reassigned to other places.
This Guidebook hopes to fill the recurring knowledge gap in local traffic management.
1- 1
1.3 How to Use

The Guidebook is divided into several parts for ease of navigating between topics. Readers
may go directly to specific parts where they feel a need for working guidance and skip those
topics of which they are not interested. However, beginners are advised to read all the parts
sequentially.
In any case, the topics will be cross-referenced and cross-linked, so that one can refer to a
related subject while reading with a specific topic or Section.
Outlined below are three basic terms along with an explanation of the context that they
should be viewed:
(a) Road: Road refers to the road corridor. That is, the space between property boundaries
located either side of the road and includes footpaths or sidewalks. This part provides
guidance on the management of all travel modes permitted to travel within the road
corridor.
(b) Traffic: While the term ‘traffic’ may be closely identified with vehicle flow, it can also
refer to any mode of traffic that are using the road. This includes cars, light and heavy
trucks, vans, pedestrian, bicycle, bus, and jeepney etc. Therefore, traffic has the same
meaning as transport in the context of this part. Where traffic is mentioned on its own
and without identification of its type, it should be viewed as capturing all modes. Where
it is specifically identified (e.g. bicycle traffic) it should be viewed in that form. It is
unfortunate that commuters use the term traffic interchangeably with congestion.
(c) Transport: Transport has a broader meaning than traffic as it refers not only to any
mode of transport that uses the road corridor, but also non-road modes (i.e., railways,
aircrafts, ships, barges, etc).
1-2
1.4 Scope
The Guidebook to Local Traffic Management comprises 8 chapters and 4 Appendices, as
outlined in Table 1.1. Chapters 1 to 3 deal with basic concepts and principles. Chapter 4 is
about tools available to local traffic authorities, while Chapters 5 to 7 dwell on real-world
problems and countermeasures. The appendices provide convenient (pocket) references
to useful knowledge bases.
Table 1.1: Parts of the Guidebook

Chapter Title Content
1 Introduction to the Guidebook A guide to readers on how to navigate the various topics included in the
Guidebook
2 Fundamentals of Traffic Management A brief introduction to traffic engineering
2.1 What is traffic management Scope and limits of the TM practice
2.2 Core objectives of TM Explicit and intrinsic objectives of traffic management
2.3 Road Hierarchy Road classification and hierarchy, which dictate on management approaches
2.4 Basic Traffic Variables and Relationships
2.5 Stochastic Nature of Traffic Behavior Getting a handle on the dynamic nature of traffic
3 Traffic Control Devices
3.1 Traffic Signs and Pavement Markings Signages and road markings to guide road users and their behavior
3.2 Traffic Warrants and Signalization Guide on when traffic signals and determination of timings and phases
3.3 Geometric Improvements Corollary changes in road geometry to facilitate & guide smooth flow
4 Toolkit for TM
4.1 Traffic Simulation using Computer Models How to use micro-computer applications that simulate current traffic and show
impacts of proposed solutions.
4.2 Social Media for IEC Successful traffic management employs Information, Education and
Communications tools utilizing social media platforms to reach intended
targets.
4.3 Traffic Impact Assessment A tool for avoiding future traffic congestion by evaluating the potential effects
of an urban development project on the road network, and adoption of
corollary mitigation measures.
4.4 Road Safety and Black Spots Analyses Causes of traffic-related accidents and recommended counter-measures
towards higher level of road safety
4.5 Enforcement and Legal Underpinnings Role of traffic enforcers, as well as legal bases for penalizing non-compliant
behaviors
5 Most Common Problem: Traffic
Bottlenecks
5.1 Causes and ID of Bottlenecks Identifies the causes of traffic congestion, as well as location of major
chokepoints
5.2 Typical Countermeasures Generic remedies to undercut or mitigate congestions at specific locations
5.3 TBn 1: Gridlock-prone Intersection Example of abottleneck and the steps taken leading to a solution
5.4 TBn 2: Typical 4-legged Intersection A more complex traffic problem and the generation of countermeasure
6 Less Common Problems in TM
6.1 Roadworks Mitigating the impact of disruptive roadworks
6.2 Corridor Management Traffic improvements comprising several intersections on a route or corridor
6.3 Event Management Minimizing or avoiding the disruptive effects of public events like parades
6.4 Public Transport Street Behavior Buses and jeepneys are often seen as rule-breakers, if the not the major
disruptors of smooth traffic flow
7 System-Wide (Big Push) Solutions Measures to alleviate congestion over entire road network or large parts ofthe
city
7.1 Allure & Peril of “Shotgun” Solutions Motivations and attractions of shot-gun solutions against widespread and
systemic traffic congestion
7.2 High Occupancy Vehicle Lanes Giving priority to vehicles, particularly Public Transport, that carry more
passengers but sacrifices other modes
7.3 Vehicle Volume Reduction A transport demand solution that aims to reduce carvolumes at a given period
and day, as a traffic mitigation measure
7.4 One-Way Traffic Schemes When (and why) conversion of roads into one-way scheme increases road
throughput or flow capacity
7.5 Reclaiming Public Roads and Parking Supply of roads are insufficient, andyet many ofthese arepublic roads fenced
Management off for private use, and/or utilized for on-street parking.
7.6 TM Measures Tried in the Past A review of past TM measures that enjoyed short-term popularity, and why
they failed or faded away.
8 Future Trends
1-3
Chapter Title Content

8.1 Game-changing Technologies: Next 20Years Key technologies that will likely change the practice of traffic management in
2 decades
8.2 Innovative Designs for Intersections New intersection designs that obviate reliance on traffic signals
8.3 Mobility as a Service Trip making directly from mobile devices across all modes of transport
8.4 Intelligent Traffic System Evolution of adaptive signaling into Ai-driven systems interacting with
driverless cars
Appendices
A Glossary of Terms Definition and explanation of technical jargons
B Standard Traffic Signs Prevailing national standards on road signs
C Pavement Markings National standards on pavement markings
D Active Transport aka NMT How to accommodate walking and biking facilities into the menu of mobility
options
1-4
1.5 Out of Scope

The following subjects are excluded in this Guidebook:
(i) It does not delve into complex traffic theory. For detailed guidance on this, readers
should refer to reference material addressing the subject matter, such as the
“Fundamentals of Traffic Engineering” by Dr. Ricardo G. Sigua, UP Press (2008).
(ii) It does not discuss road design aspects; these are referred to in the Guide to Road
Design.
(iii) Road safety is not covered in detail as a separate section but is alluded to in different
sections of the Guidebook.
(iv) It does not go into broader transport planning guidance. The planning, assessment and
development of public transport systems (buses, jeepneys, railways) and related
initiatives are within the scope of Transport Planners. A cursory treatment of public
transport route planning, however, is discussed in Chapter 6.4.
Limitations
It is impossible to coverall conceivable topics on traffic management in a folio
like this, without this Guidebook becoming unwieldy. Users are encouraged to
refer to other technical sources for deeper treatment of some topics, and to
consider this publication as a handy guide to deal with the most common
problems faced by local traffic management authorities within their respective
jurisdictions.
1.6 Origin of this Guidebook

This Guidebook is the second edition; it revises and updates the first edition that was
published in November 2001 as one of several outputs of the JICA-assisted project called
Small Scale Traffic Improvement Measures for Metro Manila.
As mentioned earlier, the 3-year (started in 2020 and ending in 2022) JICA technical
assistance to MMDA to formulate a 3-year roadmap for traffic management included the
production of this Guidebook. It is intended as handy reference for personnel involved in
local traffic management at the local government level.
1.7 No Copyright
The contents of this Guidebook were compiled from various technical publications, re-
arranged and edited to suit Philippine conditions.
Published sources and technical references are mentioned at specific sections, whenever
possible and convenient. The sheer number of references inevitably lead to omissions.
The authors do not claim any originality nor copyright over any section of this report.
Readers may freely share the Guidebook. Knowledge is a valuable resource that multiplies
when shared.
1-5
2 FUNDAMENTALS OF TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT
2.1 What is Traffic Management

Traffic management is the organization, arrangement, guidance and control of both
stationary and moving traffic, including pedestrians, cyclists and all types of vehicles. Its
aim is to provide for the safe, orderly and efficient movement of persons and goods, and to
protect and where possible, enhance the quality of the local environment on and adjacent
to roads.
Traffic management is the application of specific traffic control practices, within a defined
policy framework, over a length of road or an area, to achieve specified objectives which
may be set by national, provincial or local governments. Traffic management is typified by
its application over a significant area or length of route, as opposed to a specific traffic
control action applied at a single location. A range of traffic management policies, practices
and techniques may be appropriate to meet particular objectives.
R
o
a
d
/
V H
e u
h m
i a
Source:
Figure 2.1: Three Elements of Road System
The road system consists of 3 elements in interaction with each other: the road, the vehicle,
and the driver. Badly designed roads can hamper the smooth flow. Vehicles that breakdown
on the road can be disruptive. Bad driving can degrade the overall system performance.
Road is a shared resource, and the sharing entails compliance with the rules of the road.
There is a limit to how many cars can share or use the road at any given time, and a limit
to space allocated to roads, and these finite limits give rise to conflicts. The development
and maintenance of the road network is faced with several challenges:
(i) Continuing growth in vehicle ownership and usage
(ii) Increasing traffic congestion in urban areas
(iii) Trends toward larger (and more efficient) freight vehicles
(iv) Continuing challenge for road safety improvements
(v) Increasing concern about environmental impacts (noise & air pollution, carbon
emissions).
The central challenge is to address these often conflicting issues in a manner that balances
the triple bottom line (economic, social and environmental factors). The effective
management of traffic is fundamental to making the best use of the existing road network.
Government policies on the zoning, release and development of land are also prime
determinants of the amount and type of traffic generated by various land uses and required
2- 1
to be carried by road networks. In more developed countries, governments have recognized

the importance of effective planning, development and management of land use and road
networks in a more sustainable manner. Very few of LGUs in the Philippines take seriously
their Comprehensive Land Use Plans (CLUPs). Those that do, pays attention not only of
the required or desirable traffic flow conditions on different parts of the network, but also of
broad issues such as the following:
(i) Land use planning strategies

(ii) Travel demand management
(iii) Energy/fuel consumption
(iv) Urban design requirements
(v) Safety, mobility and accessibility issues for all road users
(vi) Access to commercial, retail, industrial, residential and recreational facilities
(vii)Parking requirements
(viii) Amenity issues in residential areas
(ix) Bio-diversity issues for rural roads
(x) Equity in respect to different user groups
2-2
2.2 Core Objectives

Specific objectives for traffic management schemes often include the following:
(i) Improved traffic flow conditions, reduction of congestion, (most commonly sought on
arterial roads, where traffic flow efficiency objectives claim higher priority)
(ii) Enhanced safety of a route or area (arising from crash analysis or from direct
community concerns)
(iii) Improved safety, mobility and accessibility for children, pedestrians and cyclists
(iv) Improved amenity of residential areas
(v) Improved access to commercial, retail, and recreational activities
(vi) Improved road freight productivity and safety (particularly important in the achievement
of economic objectives in the overall transport task)
(vii)Improved operating conditions for road-based public transport (reflecting priority for
efficient movement of people rather than on movement of vehicles per se)
(viii) Improved information for road users such a real time traveller information
(ix) Amelioration of parking problems
At its most basic, traffic management aims to ensure uninterrupted flow so that
the road system approximates its design capacity without sacrificing road safety.
2-3
2.3 Road Hierarchy

The arena of traffic management is the road. Hence, the need to understand the character
of the road.
A road serves two travel purposes: mobility and accessibility. A roadway provides mobility
function where through traffic is dominant, with very few crossing streets and limited entry
and exit from adjoining properties. It has therefore low travel friction from vehicles coming
in/out of the road. As a consequence, there is less interruption and vehicles move at higher
speeds.
On the other hand, a roadway meant for accessibility has many crossings, as well as
ingress/egress from adjoining properties. As a consequence, there is high travel friction,
vehicles move at slower speed and flow is interrupted frequently. A locality with sparse or
undeveloped road network will usually have roads serving both purposes. It is the policy of
DPWH to offload tertiary roads to LGUs, so it can focus on the inter-LGU roads.
Source:
Figure 2.2: Mobility and Accessibility Issue
Another important classification is the road’s provenance: who built the road and maintain
it. This is the administrative or jurisdictional classification that is more familiar in the
Philippines (see Figure 2.3). Technically, expressways are also national roads; although
most of the toll roads in the country were built with private monies under PPP arrangement,
their ownership is with the national government.
Private roads abound in rapidly urbanizing communities. They got built by private property
developers (as part of a residential subdivision or industrial estate). The legal procedure is
to turn these completed roads to LGUs for subsequent maintenance, but most of them end
up are left without the turnover formality. If government spends money to upgrade or
maintain erstwhile private roads, they should be deemed public, and therefore accessible
to non-residents. Traffic authorities can therefore consider these ‘private roads’ in their re-
routing plans and overall circulation system.
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Source:
Figure 2.3: Administrative Classification
LGUs have full control over Local roads. For National roads, however, they should
coordinate with DPWH any changes in the circulation pattern and imposition of local
regulations governing their utilization. Imposition of truck bans, for example, is one such
regulation.
The functional classification of road hews to road hierarchy and capacities as illustrated in
Figure 2.4. At the top of the hierarchy are Freeways with limited access and no at-grade
crossings. They are the equivalent of Expressways in the Philippines. In some countries,
they are called Motorways or First Class Roads. They operate with the least roadside
friction, and thus achieve higher speed and higher flow.
Arterials are major through roads that are expected to carry large volumes of traffic. Arterials
are often divided into major and minor arterials, and rural and urban arterials. Usually, they
are divided roads (i.e., with median separators or island) with occasional at-grade
intersections and traffic lights. On-street parking is normally not allowed.
Source: https://www.cnu.org/our-projects/street-networks/street-networks-101
Figure 2.4: Functional Classification
Collectors (not to be confused with collector lanes, which reduce weaving on freeways),
collect traffic from local roads, and distribute it to arterials. Traffic using a collector is usually
going to or coming from somewhere nearby. On-street parking may be allowed.
At the bottom of the hierarchy are local streets and roads. These roads have the lowest
2-5
speed limit, and carry low volumes of traffic. In some areas, these roads may be unpaved.
The two method of classification are not mutually exclusive, they overlaps as indicated in
Table 2.1 below.
Table 2.1: Administrative and Functional Classification of Roads
Administrative Functional Speed Access Points Trip Distance

Expressway Freeway, Motorway 80–100 kph Few Longest
National Primary, Provincial Road, City Arterials 50–60 kph Medium Medium
Roads
National Secondary, City/Municipal Road Collector 30–40 kph Many Short
Tertiary, Barangay, Private Local Streets 20–30 kph Many Shortest
Source: JPT
A basic chart required for traffic management is a mapping of the entire road network within
each LGU, with each road classified as to function and color coded for convenience. The
process of classification is both an art and science; and in many instances obvious for
Arterials and Locals. It becomes ambiguous when a road appears to belong to adjacent
classes.
For Metro Manila, the road network with initial classification is shown in Figure 2.5.
As a guide to traffic management, the functional classification is characterized further in

Table 2.2.
Source: DPWH
Functional Classification of Roads in Metro Manila
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Table 2.2: Road Classification for Traffic Management
Classification Classification by
Recommended Classification for Traffic Management Purposes
by OSM Gov’t Agencies
No. of Road
TM
Class Lanes / Width Median Definition Owner DPWH LGU
Entities
Direction (m)
Expressway ≥2 3.50 Yes A major arterial with limited DPWH, DPWH, Motorway Expressway None
access, median strip and curb Private Private
shoulder.
Class A 3 3.25 Yes An arterial road that connects DPWH MMDA in Trunk or Primary
among LGUs
No common definition
cities, like the 10 radial roads and NCR Primary
5 circumferential roads of NCR
Class B 2 3.00 Yes Collector roads to major roads, LGUs, MMDA in Secondary Secondary
complements Class A roads Private NCR
Class C 2 2.75 No Access roads that connect to LGUs, LGUs, Tertiary Tertiary
residential subdivisions and Private Private
barangays within a LGU
Class D - - No A road that gives access to a LGUs, LGUs, Quaternary None
property or a facility Private Private
Source: JPT
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2.4 Basic Traffic Variables and Relationships

1) Descriptors of Traffic Flow
Volume (sometimes called ‘flow’ or ‘flow rate’ and here designated by the symbol ‘q’) is the
number of vehicles passing a given point on a road during a period of time. Volume may
relate to a lane, a carriageway or a road and, in the case of a road, may include traffic in
either one or both directions. In traffic flow analysis, a volume usually relates to only one
direction of flow.
The unit of time used in relation to a volume may vary according to the application. Volumes
expressed as vehicles per second (veh/s) or vehicles per hour (veh/h) are typically used in
traffic flow analysis, while daily or annual volumes may be appropriate in other contexts,
such as analyses of traffic growth overtime.
Density (also known as ‘concentration’) (‘k’) is the number of vehicles present within a unit
length of lane, carriageway or road, at a given instant of time. Density is usually expressed
as vehicles per kilometer (veh/km) or, where appropriate for analysis purposes, vehicles
per meter (veh/m).
Speed (‘v’) is the distance travelled by a vehicle per unit time and is typically expressed as
either meters per second (m/s) or kilometers per hour (kph). The average speed of a stream
of vehicles may be expressed as either the time mean speed or the space mean speed,
which are defined below:
(i) Time mean speed, vt, is the arithmetic mean of the measured speeds of all vehicles
passing a given point during a given time interval. Such individual measured speeds
are called ‘spot speeds’.
(ii) Space mean speed, vs, is the arithmetic mean of the measured speeds of all vehicles
within a given length of lane or carriageway, at a given instant of time.
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Source:
Figure 2.5: Mean Speed Formulas
A headway is the time interval separating the passing of a fixed point by two consecutive
vehicles in a traffic stream. The average headway (‘h’) of the stream over a given time
interval is the arithmetic mean of the series of headways occurring over that interval.
Headway is usually expressed in units of seconds per vehicle (s/veh).
Spacing is the distance between the fronts of two consecutive vehicles in a traffic stream
at a given instant of time. The average spacing (‘s’) of the stream over a given length of
lane or carriageway is the arithmetic mean of the individual spacings occurring over that
length at that instant of time. Spacing is usually expressed in the units of meters per vehicle
(m/veh).
2) Mathematical Relationships
The following relationships exist between the five descriptors for any traffic stream:
(i) Volume and average headway are the inverses of each other
q = 1 / h and h = 1 /q
(ii) Density and average spacing are the inverses of each other.
k = 1 / s and s = 1 / k
(iii) Volume is the product of density and (space mean) speed.
q=k v
From these three fundamental relationships, other relationships may be directly derived,
such as:
q = v / s and s = h  v
Uninterrupted flow occurs in a traffic stream that is not delayed or interfered with by factors
external to the traffic stream itself (such as intersections, pedestrian crossings etc.) but only
by its own, internal, traffic interactions.
In contrast, interrupted flow occurs when external factors have significant effects on the
traffic flow, such as traffic lights, intersections, driveways, etc.
It is instructive to examine the graphical relationships between the three principal traffic flow
descriptors, volume, speed and density, for the case of uninterrupted flow, to examine the
correspondence between the different graphical relationships and to interpret them in terms
of traffic conditions on the road.
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Figure 2.6 illustrates the relationship between (average) speed and volume. Feasible
combinations of these two variables must lie within the region bounded by the vertical axis
(zero minimum volume), the maximum feasible speed line, the minimum feasible average
headway line (defining maximum feasible volume) and the maximum feasible density line
(that maximum being the tangent of the angle θ). Typical observed speed volume
combinations lie on or close to the curve shown.
Source:
Figure 2.6: Speed Volume Relationship
Figure 2.7 shows the typically observed relationship between (average) speed and
(average) density for uninterrupted flow conditions. In this close-to-linear relationship, the
speed steadily decreases from its maximum value, the mean free speed, vf, when the
density is at or close to zero, to zero speed at the maximum or ‘jam’ density, kj. If a rectangle
is drawn with one corner at the origin and the diagonally opposite corner at a point of interest,
then its area is the volume corresponding to that point of interest. In simple terms, vehicles
slow down as more enter the traffic stream, and comes to a halt on a ‘jam’ density.
Source:
Figure 2.7: Speed and Density
From the speed-volume relationship, the capacity of a road is qmax. It is the maximum
hourly rate at which vehicles can reasonably be expected to traverse a point or uniform
section of a lane or a roadway during a given time period under prevailing roadway, traffic
and weather conditions.
The number of vehicles in the preceding descriptors is understood to refer to passenger car
unit (pcu). There are various types of vehicles – cars, jeepneys, bus, etc. They are
converted into their equivalent number, pcu, as if all vehicles are the standard 4-wheel car.
Passenger car equivalent (PCE) or passenger car unit (PCU) is a metric used in
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transportation engineering, to assess traffic-flow rate on a highway.
A common method used in calculating PCU in the US is the density method. However, the
PCU values derived from the density method are based on underlying homogeneous traffic
concepts such as strict lane discipline, car following and a vehicle fleet that does not vary
greatly in width. On the other hand, highways in developing countries carry heterogeneous
traffic, where road space is shared among many traffic modes with different physical
dimensions. Loose lane discipline prevails; car following is not the norm. This complicates
computing of PCE.
The DPWH has adopted (Dept Order No. 22 s2013) the pcu values shown in Table 2.3
below, with comparative values used in other countries.
Table 2.3: Passenger Car Equivalents
Vehicle Types PCU (Phil) India UK Recommended

for TM
Car 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Utility Van, Jeepney, Mini Bus 1.5 2.5 1.5 1.5
Large Bus 2.0 4.0 2.0 3.0
Truck, rigid 2.0 4.0 2.3 3.0
Truck Trailer, ≥ 3 axles 2.5 4.5 3.2 4.0
Tricycle 1.5 1.4 1.5
Motorcycle 0.4 0.4 0.4
Horse-Drawn Vehicle 4.0 4.0
Source: DPWHand JPT
The Philippines Highway Planning Manual (DPWH) provides indicative values of road
capacity.
Table 2.4: Road Capacities for Planning Purposes
Carriageway Width Basic Capacity

Road Type Roadside Friction
(meters) (pcu/hr, both directions)
Highway ≤4 None or light 600
Highway 4.1–5.0 None or light 1200
Highway 5.1– 5.5 None or light 1800
Highway 2 x 7,0 None or light 7200 (expressway)
Urban Street ≤ 6.0 Heavy 1200
Urban Street 6.1–6.5 Heavy 1600
Urban Street 6.6–7.3 Heavy 1800
Urban Street 2x 7.0 Heavy 6700
Multi-Lane Highways 2 lanes 3 lanes 4 lanes
Capacity, pcu/hr/lane 1800 1750 1700
Source: DPWH
A road is said to have a Level of Service (LOS), based on how it is performing along the
speed-volume curve. This is shown on Figure 2.8. A road starts to be concerning when LOS
goes down to E and F. Most roads in NCR are on Level F.
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Source:
Figure 2.8: Levels of Service
Table 2.5: Detailed Description of Level of Service
LOS Qualitative Description

A Free flow, with low volumes and high speeds. Drivers are virtually unaffected by the
presence of others. Little or no restrictions in maneuverability and speed.
B The level of comfort and convenience provided is somewhat less than at LOS A.
Zone of stable flow with operating speeds beginning to be restricted somewhat by
traffic conditions. Drivers will have reasonable freedom to select their speed but
there is a decline in freedom to maneuver within the traffic stream from LOS A.
C Still in zone of stable flow, but speed and maneuverability are most closely controlled
by higher volumes. Most of the drivers are restricted in the freedom to select their
own speed, lane changing or overtaking maneuvers. The level of comfort and
convenience declines noticeably at this level.
D Approaches unstable flow. Speed and freedom to maneuver are severely restricted,
and driver experiences a generally poor level of comfort and convenience. Small
increases in traffic flow will generally cause operational problems
E Flow is unstable, and there maybe stoppages of momentary condition. Represents
operating conditions at or near capacity level. All speeds are reduced to allow but
relatively uniform value. Freedom to maneuver within the traffic stream is extremely
difficult,and it is generally accomplished by forcing a vehicle to “give
way” to accommodate such maneuver.
F Forced or breakdown flow. The amount of traffic approaching a point exceeds the
amount which can traverse the points. Queues form behind such locations.
Operation within the queue are characterized by
stop-and-go waves, extremely unstable. It is the point at which arrival flow which
causes the queue to form.
Source: Transportation Research Board 2000
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2.5 The Stochastic Nature of Traffic Behavior

1) Probabilistic Aspects of Traffic Flow
Traffic behavior is influenced by a wide range of factors. Each vehicle on the road system
is controlled by a driver whose individual decisions, on times of commencement of trips,
routes to take, speeds at which to travel and many other things, determine where it is on
the road network at any given time and what influence it may have on other road users.
Equally, the decisions of others (such as pedestrians wishing to cross a road),the operation
of traffic control devices (such as signals), weather and lighting conditions introduce further
variation into the traffic situation faced by each road user. Given the variety of these and
other similar factors, it is not surprising that probability theory should play a significant role
in the description and analysis of traffic flows.
While many aspects of traffic behavior maybe stochastic in nature, they are not necessarily
random. A wide variety of different statistical distributions may apply, for example, to the
pattern of arrivals of vehicles at a particular location along a road.
If the location is distant from any external factor that influences traffic behavior, such as a
signalised intersection or a toll booth, then vehicle arrivals may well be random and
statistical distributions appropriate to random behavior would be applicable.
On the other hand, if the location at which vehicles are arriving is a short distance
downstream from asignalised intersection, the pattern of arrivals would be far from random
but would be likely to consist of periods of closely spaced arrivals of vehicles in ‘platoons’,
separated by periods of much lighter traffic flow, which would be described by different
statistical distributions. A further example is traffic on a freeway entrance ramp at a point
downstream from a ramp metering device; such a device is designed to release vehicles at
regular intervals, so that a uniform distribution of arrivals would apply at the downstream
point.
The purposes of this section are, firstly, to provide information on some of the statistical
distributions commonly employed in the development of traffic theory and in traffic analysis.
It is not the purpose of this Guidebook to provide lessons in statistical probability. For more
details, the reader is encouraged to read textbooks on traffic engineering.
2) Statistical Distributions in Traffic
Preceding discussions assume deterministic values of descriptors – usually, the mean or

average, for simplicity and convenience. In reality, the values have inherent probability
distribution. For example, the mean is the average of many observations or data, which are
usually normally distributed. In traffic management, a large amount of data is gathered and
analyzed, which entails statistical methods. Statistical analysis is used to address the
following:
(i) How many data samples are required?

(ii) What confidence should I have in this estimate?
(iii) What statistical distribution best describes the observed data mathematically?
The most common statistical distributions that one may encounter in traffic engineering and
management are:
(a) Normal Distribution: also known as the bell-shaped curve. Speed, travel time, delay
are commonly described using this function, defined by 2 parameters: the mean and
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the variance.
(b) Binomial Distribution: observations that can have one of two outcomes, such as
choosing private mode or public transit mode.
(c) Poisson Distribution: to describe the random arrival of vehicles to a tollgate, an

intersection, or a screen line. Also, best for rare events like “accidents”.
(d) Exponential Distribution: to model the inter-arrival time (headway) between the
vehicles, assuming the arrival is random within a given time interval.
Readers who want to understand statistical models and theory of traffic flow can refer to a
technical paper “Theory of Traffic Flow – Statistical Models” by J.C. Oppenlander, Assistant
Professor of Civil Engineering, Purdue University.
A video on Poisson distribution and its application in traffic engineering is available on

https://youtu.be/YvD_gIqy7-g/
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3 TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES
The flow of vehicles on the road network, as well as the behavior of pedestrians, have to
follow rules and regulations to ensure continuous flow. Obstructions to traffic should be
avoided, if not minimize in time and space.
The rules and regulations are made apparent thru standardized traffic control devices,
which include traffic signs and pavement markings. These two categorires - signs and
markings - are passive control devices that notify road users of regulations and provide
warning and guidance needed for the safe, uniform, and efficient operation of all elements
of the traffic stream.
The geometry of the intersection, as well as the use of traffic signals, are additional
measures that can be deployed. They are active control devises, and more expensive than
signs and markings.
Basic techniques for traffic control involve the following:
(i) To simplify traffic flow (in order to achieve similarity among components and stabilized
flow)
(ii) To segregate road users in space and time (in order to reduce conflicts and to simplify
traffic flow)
(iii) To increase capacity in order to accommodate more vehicles.
(iv) To restrain traffic in order to reduce traffic volume.
The elements of traffic control include the following:
(i) Speed limits
(ii) Turn regulations
(iii) U-turn regulations
(iv) Parking controls
(v) No standing
(vi) Stop / Yield / Give Way
(vii)Channelization
(viii) Lane use control
(ix) No lane-changing
(x) Reserved lane
(xi) Bus lanes / roads
(xii)Reversible lanes
(xiii) No overtaking
(xiv) One way restrictions
(xv)Vehicles only (pedestrian restrictions)
(xvi) Vehicle bans
(xvii)Special routing
(xviii) Pedestrian crossings
(xix) Pedestrian precincts
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3.1 Traffic Signs

Road signs are traffic control devices which inform motorists and other road users of
regulations and provide warning and guidance needed for the safe, uniform, and efficient
operation of all elements of the traffic stream.
Road signs contain visual instructions that the road users, particularly drivers of vehicles,
is required to obey. They warn road users of hazards that may not be self evident. They
also provide information about routes, directions, destinations, landmarks, and places of
interests. Since road signs are essential part of the road traffic system, their message
should be concise, meaningful, consistent, and their design and placement must be in
harmony with the road geometry.
Traffic signs are a principal means for regulating, warning, and guiding traffic. However, to
be effective, traffic signs must meet these several requirements. These are:
(i) Compel attention
(ii) Convey a clear and simple meaning
(iii) Allow adequate time for easy response
(iv) Command the respect of the road users for whom it is intended
1) Types of Traffic Signs
Traffic signs can be categorized according to different classes. The international system
prescribed in the Vienna Convention differentiates between the following classes of road
signs:
(a) Regulatory Signs: These have the authority of law and impose precise requirements
upon the action of road users; non-compliance may face fines or other sections.
Regulatory signs may further be classified into the following:
(i) Priority signs (R1);
(ii) Direction Signs (R2);
(iii) Prohibitory or restrictive signs (R3);
(iv) Speed Signs (R4);
(v) Parking Signs (R5);
(vi) Miscellaneous signs (R6)
(b) Informative Signs: these signs are intended to guide road-users while they are
traveling or to provide them with other information which may be useful. Informative
signs may further be classified into the following:
(i) Information, facilities or service signs;
(ii) Direction, position or indication signs; Advance direction signs; Direction signs;
Road identification signs; Place identification signs; Confirmatory signs; Indication
signs;
(iii) Additional panels.
(c) Danger Warning Signs: these signs are intended to warn road-users of a danger on
the road and to inform them of its nature;
(d) Special Instruction Signs: are used at locations where ordinary guide and regulatory
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signs do not achieve the desired result. These signs instruct the motorist to follow a
direction or to obey a course of action.
2) Uniformity of Signs
Uniformity in design of traffic signs is achieved through standard shape, color, dimension,
symbols, wordings, lettering, and illumination or reflectorization.
(1) Shape
Equilateral Triangle – with one side horizontal,

shall be used for danger warning signs;
Round Shape – for regulating traffic;
Rectangular – for informative signs
Octagonal – for Stop signs only
Inverted equilateral – for Yield signs only
(2) Color
(a) Danger: yellow or white background, with black symbols and red border
Prohibitory and restrictive signs shall have a white background, with black symbols
and red border.
Mandatory signs shall have a blue background and white symbols, except those for
STOP and YIELD signs.
Informative Signs shall have a white or light-colored symbol on a dark coloured

background (blue, black, green, or brown), or a dark-coloured symbol on a white or
light-coloured background.
(b) Size: the minimum dimensions depend upon the intended applications. Generally,
larger sizes are necessary at wider roads and on high-speed highways. The DPWH
Manual can be used as reference for determining dimensions of various traffic signs,
and for other details (letter, symbol, border, bar sizes, height of posts from ground
level, etc.). For exmple, the recommended sizes for STOP and YIELD signs come
in 3, as shown below:
A 600x600mm
B 750 x 750mm
C 900 x 900mm
(c) Illumination and Reflectorization: since signs have to function at daytime and
nightime, use of illumination or reflective materials are recommended
(d) Placement of Signs: In general, signs shall be mounted approximately at right

angles to the direction, and facing the traffic they intend to serve. The angular
placement of signs should consider the sun’s brightness reflecting on the signs to
avoid glare for the drivers, especially on roads oriented on east-west direction.
Signs are generally placed on the right side of the roadway; and for wider multi-lane
roads, overhead signs are often necessary. Signs may also be placed on
channelized islands, and medians.
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See Annex B for details about standard (and most common) traffic signs.
The reader may also opt to watch a video on YouTube about Road Signs. One
that is posted in Pilipino language can be found on
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TU_LGw8zmDc.
3) Cases of Fuzzy Traffic Signs
Instances of deviations from international standards can be seen in NCR and other places
in the Philippines. They are illustrated here, for the purposes of discouraging them and
improving their uses.
Table 3.1: Fuzzy Traffic Signs
Background color is Pink. Rectangular shape implies for

Information only. Is it prohibitory or a warning? The
message is clear for Filipinos; but may not be
understandable to foreigners and non-Tagalogs.
Background color is Pink. Rectangular shape implies for
Information only. Could be interpreted by Bus/Jeepney
Drivers as a prohibition against Loading, but not for
Unloading.
Shape, symbol, and color follow standard design. Text,

however, could be construed as allowing Parking on the
other side of the road.
Too many signs posted on the same place, as to be

confusing. Meant for pedestrians, but facing away from
them.
The first sign is circular in shape, thus implying

prohibitory. The second is rectangular and implies
Informative, but black symbols on white background
suggests prohibition.
As an informative sign, it is compliant with standards

(rectangular shape, background color, and text color).
Message, however, is too long. Font size for the
barangay credit is almost thesame asthe precedingtext.
A warning sign about road closure is compliant with

standards, but the reason for closure has double-
meanings. May confused, if not amused, motorists.
A Informative sign about a location that tried to compress

3 messages on the same signboard: i) the office and its
officers; ii) the day care center location; iii) location of
slaughterhouse.
Source:
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3.2 Pavement Markings

This section focuses primarily on introducing the following general aspects of pavement
markings and their usage:
(i) Functions of Pavement Markings

(ii) Limitations of Pavement Markings
(iii) Legal Authority
(iv) Standardization
(v) Types of Markings
(vi) Materials
(vii)Color
(viii) Types of Lines
(ix) Width
1) Functions of Pavement Markings
Markings on roadways complement road signs in providing guidance and information for
the road user. Major marking types include pavement and curb markings, object markers,
delineators, colored pavements, barricades, channelizing devices and islands. In other
instances, markings are used alone to effectively convey regulations, guidance, or warnings
in ways not obtainable by the use of other devices.
Pavement markings may be in the form of lines, symbols, messages or numerals that may
be set on the surface of the pavement.
2) Limitations of Pavement Markings
Because of the nature of these markings being placed on the pavement, they are subject
to the following limitations:
(i) subject to wear and tear due to vehicular and pedestrian traffic;
(ii) they may not be clearly visible when the road is wet, dusty or dirty
(iii) they may be obscured by traffic
(iv) depending on materials used, they may affect skidding or braking by vehicles
(v) unsuitable on unsealed roads
3) Legal Authority
Markings may only be applied and removed by duly authorized entities. Pertaining to
national roads, all pavement marking plans must be approved by the Department of Public
Works and Highways, at the District level.
For city or municipal roads, these must be approved by the local traffic management
authority, or in its absence, by the City/Municipal Engineer’s Office. Invariably, they are the
implementor who may contract out the job of markings, or perform the job in-house.
4) Standardization
Uniformity of markings aids recognition and instant understanding for the guidance of
motorists. The standards to be used are those specified by the Department of Public Works
and Highways, as contained in the latest version of their Manual.
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5) Types of Markings
For convenience, markings are classified as follows:
(1) Pavement and Curb Markings
(a) Longitudinal Lines: lines laid out in the direction of travel. These include Center
Line, Lane Line, Double Yellow Line, “No-Passing” Zone Markings, Pavement Edge
Line, Continuity Lines, and Transition Line
(b) Transverse Lines: Lines which are laid out across the direction of travel. These
include the Stop Line, Yield (Give Way) Lines, Pedestrian Crossing Markings.
(c) Other Lines: This includes Turn Lines, Parking Bays, Painted Median Islands and
Bus and PUJ Lane Lines, and the "Yellow Box" lines to denote "Keep Intersection
Open".
(d) Other Marking: which include approach markings to islands and obstructions,
chevron markings, diagonal markings, markings on exit and entrance ramps, curb
markings for parking restrictions, approaches to railroad crossings, messages and
symbols and pavement arrows.
(2) Object Markings

(i) Objects within roadway
(ii) Objects adjacent to roadway
(3) Reflector Markings
(i) Retro-Reflector Raised Pavement Markers

(ii) Hazard Markers
(iii) Delineators
6) Materials
Materials used for pavement marking have evolved along with technological advances
especially in material science. The main concern when selecting the material is that it does
not compromise safety requirements of the roadway, such as those related to
stopping/braking. In other words, markings should be of non-skid materials and should not
protrude more than 6 mm above the level of the carriageway. On the other hand, raised
pavement markers, should not protrude more than 15 mm above the level of the
carriageway. The following are common materials for road markings:
(a) Paint: Paint with or without glass beads embedded or premixed can be applied by hand
or with line marking machines. For proper reflectorization at night, the amount of glass
beads should be no less than 0.45kg and no more than 0.50kg per liter of mixed paint.
(b) Thermoplastic Materials: Use of thermoplastic materials with or without reflective

properties is recommended at locations subject to extreme traffic wear. The average
service life of thermoplastic materials has been observed to reach eight times that of
beaded traffic paints.
(c) Pre-cut Sheeting: Pre-cut materials both with or without reflective properties may be
used. This is usually in the form of a kind of adhesive tape with aggregate or pigment
and plastic rubber combined on one side and adhesive on the other side.
(d) Raised Pavement Markers: These are studs or plastic, ceramic, aluminum, cast iron,
3-6
etc. which are set into the carriageway or attached to the road surface with an adhesive.
These may be reflective or non-reflective.
7) Color
The main concern regarding the color of markings is their effect on legibility and contrast
with the pavement. In combination with the size of markings, contrast plays an important
role in providing markings which can be easily understood by pedestrians and motorists
alike.
Pavement markings are normally white with the exception of the following cases wherein
yellow is used instead:
(a) Raised Pavement Markers: These are studs or plastic, ceramic, aluminum, cast iron,
etc. which are set into the carriageway or attached to the road surface with an adhesive.
These may be reflective or non-reflective.
(b) Double-Yellow Lines: These indicate “No -Passing” conditions, vehicles on both
direction are disallowed from crossing the lines.
(c) Unbroken Portion of “No-Passing” Lines: these indicate that traffic on the side of
the unbroken line are disallowed from entering the opposing lane.
(d) Curb markings for the Prohibition of Parking: Yellow diagonal stripes are often used
in combination with black parallel stripes to indicate areas where parking is prohibited.
(e) On islands in Line of Traffic
(f) Bus and PUJ Lanes
(g) "Yellow Box" Markings Denoting "Keep Intersection Open"
(h) YELLOW indicates a higher level of concern or call for attention than WHITE.
8) Types of Lines
Depending on the direction that the lines are marked on the pavement, lines may be
longitudinal, transverse or oblique. Depending on the use and meaning of such lines, they
are either broken lines or solid lines.
(1) Broken Lines
A broken line shall consist of line segments of equal lengths separated by uniform gaps.
The speed of the vehicles on the section of road or area in question should be taken into
account in determining the lengths of the strokes and of gaps between them. In general ,
the gaps and length of strokes become longer as area or section speed increases. Broken
lines form a general guidance but may be crossed under certain conditions.
(2) Solid Lines
A solid unbroken line is used where crossing of the line is either discouraged or prohibited.
It is generally used to replace or supplement a broken line where required (e.g. barrier lines,
center lines, etc. Solid lines may be either yellow or white depending on whether or not
crossing the line is legally prohibited (yellow indicates legal prohibition).
9) Width of Lines and Tolerance
The specification of width of solid or broken lines ranges from 100mm to 300mm depending
upon the usage or application of the said line. Transverse lines are usually wider because
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of the angle at which the driver sees markings on the carriageway.
However, due to the statistical impossibility of assuring exact conformance to a given

specification, a certain amount of variance (or tolerance) from the specification is allowed.
Line marking should conform to the following tolerances:
(i) Under 500mm............................... ± 20% or - 10%
(ii) 500mm up to under 5.0 meters...... ±10%
(iii) 5.0 meters and above ..................... ± 5%
Figure 3.1 shows examples of the more common pavement markings. A more detailed
guide can be found in Annex C of this Guidebook.
1, Stop line: You must stop behind the thick solid line across your lane.
2, Wait line:Athick broken line acrossyour lane is the equivalentto a yield sign (and is often used in conjunction
with it.) If necessary, you must wait behind the broken line across your lane.
3, Priority road: A broken line passing through an intersection along the edge of one of the roadways indicates
the path of the priority road.
4, Pedestrian crosswalk: Zebra-striped markings across the roadway mark a pedestrian crosswalk. Drivers
must yield the right-of-way to pedestrians in the crosswalk.
5, No stopping/parking zone: Zig-zag lines next to the curb mark a specific area (often near a near a bus stop
or driveway) where you may not stop or park. (Used in Europe)
6, Numbers: Numbers on the pavement in your lane usually indicate the speed limit. Often used during sudden
drops in the speed limit for safety reasons.
7, Letters and numbers:Acombination of letters and numbers on the pavement usually indicate route numbers.
These are frequently used at complicated intersections to get traffic in the correct lane. Example: a marking
such as "B27" indicates that the lane you are in follows the B27 highway.
8, Intersection arrows:Arrows on the pavement in your lane indicate which turns are allowed from your lane.
9, Restricted zone: You may not drive in an area with diagonal lines
Source: http://www.gettingaroundgermany.info/zeichen2.shtml
Figure 3.1: Examples of Pavement Markings and their Meanings
3-8
3.3 Traffic Signal Control

The intersection of two or more roadways provides traffic control challenges, perhaps the
most significant among many. Traffic on these intersecting roadways must share the same
pavement area, requiring that access to this pavement area be alternately assigned to the
conflicting traffic movements. Vehicular movements can include both through and turning
movements. Geometric constraints can further complicate intersection traffic control.
Various control methods can be used, including no control, yield control, stop control, and
signal control, listed in order from the least to the most restrictive.
There are multiple levels of complexity for some of these methods. Because traffic signals
are the most restrictive form of intersection traffic control, aside from being expensive to
build and maintain, their use should be limited to situations where they will be more effective
than the other types of intersection traffic control. In fact, the “Manual on Uniform Traffic
Control Devices” (published by the USA FHA and main reference materials for the
Philippines and other countries) try to discourage their installation, as much as possible, via
a series of checklists called Traffic Warrants.
1) Traffic Warrants
Traffic signal warrants contained minimum criteria for establishing a prima facie case for
traffic signal installation. These warrants address a variety of intersection conditions such
as vehicular volume, pedestrian volume, crashes, progression, and delay. There are eight
traffic signal warrants.
(i) Each warrant defines a minimum threshold(s) that must be present before further
analysis of traffic signal installation can be conducted.
(ii) If an intersection satisfies one or more of the warrants, further analysis of other factors
should be conducted to determine whether installation of a signal is justified.
(iii) Satisfaction of one or more warrants does not automatically mean the necessity or
viability of a traffic signal.
(iv) The number of warrants satisfied does not necessarily establish a rank priority (i.e., an
intersection that meets 5 warrants does not necessarily indicate a higher priority over
an intersection that meets only 3 warrants).
In the Philippines, the warrants commonly adopted are: minimum vehicular volume and
accident experience. Local experience point to a third warrant, not mentioned in textbooks:
recurrence of gridlock when no traffic enforcers are present.
2) Alternatives to Traffic Signal Control
In much the same way that grade separation should not be considered until after traffic
signals have been proven to be no longer adequate and sufficient, other forms of right-of-
way control should be considered before signalization - even if the intersection meets one
or more of the traffic signal warrants. The various options available for intersection right-of-
way control are listed below, in order from the least restrictive to the most restrictive.
(i) No control (right-of-way assignment established by ordinance).
(ii) Yield control with Yield sign.
(iii) Manual traffic control by a traffic officer or other official.
(iv) Two-way stop control with Stop sign only
(v) Two-way stop control with Stop sign and stop sign beacon.
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(vi) Two-way stop control with Stop sign and red/yellow intersection beacon
(vii)Multiway stop control with Stop sign only
(viii) Multiway stop control with Stop sign and stop sign beacon
(ix) Multiway stop control with Stop sign and red/red intersection beacon
(x) Traffic signal
Other less restrictive uses of traffic control device treatments should also be considered
before installing a traffic signal. Examples of these types of alternative intersection
treatments include:
(i) Installing warning signs in advance of the intersection (examples include Cross Road,
Stop Sign Ahead, Yield Sign Ahead, and Pedestrian Crossing).
(ii) Increasing the size of regulatory and/or warning signs on the intersection approach
(iii) Installing warning beacons on warning signs in advance of the intersection
(iv) Relocating the stop line(s) and/or making other changes (such as trimming vegetation)
to improve the sight distance at the intersection.
(v) Installing edge and channelizing lines along the major roadway approaches to narrow
the lane width, which will encourage reduced approach speeds.
(vi) Increasing enforcement of existing traffic control measures.
(vii)Adding one or more lanes on a roadway approach to reduce the number of vehicles per
lane on the approach.
(viii) Revising the geometrics at the intersection to channel vehicle movements and reduce
the time required for a vehicle to complete a movement, which could also assist
pedestrians.
(ix) Installing roadway lighting if a disproportionate number of crashes occur at night.
(x) Restricting one or more turning movements (perhaps on a time-of-day basis) if alternate
routes are available.
(xi) Installing measures designed to reduce speeds on the approaches.
(xii)Installing flashing beacons on Stop signs or warning signs.
(xiii) Converting the intersection to a roundabout.
(xiv) Employing other alternatives, depending on conditions at the intersection.
An alternative to unsignalized intersection is the First-In-First-Out rule; which is

widely adopted in the Subic Bay Freeport. The first vehicle to arrive at an
intersection has the right-of-way to cross, followed by the second, and so forth,
whilst all arrivals are made to stop. This works well, as long as traffic volume in
any direction is low; loss time per hour is high.
Roundabout is a good option, provided there is enough road space available

around the intersection. See Chapter 8.2.1
3) Advantages (and Disadvantages) of Traffic Signals
The advantages of traffic signals should become clear during a warrant analysis, and they
are as follows:
(i) May provide for the orderly movement of traffic by assigning right-of-way to conflicting
movements of traffic
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(ii) May increase the traffic-handling capacity of an intersection by permitting conflicting

streams of traffic to share the same intersection
(iii) May reduce the frequency of certain types of accidents especially right-angle collisions
(iv) May provide for continuous movement and progression of traffic through coordination
with surrounding traffic signals
(v) May interrupt heavy traffic to allow both vehicular and pedestrian traffic to cross
The disadvantages are:
(i) May increase delay - both overall intersection delay &/or specific movement delay
especially during off peak hours, or when timing is disproportionate to volumes.
(ii) May encourage increased volumes of traffic on the minor street by drivers wishing to
use the signal
(iii) May cause an increase in frequency of certain types of accidents especially rear-end
collisions (often attributed to short time for yellow)
(iv) May encourage disobedience of the signal indication (when cycle length is too long,
exceeding 3 minutes)
(v) May result to total, widespread confusion and difficulties when the installation break
down
4) Elements of Traffic Signal Operation
The parameters in traffic signal design are as follows:
(a) Cycle: A signal cycle is one complete rotation through all of the indications provided.
(b) Cycle Length: Cycle length is the time in seconds that it takes a signal to complete
one full cycle of indications. It indicates the time interval between the starting of green
for one approach till the next time the green starts. It is denoted by C.
(c) Interval: It indicates the change from one stage to another. There are two types of
intervals - change interval and clearance interval. Change interval is also called the
yellow time indicates the interval between the green and red signal indications for an
approach. Clearance interval is also called All-Red and is provided after each yellow
interval indicating a period during which all signal faces show red and is used for
clearing off the vehicles in the intersection.
(d) Green Interval: It is the green indication for a particular movement or set of movements
and is denoted by Gi. This is the actual duration the green light of a traffic signal is
turned on.
(e) Red Interval: It is the red indication for a particular movement or set of movements and
is denoted by Ri. This is the actual duration the red light of a traffic signal is turned on.
(f) Phase: A phase is the green interval plus the change and clearance intervals that
follow it. Thus,during green interval, non conflicting movements are assigned into each
phase. It allows a set of movements to flow and safely halt the flow before the phase of
another set of movements start.
(g) Lost Time: It indicates the time during which the intersection is not effectively utilized
for any movement. It consists of two parts: start-up lost time due to delayed reaction of
drivers to green indication, and clearance lost time when the portion of the intersection
is not used by vehicles to cross the intersection stopline.
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(h) Offset: Is defined as the time difference of the start of the green phase between two
adjacent signals at two different locations, with the same cycle length. This is important
in synchronization, or coordination of signals on the same direction.
Figure 3.2 illustrates the relationships among the preceding elements of traffic signal
operation.
Source:
Figure 3.2: Relationships Among Elements of Traffic Signal Operation
A recent evolution is the use ofTraffic LightCountdownTimer,that displaysthe

remaining time ofgreen or red light. It avoidsthe problem of long or short yellow light,
improve safety as it gives motoristsadvancewarning
Source:
Figure 3.3: Terminologies in Traffic Signal Operation
5) Types and Modalities of Traffic Signal
A traffic signal can be isolated, i.e., for a single intersection, and independent of another
traffic signal located before, or after it. In more complex situations, several signalized
intersections can be coordinated - either on a corridor or area-wide bases.
Signal control can be manual, or automated, for an isolated intersection. An automated

system becomes the default option under a coordinated set-up.
(1) Manual Control
Manual control of intersections, compared with automatic means of signal control, is often
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less efficient due to the natural tendency of human controllers to have long cycle times.
With manual control, it is very difficult to achieve coordination between succeeding signals
along a travel corridor. Manual control gives local optimization higher precedence to
network optimization.
Human beings get tired and their controls become inconsistent and erratic. Or to minimize
efforts, they reduce the number of signal changes resulting in very long cycle time.
(2) Time of Day
Automatic signal control can vary by time of day. This is where phasing and timing plans
are selected according to time of day. This is effective to location where the daily traffic
pattern is more or less fixed, and where vehicle detector is not required. The first generation
traffic lights installed in Metro Manila were of this type. It had pre-set timing for different
periods of the day -AM peak, PM peak, and off-peak.
(3) Traffic Responsive Control
In the traffic responsive mode of automatic signal control, the signal timing is adjusted
according to data gathered by vehicle detectors installed at intersection approaches. This
mode of control is capable of coping with variations in traffic pattern, such that the signal
timing adjusts to the needs of varying levels of traffic volume. One consideration in a traffic
responsive mode of control is that vehicle detectors are required, and this entail a additional
cost. Furthermore, it requires a deeper level of signal design expertise. Also, automatic
control cannot prevent intersection blocking, if motorists ignores the keep-intersection-open
marking.
Area-wide traffic controls is the most complex form of coordinated phasing involving all
signalized intersections. Computer algorithms optimize multiple signals. The technology
has evolved over the years, as shown on Figure 3.4. TEAM 1 of the then MPWTC set up
the first computerized coordinated traffic system in Manila in the mid-1970s; it was based
on Transyt. SCATS was first installed in Metro Cebu sometime in the 1980s, followed by
Metro Manila in the late 1990s. There are more than twenty (20) self-adaptive traffic control
systems have been developed by research institutes and system providers. It is beyond the
scope of this Guidebook to discuss the intricacies of the different technologies. For a good
summary, interested reader may refer to “A Review of the Self-Adaptive Traffic Signal
Control System Based on Future Traffic Environment”, published in the Journal of
Advanced Transportation, volume 2018.
Source: http://www.ijaiml.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/Volume1Issue12Paper1.pdf
Figure 3.4: Overview of Adaptive Traffic Signal Control System
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6) Traffic Platoons
The concept of traffic platoons provide an understanding of vehicles arriving at a junction

(Figure 3.5).
At the end of a red light, a number of vehicles are bunched together with little gaps in-
between (Figure 3.5a). At the start of the next green phase, the vehicles would appear like
in Figure 3.5b; the first vehicle moves forward after a reaction time, followed by the second
and the next ones. As the green time ends, the number of vehicles dissipates (shown in
Figure 3.5c).
The time interval between succeeding vehicles as they cross the curb line is referred to as
headway. The first headway is the time interval between the initiation of the green signal
and the instant vehicle crossing the curb line. The second headway is the time interval
between the first and the second vehicle crossing the curb line. Successive headways can
be plotted as in Figure 3.6. The first headway will be relatively longer since it includes the
reaction time of the driver and the time necessary to accelerate. The second headway will
be comparatively lower because the second driver can overlap his/her reaction time with
that of the first driver’s. After few vehicles, the headway will become constant.
Source:
Figure 3.5: Traffic Platoons
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7) Cycle Time
The aforementioned constant headway which characterizes all headways beginning with
the 4thor 5th vehicle, is defined as the saturation headway, and is denoted as h. This is the
headway that can be achieved by a stable moving platoon of vehicles passing through a
green indication. If every vehicles require h seconds of green time, and if the signal were
always green, then s vehicles per hour would pass the intersection. Therefore,
s = 3600/ℎ
where s is the saturation flow rate in vehicles per hour of green time per lane, h is the
saturation headway in seconds. As noted earlier, the headway will be more than h
particularly for the first few vehicles. The difference between the actual headway and h for
the ith vehicle is diminishing and can be denoted as ei shown in Figure 3. 6.
Source: https://www.civil.iitb.ac.in/tvm/1100_LnTse/529_lnTse/plain/plain.html
Figure 3.6: Headways Departing Signal
These differences for the first few vehicles can be added to get start up lost time, Li which
is given by,
Li = ej
The green time required to clear N vehicles can be computed as
T = Li + ℎ × N
where T = time required to clear N vehicles through signal, Li is the start up lost time, and
h is the saturation headway in seconds.
Effective green time is the actual time available for the vehicles to cross the intersection. It
is the sum of actual green time (Gi) plus the yellow minus the applicable lost times. Thus
effective green time can be written as,
gi = Gi + yi − Li
On the other hand, the ratio of effective green time to the cycle length (gi/C) is defined as
the green ratio. The capacity of the lane can then be computed as follows
ci = si
where Ci is the capacity of the lane in vehicle per hour, si is the saturation flow rate in
vehicle per hour per lane, and C is the cycle time in seconds.
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8) Long vs Short Cycle Time
A long cycle time is not efficient in the sense that, with the same traffic volume, total waiting
time doubles with double cycle lengths. This is illustrated in Figure 3.7. The first portion
shows the dispersion of vehicles arriving at the junction controlled with a short signal cycle
length. The gray triangle represents total waiting time for vehicles at the junction. The
bottom portion shows the same number of vehicles arriving at the junction, this time
controlled with a longer cycle time. The gray triangle now becomes about four times that
with the shorter cycle time. This is a fact often misunderstood by untrained traffic enforcers
in Metro Manila, who tends towards long cycle time. Waiting makes people impatient. When
it becomes intolerable, drivers resort to counterflows, worsening the situation.
Source:
Figure 3.7: Short and Long Cycle Times
9) Basics of Signal Timing Design

(1) Signal Phasing
Phasing is the process of giving right of way to particular movements in a logical manner
with the primary purpose of minimizing the number of conflicts. The data requirements for
planning for phasing patterns are traffic volumes, turning prohibitions, and a knowledge of
the various conflicts that may exist - crossing, merging, diverging.
The main principles in the design of signal phasing are as follows:

(i) Minimize the number of phases commensurate with safety
(ii) The minimum is a 2-phase system
(iii) The maximum number of phases should be equal to the number of intersection
approaches
There are many possibilities of developing the phases. Atypical 4-legged intersection (see
Figure 3.8) would have through traffic and left-turns. It can have several phasing plans, or
options.
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(2) Two-Phase Signals
A 2-phase option is shown on Figure 3.9, where non-conflicting traffic 3 & 4 are grouped in
a single phase (Ph 1) and non-conflicting traffic 1 & 2 are grouped in the second phase
(Ph2).
However, in the first phase flow 7 and 8 offer some conflicts and are called permitted left
turns. Needless to say, such phasing plan is possible only if the left-turning movements are
relatively low. On the other hand, if the turning movements are significant, then a four phase
system is recommended.
Figure 3. 8: Movements in 4-Legged Intersection
Figure 3.9: A Two-Phase System Solution
(3) Four-Phase Signals
For the same intersection, a 4-phase set-up would have at least three possible phasing
options. For example, Figure 3.10 shows the most simple and trivial phase plan where, the
flow from each approach is put into a single phase avoiding all conflicts.
Source:
Figure 3.10: Trivial Phase Plan
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Source: https://www.seminarstopics.com/seminar/11433/design-of-traffic-signal
Figure 3.11: Alternative Phase Plan
This type of phase plan is ideally suited in urban areas where the left-turning movements
are comparable with through movements and when through traffic and turning traffic need
to share same lane. This phase plan could be very inefficient when left turning movements
are relatively low.
Figure 3.11 shows a second possible phase plan option where opposing through traffic are
put into same phase. The non-conflicting left turn flows 7 and 8 are grouped into a third
phase. Similarly flows 5 and 6 are grouped into fourth phase. This type of phasing is very
efficient when the intersection geometry permits to have at least one lane for each
movement, and the through traffic volume is significantly high. Figure 3.12 shows yet
another phase plan that is rarely used in practice.
Source:
Figure 3.12: Alternative Phase Plan
There are five phase signals, six phase signals, etc. They are normally resorted to if the
intersection control is adaptive, that is, the signal phases and timing adapt to the real time
traffic conditions.
(4) Critical Lane
During any green signal phase, several lanes on one or more approaches are permitted to
move. One of these will have the most intense traffic. Thus it requires more time than any
other lane moving at the sametime. If sufficient time is allocated for this lane, then all other
lanes will also be well accommodated. There will be one and only one critical lane in each
signal phase. The volume of this critical lane is called critical lane volume.
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10) Determination of Cycle Time
The cycle length or cycle time is the time taken for complete indication of signals in a cycle.
All signals operate on a common cycle length. Fixing the cycle length is one of the crucial
steps involved in signal design. Typically, the critical intersection dictates the system cycle
length. Signals may operate on mutiple of cycle length (half-cycle).
The Highway Capacity Manual (HCM) has given an equation for determining the cycle
length, which is
where N = is the number of phases, L isthe lost time per phases, is the ratio of critical
volume to saturation flow for phase i, Xc is the quality factor called the degree of saturation.
The degree of saturation is also called the volume-to-capacity (v/c) ratio of the intersection.
As indicated in earlier section, a long cycle time (which tends to reduce loss times) is not
desirable. The basic empirical formula for determining an optimum cycle length
(minimization of intersection delay) is given by the conventional Webster’s formula:
1.5L + 5
Cop =
1 − ∑ yi
where Cop = optimum cycle length, adjusted usually to the
next highest 5 seconds
L = total lost time, or unusable time per cycle in seconds
∑ yi = critical lane volume each phase i /saturation flow

HCM provides a saturation flow range between 1,500 and 1,800 vehicles per hour. When
the cycle length has been determined the vehicle signal changes are deducted giving the
total cycle green time which can be proportioned to each signal phase on the basis of critical
lane volumes. The individual signal phase times are then the proportioned time plus the
vehicle change interval on each phase.
11) Technical Specifications of Traffic Signals
There are standard specifications for the construction of traffic signals - in so far as
brightness of luminaire, size, height and location of posts, signal controller, etc. These are
excluded in this Guidebook. The reader can refer to several references available on the
internet
(e.g.,https://www.muni.org/departments/purchasing/documents/division%2080%20-%20g
old.pdf).
The most practical option for LGUs is to request information from prospective traffic signal
supplier and installer, about the specifics of their products and the standards they are
compliant with.
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3.4 Geometric Modifications

1) Essential Principles of Intersection Design
The following design principles apply in the design of intersections:
(i) Compact;
(ii) Minimize conflicts between modes;
(iii) Avoids unusual conflicts;
(iv) Accommodate all modes to the extent possible, with approriate levels of service;
(v) Simple right-angle intersections are best for all users;
(vi) Avoids free-flowing movements;
(vii)Avoid elimination of travel modes from the typical section, arising from intersection
design constraints;
(viii) Access management practices should be used to remove additional vehicular conflict
points near the intersection.
(ix) Signal timing should consider the safety and convenience of all users, without inflicting
overly long waits to bicycle or foot traffic, or insufficient crossing times.
(x) Ensure intersections are fully accessible.
2) Intersection Geometry
Intersection design revolves around intersection geometry, regardless of the type of traffic
control used. Geometry sets the basis for how all users traverse intersections and interact
with each other. The principles of intersection geometry apply to both street intersections
and freeway on- and off-ramps.
Intersection layout is primarily comprised of the alignment of the legs; width of traffic lanes,
bicycle lanes, if any, and sidewalks on each approach (number of lanes, median and
roadside elements); and the method of treating and channelization of turning movements.
The design of an intersection’s layout requires a balance between the needs of pedestrians,
vehicles, freight and transit in the available right-of-way. The typical elements to be
considered are shown in Figure 3.13.
Accordingly, it considers the perception-reactions distance, maneuver distance and storage

distance. The basic types of intersections in urban contexts include the T-intersection, cross
intersection, multi-leg intersection, and modern roundabout.
Source:
Figure 3. 13: Elements of Intersection Design
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3) Intersection Skew
AT-junction usually occurs when a minor road (exit/entry) joins a major road. It is not always
at right angle or perpendicular, i.e., skewed as illustrated in Figure 3.14. Skewed
intersections are generally undesirable and introduce the following complications for all
users:
(i) The travel distance across the intersection is longer, as to increase potential conflicts
and lengthen signal phases (if installed);
(ii) Skews decreases visibility as some users cannot be seen easily by other approaching
users;
(iii) Obtuse angles encourage speeding
Source: http://www.browardmpo.org/images/WhatWeDo/completestreetsinitiative/broward_complete_streets_guidelines_parts/CH-6-Intersection-
Design-final.pdf
Figure 3.14: Treatment of Skewed Intersection
The remedial action is to redesign the intersection closer to a right angle. Some right-of-
way may have to be acquired, but this can be offset by the vacated area on the other side
which can be sold back (or swap) to adjoining property owners or repurposed into a mini-
park, garden, greenery, etc.
4) Corner Radii
Changing the geometry of an intersection often involves corner radii (also called curb return
radii). The use of the smallest practical corner radii to shorten the length of the crosswalk
is usually desirable for the following reasons:
(i) Result in shorter crossing distances (and times) for pedestrians;
(ii) Slows down vehicular turning speeds;
(iii) Better fit for installing perpendicular ramps for both crosswalks at each corner
(iv) Simpler, more appropriate crosswalk placement
When designing corner radii, the default design vehicle should be the passenger car, which
means ~5 meter for R2. However, if larger vehicles are known to make turns frequently at
the intersection, the corner radii should be increased to accommodate the larger design
vehicle traveling at crawl speed. In addition, designers should consider the effect that
bicycle lanes and on-street parking have on the effective radius, increasing the ease with
which large vehicles can turn. If latter is not feasible, encroachment by large vehicles (truck
or bus) onto multiple receiving lanes has to be allowed.
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Design-final.pdf
Figure 3.15: Curved Radii
5) Curb Extensions
Where on-street parking is allowed, curb extensions (also called bulb-outs) should replace
the parking lane at crosswalks. Curb extensions should be the same width as the parking
lane. The appropriate corner radius should be applied based on the preceding section. Due
to reduced road width, the corner radius on a curb extension may need to be larger than if
curb extensions were not installed.
Curb extensions offer many benefits related to livability:
(i) Reduced pedestrian crossing distance
(ii) Improved visibility between pedestrians and motorists
(iii) A narrowed roadway, which has a potential traffic calming effect
(iv) Additional room for street furniture, landscaping, and curb ramps
(v) Slower turning vehicles
(vi) Additional on-street parking potential due to improved sight lines at intersections. Since
curb extensions allow pedestrians to walk out toward the edge of the parking lane
without entering the roadway, pedestrians can better see vehicles and motorists can
better see pedestrians.
(vii)Management of streetwater runoff
(viii) Separate parking maneuvers from turning vehicles
Curb extensions must always be outside of the width of the bike lane (if installed) or the
location within the traveled way that bicyclists are expected to ride.
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Design-final.pdf
Figure 3.16: Bulb Outs
6) Crosswalk and Ramp Placement
Crosswalks are used to assist pedestrians in crossing the street. Crosswalks and ramps
(for PWD) at intersections should be placed so they provide convenience and safety for
pedestrians. The following are recommended practices:
(i) Allow crossings on all legs of an intersection, unless there are no pedestrian accessible
destinations on one or more of the corners.
(ii) Provide marked crosswalks at signalized intersections.
(iii) At non-signalized intersection, provide marked crosswalks plus stop sign.
(iv) Budget permitting, provide marked crosswalks at major unsignalized intersections with
medians for pedestrian refuges or on one-way streets.
(v) Place crosswalks as close as possible to the desire line of pedestrians, which is
generally in line with the approaching sidewalks.
(vi) Provide as short as possible a crossing distance to reduce the time that pedestrians
are exposed to motor vehicles; this is usually as close as possible to right angles across
the roadway.
(vii)Ensure that there are adequate sight lines between pedestrians and motorists. This
means crosswalks placed not too far back from the intersection.
(viii) When a raised median is present, extend the nose of the median past the crosswalk
with a cut-through for pedestrians.
(ix) Provide one ramp per crosswalk (two per corner for standard intersections with no
closed crosswalks). Ramps must be entirely contained within a crosswalk (the
crosswalk can be flared to capture a ramp that cannot be easily relocated). Align the
ramp run with the crosswalk when possible, as ramps that are angled away from the
crosswalk may lead some users into the intersection.
(x) At intersections where roads are skewed or where larger radii are necessary for trucks,
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it can be difficult to determine the best location for crosswalks and sidewalk ramps. In
these situations, it is important to balance the recommended practices above.
(xi) At signalized crossings, shared-use path crossing, or any other particular high
emphasis crosswalk markings (ladder style crosswalk) should be used to increase
visibility.
(xii)Curb ramp opening on shared-use path shall be the same width as the path itself.
Design-final.pdf
Figure 3.17: Crosswalks and Ramps
7) Right-Turn Channelization Islands
In dense or highly-urbanized zones, high speed channelized right-turns are inappropriate

because they create conflicts with pedestrians. Right-turn lanes should generally be
avoided as they increase the size of the intersection, the pedestrian crossing distance, and
the likelihood of right-turns-on-red by inattentive motorists who do not notice pedestrians
on their right. However, where there are heavy volumes of right turns (approximately 200
vehicles per hour or more), a right-turn lane may be the best solution to provide additional
vehicle capacity without adding additional lanes elsewhere in the intersection. For turns
onto roads with only one through lane and where truck turning movements are rare,
providing a small corner radius at the right-turn lane often provides the best solution for
pedestrians’ safety and comfort.
Source: http://pedbikesafe.org/PEDSAFE/countermeasures_detail.cfm?CM_NUM=24
Figure 3.18: Channelization for Right Turns
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At intersections of multi-lane roadways where trucks make frequent right turns, a raised
channelization island between the through lanes and the right-turn lane is a good alternative
to an overly large corner radius and enhances pedestrian safety and access. If designed
correctly, a raised island can achieve the following objectives:
(i) Allow pedestrians to cross fewer lanes at a time;
(ii) Allow motorists and pedestrians to judge the right turn/pedestrian conflict separately;
(iii) Reduce pedestrian crossing distance, which can improve signal timing for all users;
(iv) Balance vehicle capacity and truck turning needs with pedestrian safety;
(v) Provide an opportunity for landscape and hardscape enhancement;
These goals are best accomplished by creating an island that is roughly twice as long as it
is wide. The corner radius will typically have a long radius (45 meter to 90 meter) followed
by a short radius (6 -15 m). When creating this design, it is necessary to allow large trucks
to turn into multiple receiving lanes. This design is often impractical for right-turn lanes onto
roads with only one through lane. This right-turn channelization design is different from
designs that provide free-flow movements (through asliplane) where right-turning motorists
turn into an exclusive receiving lane at high speed. Right turns should be signal-controlled
in this situation to provide for a signalized pedestrian walk phase.
8) Roundabouts
Modern roundabouts are potentially the cheapest, safest, and most aesthetic form of traffic
control for many intersections. It is more widely used in Europe, than in the USA (which the
reference ofr Philippines roads). The original urban plan (by Daniel Burham) took inspiration
from the grand boulevards of Paris – hence, the presence of roundabouts in Manila and
Quezon City. The biggest is the Quezon Circle.
A roundabout is an intersection design with the following characteristics and features:

Users approach the intersection, slowdown, yield and/or stop for pedestrians in a crosswalk,
and then enter a circulating roadway, yielding to drivers already in the roundabout. The
circulating roadway encircles a central island around which vehicles travel counterclockwise.
Splitter islands force drivers to turn right, and provide a refuge for pedestrians. Horizontal
deflection encourages slow traffic speeds, but allows movement by trucks. A landscaped
visual obstruction in the central island obscures the driver’s view of the road beyond, to
discourage users from entering the roundabout at high speeds. The central island should
not include pedestrian attractions, such as benches, because it’s not desirable for
pedestrians to walk in or across the roundabout circulating lanes. The central island can
vary in shape from a circle to a “square-a-bout” in historic areas, ellipses at odd shaped
intersections, dumbbell, or even peanut shapes.
Each leg of a modern roundabout has a triangular splitter island that provides a refuge for
pedestrians, prevents drivers from turning left (the “wrong-way”), guides drivers through the
roundabout by directing them to the edge of the central island, and helps to slow drivers.
Roundabouts can range from quite small to quite large, from a central island diameter of
about 4 meters for a traffic calming device at a neighborhood intersection to 90 meters on
a large multi-lane roundabout.
Modern roundabouts should be designated to reduce the relative speeds between
conflicting traffic streams.
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Aside from speed reduction, the advantages of a roundabout are as follows:
(i) Little to no delay for pedestrians, who have to cross only one direction of traffic at a time
(ii) Improved accessibility to intersections for bicyclists through reduced conflicts and
vehicle speeds
(iii) A smaller carbon footprint (fuel consumption is reduced as motor vehicles spend less
time idling and don’t have to accelerate as often from a dead stop)
(iv) May create opportunity to reduce the number of vehicle lanes between intersections
(e.g., to reduce a five-lane road to a two-lane road, due to increased vehicle capacity
at intersections)
(v) Little to no stopping during periods of low flow
(vi) Significantly reduced maintenance and operational costs compared to signalized
intersections
(vii)Reduced delay, travel time, and vehicle queue lengths
(viii) Less fuel consumption and air pollution
(ix) Simplified intersections
(x) Facilitated U-turns
(xi) The ability to create a gateway and/or a transition between distinct areas through
landscaping
(xii)When constructed as a part of a new road or the reconstruction of an existing road, the
cost of a roundabout is minimal and can be cheaper than the construction of an
intersection and the associated installation of traffic signals and additional turn lanes
A possible disadvantage is that sight-impaired people can have difficulty navigating around
large roundabouts.
Roundabouts are not always the most appropriate solution, it requires location specific
analysis. Also roundabouts may not be the best solution near active railroad crossings.
From 2004 to 2010, the MMDA replaced many signalized intersections with
paired U-Turns, in a vain attempt to force-fit the principle of roundabouts. The
scheme can be deemed successful on Commonwealth Avenue, because it had
a wide median island (~5m), multi-lanes, with the widest right-of-way (18-lane
capacity) of any road in the Philippines, and very few intersection with other
arterial roads over a stretch of 12 km. These endowments were lacking or
absent on C4, C5 and all the 10 radial roads. Subsequently, many of these U-
Turns were dismantled and the traffic signals re-installed.
(1) Design Criteria for Roundabout
It is easier to design a roundabout together with a new road, rather than build one on
existing road network that is heavily built-up on all sides. The design factors are the
following:
(i) The number and type of lane(s) on each approach and departure as determined by a
capacity analysis
(ii) The design vehicle for each movement
(iii) The presence of on-street bike lanes
(iv) The goal/reason for the roundabout, such as crash reduction, capacity improvement,
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speed control, or creation of a gateway or a focal point

(v) Right-of-way and its availability for acquisition if needed
(vi) The existence or lack of sidewalks
(vii)Effects on pedestrian route directness
(viii) The approach grade of each approach
(ix) Transit lines/routes, existing or proposed.
(2) Simple to Complex Roundabouts
Figure 3.19 shows different types of roundabouts, from neighborhood traffic circles (to save
an old tree), a 3-legged intersection, 4-legged and multi-legged and multi-lane roundabouts.
For more detailed instructions on design of roundabout, the reader can refer to the
“Roundabouts: An Informational Guide”, published by the USA Department of
Transportation (FHWA-RD-00-067).
Videos about roundabouts can also be seen on:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Lsvhg3FjXXY.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=brkrYdlMCsg
Source: https://www.bbc.co.uk/wiltshire/content/image_galleries/wiltshire_live_search_gallery.shtml?15
Figure 3.19: Examples of Different Types of Roundabouts
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4 TOOLKIT FOR TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT
4.1 Microcomputer Simulation

1) Traffic Simulation Model
In the past, studying traffic problems were often made by analytical and trial methods.
Analytical method means writing mathematical expressions to represent the traffic process
and then manipulating it to determine values to be used in changing to better traffic
conditions. On the other hand, trial (and error) method involves a change in the real traffic
situation and then apply subsequent correction if it turns out badly. Motorists bear the cost
and aggravations for the latter means, especially if it turns out badly. With simulation, the
trial and error can be done on the computer before it is effected on the field.
Simulation modeling is the process of creating and analyzing a digital prototype of a

physical model to predict its performance in the real world. Simulation modeling is used to
help designers and engineers understand whether - and under what conditions - and in
which ways a scheme could fail and what would make the situation improve. It has been
used in various situations - from macro to micro, such as passenger arrival in an airport
terminal or queueing at toll booths.
It used to be atask that required deep knowledge of computer programming and coding. In
the last 2 decades, progress in digital technologies enabled production of ready-made
simulation software for use of non-computer professionals.
Users need not grasp fully the complex formulae and algorithms embedded in these
software, but an understanding of their structure, limitations, and data requirements is a
pre-requisite. One cannot use a wrench without learning what it is for, and how to apply it.
Simulation models, however, are only as useful as the data fed into them. And to be
applicable to the problem at hand, they need to be calibrated to reflect the actual conditions.
Figure 4.1 shows the general process of conducting a study using traffic simulation prior to
actual implementation of the project. (From Papaeorgiou, et al, Traffic Modeling and
Simulation Method, 12th IFAC Symposium on Transportation Systems, 2009.)
Source:
Figure 4.1: Traffic Study and Simulation Models
4- 1
Of utmost importance in traffic modeling and simulation are the steps of model calibration
and validation. Model calibration is the process by which the individual components of the
simulation model are adjusted or tuned so the model will accurately represent field-
measured or observed traffic conditions. The components or parameters of a simulation
model requiring calibration include traffic control operations, traffic flow characteristics, and
drivers’ behavior.
Model validation is performed to test the accuracy of the model by comparing traffic flow
data generated by the model with that collected from the field. Validation is directly related
to the calibration process because adjustments in calibration are necessary to improve the
model’s ability to replicate field-measured traffic conditions.
In traffic engineering, GEH statistics (by Geoffrey E. Havers) is used to validate model
results. This empirical formula avoids the drawbacks of comparing volumes by only working
with simple percentages given that the traffic volumes in the real world varies widely.
GEH =
Where: M – volume from the model

C – volume from the actual counts
Equation 4.1 GEH Formula
Using GEH formula, the base scenario should yield a value less than 5.0 in order to be
considered as a good fit. In addition, 85% of the volumes in the model should have a GEH
value less than 5.0. On the other hand, values ranging from 5.0 to 10.0 means that the
model needs some recalibration, while GEH of more than 10.0 either implies that there is a
problem on the demand model or the input data itself.
In general, a traffic simulation model would have the following basic components:
(i) The Road network: links – no. of lanes, lane widths, gradient, etc., and nodes – nature
of conflicts (diverging, merging, crossing/weaving)
(ii) Vehicles – traffic volume and composition
(iii) Users behavior (drivers/riders; pedestrians, cyclists, etc. – speed distribution, lane
changing behavior, gap acceptance, car following, etc.)
(iv) Control (priority – YIELD or STOP, signals, roundabout, U-turn, etc.)
(v) Performance evaluation
Traffic simulation is a valuable tool for analyzing several scenarios. Each scenario may be
evaluated depending on the agreed measures of performance. For evaluation,
commercially available simulation software usually incorporates some, if not all, of the
following performance measures:
(i) Vehicle Delay

(ii) Travel time
(iii) Queue length
(iv) Fuel consumption
(v) Emissions
(vi) Person delay
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2) Vissim Software
The most widely-used modeling tool for traffic and transport planning is PTV Vissim. It has
been around since 1990’s and has been tested on various cases and upgraded
continuously. Using this software, traffic flow can be modeled considering driving behavior,
conflict areas, lane configuration, vehicle routes, vehicle composition, signal control, public
transport, pedestrians, etc. Users can then create multiple what-if scenarios where KPIs
are measured and compared. One can map a local road network in detail and model
different geometries – from a standard node to complex intersections, as well as try
alternative solutions in virtual space.
A short introduction about Vissim can be viewed on YouTube:

PTV Vissim - traffic modeling made easy and quick - YouTube
Its main drawback is the cost of subscription or purchase, aside from requiring a bit more
understanding of traffic engineering jargons.
3) Introducing the LocalSIM Software
An alternative to Vissim is LocalSim - a microscopic traffic simulation software developed

in the Philippines and is designed to be used by road and traffic engineers of LGUs as a
decision support system for traffic management. It enables traffic managers to have
evidence-based traffic analysis and evaluation of alternative schemes. With it, the need for
trial-and-error implementation of traffic management schemes can be avoided, if not
minimized.
Local SIM simulates driver behavior and movement with animation. Model features include:
(i) Conflict Area Management
(ii) Traffic Control Systems
(iii) Customizable Traffic Demand
(iv) Traffic Routing Options
(v) Scenario analysis of traffic management schemes
(vi) Measures of Performance
Source: https://sdghelpdesk.unescap.org/sites/default/files/2021-01/SDG%20Help%20Desk%20Case%20Study_Use%20of%20frontier%
20technologies%20to%20address%20road%20traffic%20incidents-%20LocalSim_Philippines_0.pdf
Figure 4.2: LocalSIM Screen
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With scenario analysis, the user can try various scenarios and/or traffic management
schemers and see which one produce the best outcome. As in any simulation model, Local
SIM does not formulate the solution; it is the user who must do so.
With Local SIM, a user can try one or any combination of the following traffic management
schemes:
(i) Truck ban
(ii) Exclusive truck lane
(iii) Exclusive motorcycle lane
(iv) Lane or road closures
(v) One-way
(vi) Speed restrictions
(vii)Geometric improvements
(viii) U-turn scheme
(ix) Number-coding (UVVRP)
(x) Bus stop segregation
(xi) Bus loading area
(xii)Traffic signal control
(xiii) Turning restrictions
(xiv) Grade separation
(xv)Stop/yield control
An 8-part tutorial on Local SIM is available on YouTube:

https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLSTx_DF_emkueWdjIf-
B2KCGbB30WFCM-
(1) User Interface
The Interface of LocalSim is user-friendly. It utilizes text and clickable icons, with the starting
page showing three starting options (illustrated in Figure 4.3):
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Source: JPT
Figure 4.3: Menu Structure of LocalSIM
(a) The Menu Bar has 3 choices (level 2):
(i) File contains functions for saving/loading network maps and guides.
(ii) Tools contains functions for manipulating road network settings.
(iii) Simulation contains functions for changing traffic data settings, simulation settings,
and simulation playback.
Source: JPT
Figure 4.4: LocalSIM Menu Bar
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(b) The Tools bar has 4 options (level 2):

(i) The Legend toolbox shows the numbering of lanes given the direction of traffic flow.
As a rule of thumb, lane count starts from the innermost lane of the road.
(ii) The Road Network toolbox is primarily used for creating a road network.
(iii) The Controls toolbox contains buttons representing different restrictions that can be
imposed in a road network.
(iv) The Markers toolbox lists some devices that can help in marking areas in the road
network.
(c) The Road Network Toolbox has the following options (level 3):
(i) Link enables link creation in the canvas.
(ii) Transition Link enables transition link creation in the canvas.
(iii) Conflict Area enables conflict area placement in the canvas. Also enables area
matching using the right-mouse button.
(d) The Controls Toolbox provide for the following (level 3):
(i) Stop / Yield Sign enables stop/yield sign placement in the canvas.
(ii) Speed Limit Zone enables speed limit zone placement in the canvas.
(iii) Stoplight enables stoplight placement in the canvas.
(iv) Public Transport Zone enables loading/unloading zone placement in the canvas
where buses and jeepneys are required to stop.
(v) Type Restriction Zone enables type restriction zone placement in the canvas where
certain vehicle types are attracted or repelled
(e) The Markers Toolbox has 3 choices (level 3)
(i) Survey Zones enables survey zone placement in the canvas. Survey zones can be
placed on either a link or a transition link. A survey zone serves as a trap length to
generate additional traffic data such as the speed, density, and volume of the link.
A traffic signal delay will also be generated if a traffic light is present in the selected
link/transition link.
(ii) Landmarks enables landmark placement in the canvas.
(iii) Scale sets the proper scale for the road network in the canvas
(f) Canvas - makes up most of the interface and is the area where users can view both the
road network and a simulation animation. On the bottom part of the canvas are the
sliders for animation speed and zoom level.
Source: JPT
Figure 4.5: Canvas Menu
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(2) System Requirements

The minimum computer system requirements for LocalSIM to operate are the following:
(i) Operating System: Windows or OS, on 64-bit computer
(ii) Processor: Intel ore i5 or AMD Ryzen 5
(iii) Memory: at least 4GB RAM (the higher the better)
(iv) Storage: >400Mb disk space
(v) Web Browser: Google Chrome vs60.0+, or Microsoft Edge v86+, or Firefox v57+, or
Safari v12+
The performance of a simulation in LocalSim will largely depend on the scale of the road
network. Thus, for a large study area, a computer with better specifications will perform
better for the same network.
4) Case Study using Microsimulation
Samson Rd. - New Abbey Rd. intersection was one of the study areas under the CTMP
Project (Case Study 3). In a 14-hour traffic count survey, conducted last February 2020, the
peak hours at this intersection were 7:00am to 8:00am and 5:00pm to 6:00pm. Modal share
was composed of 45% motorcycles, 31% private cars, 17% jeepneys, 3% bicycles/pedicab,
2% trucks, 1% buses, and 1% tricycles. The intersection has signal control equipment
installed which were non-operational during the case study. Instead, traffic enforcers
managed the traffic flow during the day.
Causes of congestion were also identified as follows:

(i) PUV stops were too close to the intersection,
(ii) No clear phase pattern or sequence to manage the flow from different approaches
(ascribable to traffic enforcers),
(iii) Conflict movements from the major road (Samson Rd.- eastbound and westbound) and
minor roads (New Abbey Rd.-northbound and UE Entrance-southbound),
(iv) STI gate is less than 20 meters from the intersection, and
(v) Pedestrians cross from all directions at the intersection.
Source: Caloocan CPT
Figure 4.6: Causes of Congestion
To measure key performance indicators (KPIs) such as average speed, intersection delay
and LOS, and emissions, PTV Vissim, a multimodal microscopic simulation tool, was used.
The following parameters were entered into the software to calibrate the base model:
4-7
(i) Scaled base map of the study area from Google Earth,
(ii) Road network including lane width, and number of lanes,
(iii) Directional volume counts during AM peak,
(iv) Desired speeds per vehicle type (provided by the MMDA),
(v) Driving behavior,
(vi) Existing PUV route and stops, and
(vii)Conflict areas which serve as priority decisions.
GEH scores of the base model passed the requirements after the calibration process (as
shown in Table 4.1)
Table 4.1: GEH Scores per Movement
Direction Field Data Model GEH

M1 L 0 0 0
M2 EB T 1,919 1,729 4.45
M3 R 306 311 0.28
M4 L 206 176 2.17
M5 NB T 10 4 2.27
M6 R 71 71 0
M7 L 85 87 0.22
M8 WB T 1,289 1,298 0.25
M9 R 15 7 2.41
M10 L 30 22 1.57
M11 SB T 17 25 1.75
M12 R 33 28 0.91
Source: JPT
Together with the LGU and MMDA counterpart team, several countermeasures were
proposed to improve the operational performance of the intersection. Table 4.2 shows the
problems, proposed improvements, and expected impacts.
Table 4.2: Proposed Remedies for the Intersection and Their Impacts
Problem Remedies Impact

1. Jeepneys stop before and Place public transport Delays caused by public transport vehicles such as
after the intersection that (PT) stops after the jeepneys and buses stopping before and after the
cause delays. intersection. intersection previously are reduced.
Pedestrians would have to walk much further if their
destinations are far from the stops.
2. Bus stop is located before The reduced PT stop length may need to be
the intersection. compensated, unless otherwise, proven unnecessary
by analysis.
3. Movement conflicts in the Reroute left-turning Delays at the intersection will be reduced because of
intersection causes delay. vehicle to reduce restricted left turn movements.
conflicts. Delays at the roads where vehicles are rerouted will
increase. Whether the rerouting has significant
unfavorable impacts to the roads in question has yet
to be determined because of the lack of data.
A portion of New Abbey Rd will be one-way.
4. There are too many Place median barriers Pedestrians will be prohibited to cross from the south
pedestrians crossing at at the west approach to to the north via the west leg to reduce delay.
different places in the prohibit pedestrians When combined with placing PT stops after the
intersection causing conflict from crossing. intersection, the pedestrians unloaded at the west leg
would have to circle around the intersection.
Place a footbridge in Pedestrianswill besafer sincetheywill not be exposed
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Problem Remedies Impact

the area. to vehicle hazards.
The existing sidewalk with little space (around 1.2 m-
width) will be occupied by the footbridge.
Installing the footbridge may require land acquisition
(and thus be costly) because of insufficient space at
the sidewalk.
5. The intersection experiences Signalize the The delayswill be minimized.
heavy delays due to large intersection. Foot traffic will be more orderly.
vehicle volumes and
uncontrolled foot traffic.
Source: JPT, CaloocanCPT, MMDACPT.
Apart from the do-nothing or base scenario, five more scenarios were simulated to test
which countermeasure combination is the most effective and cost efficient to ease up the
congestion problem in the study area.
Table 4.3: Alternative Scenarios for the Samson Rd.-New Abbey Rd.
Scenario Description
1 Do nothing
2 PT stops after the intersection + Traffic signal
3 PT stops after the intersection + Traffic signal + Rerouting
4 PT stops after the intersection + Rerouting + Median
5 PT stops after the intersection + Traffic signal + Rerouting + Median
6 PT stops after the intersection + Traffic signal + Rerouting + Median + Footbridge
Source: JPT, CaloocanCPT, MMDACPT.
Source: JPT
Figure 4.7: Simulation Scenarios
Nodes and trip wires were drawn on the road network models to record the KPIs mentioned
above. The results suggest that the scenario with the highest intersection performance is
the do-maximum scenarios or Scenario 6, followed by Scenario 3. Also,the KPIs show that
traffic signal alone cannot solve the congestion problem without the rerouting scheme.
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Table 4.4: Key Performance Indicators Results
Scenario 1 2 3 4 5 6
PT Stops
PT Stops After Int +
PT Stops
PT Stops PT Stops After Int + Rerouting +
Base After Int +
Indicators Unit After Int + After Int + Rerouting + Median
Scenario Rerouting +
Traffic Signal Rerouting + Traffic +Traffic
Median Signal
Traffic Signal Signal +
+ Median Footbridge
Overall Delay sec 62.74 85.38 19.71 47.59 20.06 17.35
LOS (Int. Delay) LOS LOS_F LOS_F LOS_B LOS_E LOS_C LOS_B
Speed (EB) kph 9.01 8.18 14.35 8.34 14.39 15.01
Speed (WB) kph 10.62 7.51 17.08 15.43 16.93 17.05
Speed (NB) kph 1.87 2.62 6.94 4.69 6.51 7.46
Speed (SB) kph 2.33 2.23 6.90 5.15 6.28 9.24
Weighted
kph 9.00 7.56 14.67 10.58 14.60 15.10
Ave
Speed
Total CO grams 13271.74 9859.01 3621.45 11048.99 3609.92 3236.61
Total NOx grams 2582.20 1918.20 704.60 2149.73 702.36 629.73
Total VOC grams 3075.85 2284.92 839.31 2560.71 836.63 750.12
Total Fuel
gallons 189.87 141.04 51.81 158.07 51.64 46.30
Consumption
Source: JPT
The travel time savings from the alternative scenarios were converted to peso by applying
the factors such as value of time, passenger factor, peak hour duration, number of days,
volume per vehicle type, etc. These values will compose the benefit side. On the other hand,
the MMDA estimated the costs of each countermeasure by taking into account maintenance
cost, materials, and manpower.
Benefit-over-Cost ratio describes how viable or sustainable the alternative is. The
alternative might offer the highest improvement, but the LGU might not afford it.
The findings from the Cost-Benefit analysis are as follows:
(i) Rerouting the vehicles accessing the North and South legs significantly reduced delay,
thus increasing the benefits.
(ii) Optimum Traffic Signal Program alone will not be a sustainable mitigating measure.
(iii) Optimum Traffic Signal Program will double the benefits after implementing new routing
schemes.
(iv) Scenario 6 has the highest Net Benefit, but the cost of the Footbridge pulls the BCR
down.
(v) Scenario 3 (PT stops after int. + Rerouting + Traffic Signal) has the highest BCR and
the most desireable countermeasure combination.
Table 4.5: Cost-Benefit Analysis
Cost Benefit Net Benefit

Scenario Description BCR
(PHP mil.) (PHP mil.) (PHP mil.)
1 Do nothing 1.44 0 -1.44 0
2 PT stops after Int + Traffic Signal 5.01 1.17 -3.84 0.23
3 PT stops after Int + Rerouting + Traffic Signal 5.04 212.58 207.53 42.15
4 PT stops after Int + Rerouting + Median 1.79 68.03 66.24 38.09
5 PT stops after Int + Rerouting + Traffic Signal + Median 5.39 207.15 201.76 38.45
6 PT stops after Int + Rerouting + Traffic Signal + Median + Footbridge 10.73 220.51 209.78 20.55
Source: JPT
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4.2 Social Media for IEC

1) The Need for IEC
Information, education, and communication (IEC) is a useful tool for traffic authorities in
informing road users and influencing their street behavior. For example, a “new” traffic
scheme can be conveyed to a “target audience” over a predefined period before the
scheme is implemented. The other side of the coin is for the traffic enforcers who may need
re-orientation about their new tasks in the revised traffic scheme. Since it involves human
behavior, and shedding off old habits, the IEC is often the more difficult part to achieve.
Sustaining the campaign is also a challenge. Organizations often falter or backslide, after
the initial phase of enthusiasm. Success is also difficult to measure.
IEC involves social factors such as human behavior, marketing, advertising and instructive
design. When carefully carried out, information dissemination from traffic authorities to road
users would be seamless, effective, and practical. It is important to note that IEC cannot
dictate whether the end-users in the information spectrum might accept or decline a
proposed traffic scheme. However, IEC can make the process of acceptance, or rejection,
more efficient and less contentious.
An essential element of getting acceptance for a new scheme is to inform the affected
parties ahead of time. This is simple respect for the road users, and the citizens who pay
the taxes that enable governments to function.
If the proposed improvement scheme went through the consultation process, then a major
part of the IEC has already been accomplished – even before implementation.
If the pre-implementation consultation has not been sufficient, then an information

campaign should be conducted – especially if the new traffic scheme will require major
changes to the existing traffic pattern. Otherwise, an extensive publicity will only be
superfluous.
The Information Campaign should deliver the message in as simple a manner as to be

intelligible – preferably with plenty of visual aids. Tailor fit the message (and the medium)
to the target audience. If the scheme will require re-routing of jeepneys, then the target for
the campaign should be the drivers of those jeepneys in that route (and perhaps, also their
passengers). If a street will be declared one-way, then the households or establishments
along that street must be informed.
As a medium, newspapers, radio and TV might appear as overkill for a local traffic
improvement project (LTIP). The most common medium for LTIP is a white bulletin board
erected at the site, and painted with the appropriate message.
In the old days, the medium for IEC were the radio, TV, newspapers, and street billboards.
Because of their limitations, the general flow of information has been one-way – from the
government to the public. The broadcasting of Metro Manila Development Authority
(MMDA) of traffic information on its 1206 kHz radio station, and an arrangement with TV 5
for the Metro Manila Traffic Navigator (MMTN) are of this genre. The MMTN is a traffic
monitoring system reporting about traffic congestion and incidents.
2) Then Came Social Media
Social media is a collective term for websites and applications that focus on communication,
community-based input, interaction, content-sharing and collaboration. People use social
4- 11
media to stay in touch and interact with friends, family and various communities.
Businesses use social applications to market and promote their products and track
customer complaints, interests, and experiences. The widespread use of cellphones has
relegated “old media” to the background. Any IEC initiative involving the public is now
intertwined with social media. Two-way communication has become the new normal - the
general public is no longer a passive receiver but an active participant. A major traffic
disruption can be reported immediately upward (motorists to traffic authorities), downward
(authorities to road users), or sideward (from one user to another).
Some popular examples of general social media platforms include Twitter, Facebook,
YouTube, Tiktok, Instagram, WeChat, etc. Their popularity is due to the “free-versions” as
much as the functionalities, user-friendliness, and convenience.
Source: https://www.johnjames.hackney.sch.uk/online-safety-tip-2/
Figure 4.8: Popular Social Media Platforms
3) Leveraging Social for Traffic Management
One vital benefit of social media is the ability to conduct periodic traffic surveys -
inexpensively. Data can be crowd-sourced or downloaded from external platforms (like
Waze and Google Map).
How can local traffic authorities leverage social media for better traffic management?
First, they must embrace open communication with the public they professed to serve, to
interact with and engage the public in matters of public interest, including its policy-making
processes. While government seeks awareness of its programs and policies, it must also
be willing to receive feedback – negative and positive. With social media, public
consultation has become possible without a physical meeting or assembly.
Second, select the digital platform available to them aside from having an internet account.
One obvious option for the latter is the National Government Portal (NGP) which provides
a single “window uniting all web-based government content to maximize efficiency and
provide rapid, high-quality services to citizens”.
(1) Platform Selection

The following guidelines are recommended in the choice of media platform(s):
(i) The social media platform (SMP) must be relevant to the fulfillment of the agency's
mandate, goals, and purpose;
(ii) The citizen-clients or target audience are - for the most part - also users or subscribers
of that SMP;
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(iii) The SMP must be easy and free to use, accessible, interactive, and robust.
(iv) An accountable officer or employee must be designated as the SMP administrator, and
that the SMP should not require a high-level of technical expertise from such an officer.
(v) The SMP must support the file formats that the agency plans on disseminating;
(vi) The terms of service, end-user agreement, subscription agreement, or any other
contract governing the agency's use of the SMP should undergo a review of the
agency's legal office to ensure that the obligations imposed on the agency by virtue of
the said contracts are acceptable and in the agency's best interests.
(2) Account Creation
(i) Only official e-mail addresses shall be used when creating all social media accounts.
For existing accounts, the designated SMP administrator must check whether or
not these were created with the official LGU e-mail.
(ii) If the item above is not observed, the social media account shall be deemed
“unofficial” and shall be deleted. A new one shall be created immediately. Prior to
the deletion of the account, the administrator must announce in the unofficial social
media account that its followers should transfer to the new one.
(iii) The designated SMP administrator shall submit/resubmit the necessary
requirements for the account to be verified or certified as “official.” For other social
media platforms that require a Google Mail account (or any similar electronic mail
service), the social media team could create one in the department or agency’s
name. The e-mail address shall not be named after one individual.
Name Generation and Profile Making
The following naming convention, to the extent possible, shall be used by LGUs in naming
their social media accounts:
(i) The TM department shall spell out their entire name, e.g., Mandaluyong City Traffic
Management Office
(ii) If there are limits on the number of characters that may be used, the official acronym
shall be used, followed by “gov.ph;” and
(iii) If the account name is already taken, the agency shall contact the account name holder
and/or the social media platform and request for the use of the said name or request
the revocation of the name in favor of the agency.
(3) Contents
The number one rule for LGUs and other government units in social media would be factual
content. Any account can share hundreds or thousands of posts, but nothing will beat
genuine authenticity and relevance. Whenever possible, the department must include the
following basic information - either on a prominent page in their social media account or as
a link to the LGU’s official website:
(i) Charter and mandate;
(ii) Description of the department with its vision, mission, and goals;
(iii) Citizen's Charter;
(iv) Organizational Chart;
(v) Contact details, including address, telephone numbers, e-mail, and official website
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URL; and
(vi) Participation and Moderation Rules
(4) Facebook and News Feed
With more than 70 million subscribers in the Philippines, Facebook is likely to be the SMP
of choice. In which case, the first thing any user would see on Facebook would be their
News Feed.
Everyone who manages a Page on Facebook wants everything they post to reach each of
their target readers. However, everytime the average Facebook user visits their News Feed,
there are 1,500 potential stories for them to see from their “friends or Pages they follow” .
Most people don’t have enough time to see them all. That’s why News Feed ranks the
stories and shows the subscriber what is essential and relevant to him/her based on their
engagements on Facebook. For example, if a user tends to post, comment on, and watch
many videos, then videos will show up higher in his/her News Feed. There aren’t enough
hours in the day for people to spend the time it would take to read everything in their News
Feed, and the volume will continue to grow as people add new friends and interests. As a
result, Facebook’s algorithm ranks millions of posts a day to determine which ones will be
most relevant and interesting to every single reader.
(5) Photos and Visuals
Photos are one of the best ways to increase engagement and likes on your Page. In fact,
Facebook photos receive 50 percent more likes than non-photo posts. Great images catch
somebody’s attention as he/she scroll through your News Feed, especially when they’re
authentic and accompanied by text to deliver a clear message.
Additionally, people simply love great visual content. Government social media managers
can increase post quality by creating quality photos.
Here are some tips on posting photos:
(i) Try posting photos of “sneak peeks” or behind-the-scenes content that give your
audience on Facebook a viewpoint they don’t normally get to see.
(ii) Avoid images covered in text or that aren’t visually interesting. Bright, colorful images
depicting human interaction are particularly successful.
4) Risks of Social Media
Many of the feedbacks or messages the agency may get on its SMP accounts are likely to
“noise” or nuisance. This is one of the recurring tasks for the designated SMP administrator
– separating the wheat from the chaff.
There is always someone who keeps on spying on social media accounts. These are the
social media hackers who get through your accounts by getting your private account
credentials known. Along with this type of risk, there are many more dangers and risks
related to social media.
The risk of getting exposed to privacy and security threat is almost the same – for individual
and organizations. Thus, one should take precautionary measures, such as the following:
(i) Strong Password - A strong password is key to avoid your account from getting hacked
or hijacked. To make the password a stronger one and difficult to crack, one must make
use of an alphanumeric pattern of codes and also must include some symbols in it. Also,
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this password should be changed periodically, say every six months.

(ii) Don’t accept request from unknown profiles. Ignore or delete messages asking you to
click a link or button.
(iii) Damage control - If it is confirmed that your account has been hacked and the hacker
have sent a lot of fraudulent messages through your account then the nextstep involves
damage control. Send a common message immediately to your friends and groups to
notify them of how your profile details have been compromised. In this manner, you can
also clear any of the misunderstandings that may have happened in the process.
(iv) Invest in security software, especially recommended by your internet provider - It is
difficult to be vigilant 24 hours a day. By subscribing to a reliable and current security
software, you can avoid any harm to the social media account through malicious links,
scams, phishing, hacking, etc.
(v) Do not install any new application on your official website or account, without prior
testing in unofficial or personal account.
(vi) Hire an external IT service provider to audit risks of your account, and or regain control
of you hacked account.
(vii)Data back up - Another precautionary measure is to make regular backups of all your
important work files. In case of a security breach, you can restore your data. Storing all
data in a single hard drive may not be completely safe as there is a risk of the hard
drive getting corrupted. So, the best solution to this problem can be cloud storage where
you can upload all your work files on a day-to-day basis, or an external storage device.
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4.3 Traffic Impact Assessment

1) Contents and Scope of a TIA
The magnitude - scope and degree of detail - of a TIA study will vary depending on:
(i) Type of development (e.g., residential, commercial, industrial, recreational, institutional,

etc.)
(ii) Scale or density of development (e.g., residential: subdivision? High rise condo?)
(iii) Location of development (e.g., CBD, suburb, along busy highway, etc.
The main objective of a TIA is to estimate the potential impact on traffic to any existing
residential streets, as well as how those impacts will be mitigated. The study area will
extend beyond the boundaries of the property on which the structure would be erected -
but can be small or large depending on the scale of the project.
Atypical TIA would include the following:
(i) Inventories of existing road and parking facilities within the study area;
(ii) Road geometry;
(iii) Traffic safety;
(iv) Site circulation and parking;
(v) Transportation facilities related to public transport, bicycle and pedestrian travel;
(vi) Baseline traffic and estimation of future traffic;
(vii)Neighborhood traffic and parking management;
(viii) Changes to the existing volume and turning movements at nearest intersection
(ix) Funding for countermeasures or remedial measures
How to conduct a TIA is outside the scope of this Guidebook. Suffice it to say, that it maybe
premature for most LGUs in the Philippines to require a comprehensive TIA, much less a
TIS, prior to the issuance of a building permit. Even for the few highly urbanized cities, there
is no capacity to evaluate them and may end up just another document destined for the
filing cabinet. Where basic land use and zoning plans are routinely overlooked, a TIA orTIS
partakes of an unnecessary imposition.
2) Should TIA Be a Requirement?
A traffic impact analysis (TIA) is a study that predicts, describes, and suggests ways of
mitigating the traffic effects of a new structure within a geographic area. It is an important
tool used to determine the transportation impacts of a proposed land development project.
It identifies the need for any improvements to a transportation system to reduce congestion,
maintain and improve safety, and provide site access and impact mitigation arising from the
project. The aim is preventive: a traffic situation no worse, or better, than without the project.
Any proposed development in the locality is required by law to secure a zoning and building
permit. However, a TIA is not a requirement, at least not yet. A TIA is normally part of an
environmental document (Negative Declaration or Environmental Impact Report), although
it could be required as a separate document for a proposed development.
The absence of an Ordinance, notwithstanding, the local Building Official has the discretion
to require traffic mitigation measures for a proposed development.
But should such a requirement be added to the many permits required? Ease of doing
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business in the LGU may be a casualty - if made as precondition in all cases. A less
stringent Traffic Impact Statement may be considered, under the following conditions:
(i) When an existing low-intensity land use (e.g., single detached residential area in R-1
zone) is proposed to be converted into high-intensity use (such as a mall, a shopping
district, an arena, etc.);
(ii) The proposed development will attract or generate 100 times more traffic (in number of
vehicles) than its current usage and at peak hours;
(iii) The site is proximate or within 50 meters of a signalized intersection and will need a
frontage access to a major roads;
(iv) It will generate on-street parking demands on a major arterial road;
(v) Scale of development is large, such as when the cost of the project exceeds 10% of the
annual income of the city or municipality;
(vi) The neighborhood objects to the proposed building on the grounds of potential
congestion.
For readers who wish to delve deeper into TIA, suggested references are:
https://youtu.be/mZCjbyl0ROw
https://nacto.org/docs/usdg/guide_preparation_traffic_impact_studies_caltrans.pdf
https://youtu.be/AhvV3viwrkc
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4.4 Road Safety and Blackspot Analyses

1) Responsibilities for Road Safety
Traffic is an interplay of three elements: driver, vehicle, and road. A traffic accident may
occur as a result of the failure of one, or more, of these three mutually influencing elements.
A faulty or defective vehicle is outside the province of traffic management. As a means of

ensuring safe vehicles, LTO requires some tests prior to vehicle registration and driver
testing prior to grant of driver’s license. It is in the 3rd element – the road environment –
where traffic management can contribute to achieving safety. In the design and planning
phase of a road, safety is already a major consideration. But subsequent modifications and
changes inland uses could alter the safety characteristics of a road. This can be determined
through annual Road Safety Audit.
Which road or part of the road is unsafe can also be pinpointed from historical records of
accidents. The DPWH and PNP collects these data – but very little analyses is made about
them. Also, the data would most likely assign the fault for many accidents to the driver. A
deeper analysis would likely point to a different story: road facilities that accidents waiting
to happen.
This is where black spot analysis becomes useful. In order to get an overview of the
accident situation in the road network, the best practice is to create Accident-Pin-Boards
(APBs) – where locations of accidents are pinned on a big map by small pins.
2) Road Safety Audits
A road safety audit (RSA) is defined as "the formal safety performance examination of an
existing or future road or intersection by an independent, multidisciplinary team. It
qualitatively estimates and reports on potential road safety issues and identifies
opportunities for improvements in safety for all road users."
Road safety audits are commonly used in the first world countries with very high
motorization. They are a mandatory requirement for all trunk road Improvement Schemes
in the UK (including motorways).
A key feature of a road safety audit is the use of a team of professionals with varied
expertise. The team include highway safety engineers, highway design engineers,
maintenance personnel, and law enforcement. Additional specialties should be added to
the team as needed. The team members must not be involved in the design or maintenance
of the facility being examined, so that they can have an objective point of view.
The road safety audit may investigate general safety conditions, or it may focus on specific
concerns or users. Walkability audits concentrate on pedestrian safety and accommodation,
and transit audits focus on safety of bus and train users.
Audits attempt to avoid some of the limitations inherent to any crash history scoring system.
Some of these limitations are:
(i) Reactive systems require waiting until crashes have already occurred, possibly with
resulting injuries and fatalities.
(ii) Crash frequencies are subject to regression toward the mean. It can be hard to
determine whether good or poor short-term safety performance is due to the inherent
safety or hazards of the site, or random variation. Sites with high or low crash rates are
likely to move towards the mean as a matter of course, even if nothing changes.
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(iii) Most existing procedures focus on sites that have experienced the most accidents,
which may or may not be the sites that could benefit most from a safety improvement.
(iv) Reactive systems are limited by the quality and timeliness of the data entered into them.
Deficiencies in crash reporting limit the effectiveness of these systems.
If historical crash data are available, the audit team should make use of them. However,
one of the strengths of the audit process is it can find safety concerns before they contribute
to crashes. Lack of data is a reason to use the audit process, rather than an excuse not to.
There are three basic forms of road safety audit:
(i) Audit of an existing road or road network
(ii) To check a road or a network for consistency, to make sure that a road user does not
encounter unexpected road safety issues
(iii) Audit of a roadworks project at various stages of completion: (i) project scoping, when
the general nature of the project is determined; (ii) Preliminary design stage, when
alternate courses of action for the project are analyzed, and selected or discarded; (iii)
Detailed design stage; (iv) Construction stage, to make sure work zone traffic controls
are protecting road users and construction workers; (v) Post construction stage, to
make sure the completed project is performing as intended.
(iv) Thematic audit - Thematic audits focus on particular aspects of a road. They may be
used to investigate road safety issues brought up by road user groups, or audits
conducted to support a land development application.
Commonwealth Avenue
The media called Commonwealth Avenue in Quezon as a “Killer Highway” due to
numerous accidents occurring along its 12-km length. A Black Spot Analysis or an
Accident Pin Boards would’ve confirmed this with real data.
In 2011, the widest road (18-lanes) in the Philippines was subjected to an audit. An
international Road Assessment Team fielded its specially-equipped vehicle, its Multi-
Infrastructure Distress Analyzing System (MIDAS) and its highly-trained Korean and
Australian road analysts to investigate the entire Avenue. Findings: 1 to 2 star for MCs
for 89% of ist entire length, same star for vehicle occupants for 69% of its length.
Medium- or high-level obstructions encroached on the road (e.g., ambulant vendors)

while severe roadside hazards were found within 5 meters of its curb like poles, trees
and end barriers.
iRAP's star rating lists five-star roads as the safest and one-star roads as the most
dangerous for vehicle occupants, motorcyclists and pedestrians.
3) Black Spots Analyses
The APBs can be produced in a manual or an electronic way. In past times, accident
investigators do it manually. Nowadays the APBs are made more and more in an electronic
way by using special software, as well as use of Geographical Information System.
By using the 1-year and 3-year Accident-Pin-Boards it is possible to locate accident black
spots in the road network. Where are the concentration of accidents?
Normally accident points (AP) are located at points in the road network like intersections or
small sections of the road.
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4.5 Enforcement and Legal Underpinnings

1) Main Role of a Traffic Enforcer
If everyone is an angel, there would be no need for traffic enforcers or even policemen.
Even if every motorists follow traffic rules and regulations, traffic enforcers would still be
required – albeit, not as many. Looking for violators is not his/her primary role.
Keeping roads and walkways free of congestion so regular traffic, emergency vehicles and
pedestrians can move about safely is more important than being known as “punisher”.
Traffic officers are responsible for directing traffic during parades, roadwork or accidents –
in addressing situation that disrupts the normal flow of traffic.
Many of the causes of traffic congestion are amenable to enforcement solutions.
Making sure that the rules and regulations (as contained in the LGU’s Traffic Ordinance)
are followed is among his core responsibility.
A traffic enforcer may substitute for a non-existent or malfunctioning traffic signals at an

intersection, but that is secondary. In a signalized intersection, the job of the Traffic Enforcer
is ministerial: ensure that motorists obey the signal lights and to keep intersection open. He
or she can therefore focus on enforcing the loading/unloading restriction (which is a major
cause of congestion) as well as any parking or jaywalking prohibitions. In an un-signalized
intersection, directing traffic becomes the main task of a Traffic Enforcer. This is because
drivers often do not give way, and insist on having priority all the times. Hence, gridlock
occurs without the presence of a Traffic Enforcer. In that role, the Traffic Enforcer decides
the time allocation between competing users of the roads. In order not to worsen traffic
delays, he must stick to a cycle time in proportion to the volume of vehicles in a particular
street but not to exceed 2 minutes.
It is often a thankless job. The public rarely complains, nor bothers to express their
compliments - when the police are doing well. Criticisms emerge when they do not perform.
MMDA listed the following responsibilities of a traffic enforcer:
(i) Make sure that traffic rules and regulations are followed by all drivers, passengers and
pedestrians
(ii) Help pedestrians, especially the aged and children to cross the street (at times)
(iii) Help people who might have lost their way
(iv) Observe and advice traffic violators
(v) Catch traffic violators and issue appropriate tickets or penalties
(vi) Respond and attend to traffic emergencies promptly
(vii)Call other departments if cases and situations come to worse
(viii) Report to superiors as required
(ix) Educate people on traffic safety and health
(x) Keep a record of all traffic violations, traffic incidents and other traffic related situations
(xi) Maintain an approachable personality so people in need would not hesitate to ask for
help or would not be intimidated and shy off
(xii)Circulate hand-outs or public information flyers if the station has some new things or
information for all the people out in the streets
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2) Who Should Perform the (Thankless) Job?
In many LGUS of the country, the Philippine National Police – particularly its Traffic
Management Group – is often made responsible for traffic enforcement. It is convenient for
small and cash-strapped LGUs to cede that responsibility and see it as a component of
police work on maintaining peace and order. The traffic responsibility in LGUs is often
lodged or an extension of its local department of public order and safety.
In Metro Manila, the MMDA as well as most if not all the 17 LGUs have employed and
deployed civilian traffic officers other than the police. In the city of Makati, a quasi-
government-private entity called Makati Parking Authority is assigned the role of traffic and
parking management in the business district, while its Department of Public Safety covers
other parts of the City. Hence, there can be three groups doing enforcement work in Metro
Manila. What is critical to the metropolis is that these separate group of traffic enforcers get
to work together as one team. This implies only one operational command within the
metropolis.
It is advisable for an LGU to form its own civilian traffic enforcement unit so that the local
PNP can focus its resources on public safety, security and crime prevention. It is already
authorized by law to handle tricycle regulation and administration; tricycle being the
dominant public transport mode in more than 90% of LGUs in the Philippines.
3) Training of Traffic Enforcers
Incompetence and lack of knowledge of basic traffic rules produce incalculable damage to
traffic enforcement as a whole. Thus, a traffic enforcer must pass minimum qualifications
and provided special training to handle his job. Awareness of traffic rules and regulations is
a basic minima. Preferably, he should have a driver’s license and has completed K-12
education.
A traffic enforcer needs to be instructed especially on the following:
(i) Avoid the temptation of overriding an automatic traffic signal, and under what
exceptional circumstances he should do otherwise;
(ii) How to untangle traffic obstructions or disruptions, such as a funeral cortege, a
motorcade, jeepneys overstaying at loading/unloading zone
(iii) How to handle traffic accidents. The first priority is to save lives, not to pinpoint blame.
Hence, any victim should immediately be given medical attention. Thereafter, and also
when there are only property damages involved, the immediate task of the traffic
enforcer is to record the facts – made easy with camera-equipped smart phones – and
then to get the vehicles out of ‘harms way’ as soon as possible.
A video on traffic management that is available on YouTube:
https://youtu.be/0C2AhxKlTL8 is actually a course on traffic enforcement.
4) Traffic Violation Tickets
Enforcers often want to be armed with the power to issue a Traffic Violation Receipt (TVR)
or a Temporary Operators Permit (TOP), corollary with the power to confiscate the driver’s
license. It is no different from a desire to carry a gun to strike fear. In traffic enforcement,
you do not need a gun although a speed radar gun would be nice-to-have.
A policeman can be credible and can command obedience even without a gun. So does an
enforcer without brandishing authority to issue TVR or TOP. In this first place, drivers will
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not know beforehand that a traffic enforcer who flags him down has been authorized to
issue Traffic Violation Receipts or can confiscate his license.
In many instances, the mere act of being delayed is enough punishment for the driver not
to do it again. Besides, it is educational.
There are valid grounds why the authority to confiscate driver’s license is not granted to
every enforcer on the streets. By law, only the original issuer can withdraw, suspend, or
revoke the license. And local enforcers are not the issuer. Moreover, there are additional
qualifications; every TOP is an accountable form that must be tracked – from release of the
blank forms to the officer, to its issuance to the driver, and its eventual redemption. This
creates a messy gap on the paper trail – especially when the driver is not a resident of the
LGU. The biggest headache experienced by LTO – even among its employee - is that many
of its TOPs could not be accounted for, and/or confiscated licenses getting misplaced/lost
in the administrative labyrinth.
It is mandatory for any LGU to discuss with the nearest LTO branch in his area – if the LGU
seeks the power to issue TOP or adopt its own violation ticket.
In lieu of a TOP authorized by LTO (which are meant for non-moving violations), an
ordinance violation ticket (OVR) – for moving violations - can be issued by a traffic
enforcement provided there is an municipal/city Ordinance backing it up. With computers
and internet, it is easy to share such information to LTO so that it can be flagged down – in
case the violation or penalty has been ignored, and more importantly to log cases of
habitual/frequent violators so that LTO could withdraw/revoke that license.
If an LGU penalizes drivers with its own OVR, it must also provide for convenient way for
the erring driver to pay the same via online channels.
Source:
Figure 4.9: Traffic Enforcer
5) Legal Underpinnings
Under the Local Government Code,a city or municipality shall “regulate traffic on all streets
and bridges, prohibit the putting up of encroachments or obstacles there on, and, when
necessary in the interest of public welfare, authorize the removal of encroachments and
illegal constructions in public places”.
While Republic Act No. 1436 (Transportation and Traffic Code) is the governing national
law, it does not – nor contemplated to – cover local traffic management schemes involving
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site-specific parking prohibitions, one-way streets, no loading/unloading, and similar road

regulations. That is where a local Traffic Ordinance must come in.
A word of caution on the imposition of traffic penalties. While errant road users should be
subject to sanctions, the charges should be fair, equitable, and reasonable - not too high
or too low - and commensurate with the degree of violation. It has been observed that some
of the penalty schedule adopted are unreasonable, decided with the same bias for a
concrete barrier over a flexible lane marker. Big fines unfairly affect the poor, invite under-
the-table redemption, separates the influential VIP (who is likely to evade a ticket) from the
ordinary motorists. The fault does not always lie on the driver.
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5 MOST COMMON PROBLEM: TRAFFIC BOTTLENECKS
5.1 Causes and Identification of Congestion

The most common problem that traffic management authorities will notice is a bottleneck
point. A bottleneck is that section of the road where there is disruption of continuous flow,
the capacity of the road falls below saturation level, vehicle speed steeply declines if not
grinds to a halt, and consequently travel times lengthens. Vehicles are bumper-to-bumper
and congestion is apparent.
Traffic congestion means there are more vehicles or people trying to use a given
transportation facility during a specific period of time (i.e., “demand”) than the facility can
handle (i.e., “capacity” or supply).
It should be kept in mind that traffic demand fluctuates significantly across seasons, days
of the week, and time of day. Similarly, capacity also changes dynamically based on
weather (e.g., ponding, heavy rain, etc.), degree of road-side interference, occurrence of
traffic incident, and other non-recurring events.
1) Congestion
Congestion happens in two dimensions: spatial and temporal. The first refers to location
(such as an intersection, roadway segment, or transit route), while the second refers to
when (i.e., time of day, day of week, or year).
There are two types of Congestion:
(i) Recurrent/Recurring Congestion - occurs when demand is above available capacity

(almost always, during AM and PM peak periods).
(ii) Non-Recurrent/Non-recurring Congestion - results from a decrease in capacity, such as
an event, while the demand remains the same.
2) Causes of Congestion
Congestion is the result of the following seven root causes, often interacting with one
another:
(a) Physical Bottlenecks ("Capacity"): Capacity is a function of several factors,e.g., the
number and width of lanes and shoulders; merge areas at interchanges; and roadway
alignment (grades and curves).
(b) Traffic Incidents: Events that disrupt the normal flow of traffic, usually by physical
impedance in the travel lanes. Events such as vehicular crashes, breakdowns, and
debris in travel lanes are the most common form of incidents.
(c) Work Zones: Construction activities on the roadway that result in physical changes to
the highway environment. These changes may include a reduction in the number or
width of travel lanes, lane "shifts," lane diversions, reduction or elimination of shoulders,
and even temporary roadway closures.
(d) Weather: Environmental conditions, such as heavy rains or floodings, can lead to
changes in driver behavior and ability that affect traffic flow.
(e) Traffic Control Devices: Intermittent disruption of traffic flow by control devices such
as railroad grade crossings and sub-optimally timed signals also contribute to
congestion and travel time variability.
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(f) Special Events: A special case of demand fluctuations whereby traffic flow in the
vicinity of the event is radically different from "typical" patterns. Special events
occasionally cause "surges" in traffic demand that overwhelm the system during short
periods of peak demand.
(g) Fluctuations in Normal Traffic: Day-to-day variability in demand leads to some days
with higher traffic volumes than others. Varying demand volumes superimposed on a
system with fixed capacity also results in variable (i.e., unreliable) travel times.
A bottleneck may cause congestion, but congestion is not always the result of a bottleneck.
Bottlenecks comprise a significant portion of the total congestion causes. Bottlenecks, as
the name implies, denote an area of significant breakdown in flow. The distinction,
notwithstanding, the two terms are taken as interchangeable in this Guidebook.
3) Identification of Bottlenecks
Congestion is relative to the class of roads. A recommended measure is travel speed as

shown on Table 5.1. A tertiary or Class D road would be considered uncongested when
average travel speed ≥ 10kph, but a Class A road would already be congested at same
speed. A major arterial, like C4 and C5, would need a minimum speed of 20kph to be
considered free-flowing.
Table 5.1: Congestion Levels Based on Speed
Road Classification Congestion Level (kph)

Class 1 2 3 4
Expressway ≥40 30–20 20–15 ≤15
EDSA and C5 A ≥30 25–20 20–15 ≤15
Primary Road B ≥25 20–15 15–5 ≤5
Secondary Road C ≥20 15–10 10–5 ≤5
Tertiary Road D ≥15 10–15 5≥ ≤5
Source: JPT
To identify a bottleneck, one would need travel speed data. Before the advent of smart
mobile phones and GPS, travel speed data is gathered by means of a “floating car method”
– where the driver floats or coasts along with the general flow of traffic and record travel
speed every 100m from start to end of the road being studied. Example of a data sheet is
shown on Table 5.2.
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Table 5.2: Data Sheet for Manual Travel Speed Survey
Source:
Nowadays, the survey vehicle can have an on-board GPS receiver or cellular phone. This
method produces traffic speed data by location and time. Based on these data, traffic
congestion can be identified, travel times can be calculated, and traffic reports can be
rapidly generated.
Without resorting to a floating car, data on travel speed can also be derived from Waze - a
mobile app which is free to download and use. It works on smartphones and other
computers that have GPS support. It provides turn-by-turn navigation information and user-
submitted travel times and route details, while downloading location-dependent information
over a mobile telephone network. Figure 5.2 is an example of a travel speed dashboard.
The preceding paragraphs provide quantitative information that can highlight and justify
remedial measures against a traffic bottleneck point; and in cases where there are several
bottlenecks, data to rank severity and priorities among them. Absence of severity data
nothwithstanding, public outcry plus local experiences of informed local traffic management
authorities could easily narrow down the choice to the most problematic bottleneck
demanding immediate intervention.
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Source: JPT
Figure 5.1: Travel Speed Dashboard for Alabang-Zapote Avenue
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5.2 Typical Countermeasures

1) Recurring Causes
Bottlenecks may arise from physical disruptions such as reduced number of lanes, a
change in grade, on-ramp and off-ramp with none, or a short, merging lane. Jeepneys
loading/unloading immediately before, or after, an intersection also causes lane reduction.
This type of phenomenon recurs predictably at the same time of day, location and same
day of the week.
The general remedy is to re-design the geometry of that location, and/or re-calibrate the
signal timing, if at signalized intersection.
2) Non-Recurring Causes
Roadworks that lead to lane reduction, parades that create long queues and closes one
lane, or strong rains are temporary and non-recurring in that location. They call for event-
management responses, as discussed in Chapter 6 of the Guidebook.
The following case provides an example of a recurring bottleneck, a systemic problem for
traffic managers, and illustrates the steps taken to remedy the problem at very little cost.
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5.3 Case 1: Unsignalized Intersection

1) Base Situation
This is a case of an unsignalized intersection with five (5) legs of varying widths. Gridlock
was a daily occurrence, that took 10 to 30 minutes to untangle by multiple traffic enforcers,
and repeats at anytime of daywhen no one was around. None of the streets have median
separators, nor islands to channelize or regulate movements of vehicles. It was a situation
that seem to test that a wide open road space - without pavement markings and channels
- would be preferable to a road with confined spaces as the layout afforded wide latitude
and flexibility to motorists.
By allowing all turning movements, at least 6 conflict points became apparent; a number
that escalates when a vehicle pre-empts an open space to angle itself into advantageous
slot.
Source: JPT
Figure 5.2: Base Situation of a Gridlock-prone Intersection
2) Data Collection and Observation
Field surveys were conducted to determine traffic volumes, as well as observe the
occurrence of problems. Table 5.3 shows a summary of the traffic volumes on the 5 streets,
while Figure 5.3 illustrates the data and the various movements.
Table 5.3: Traffic Counts on Example Intersection
Source: Small-Scale Traffic Improvements for Metro Manila (2001)
As expected, the dominant traffic streams are on Shaw Boulevard - accounting for 82.4%
of traffic passing through the intersection. The old Wackwack road (A4) is one-way
westbound and has smallest volume.
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Source: MMDA and JPT

Figure 5.3: Volume and Directions of Movements
3) Identification of Problems and Issues
The dominant traffic streams are those on Shaw Blvd (A5 & A3), followed by Lee St (A1).
As such, these movements should take precedence over the others.
Left turn movements from A5 to A1 and A2 are very few and could either be banned or
synchronized with the others to reduce conflicts. The same situation applies for A2 to A4.
The most obvious solution was to reduce the number of conflicts by channelizing the
intersection, so that the cross-traffic (that cannot be avoided) occur at few and designated
points that can be managed - rather than anywhere. This means reducing the degrees of
freedom of motorists.
Usually, a 4-leg intersection with even traffic streams lead to 4 signal phases (2 through+2
left turns). In this particular intersection, there are 5 conceivable phases. This can be
reduced to 4 with channelization.
Converting A1 into one-way street and/or reversing the one-way pattern of A-4 leads to
more complications. For one, the gradient of A-4 was uphill towards Shaw as to lengthen
longer loss times.
4) Proposed Solutions
The recommended solutions are shown on Figure 5.4.
5-7
Source: JPT
Figure 5.4: Layout of Proposed Solutions
The engineering solutions involved the following:
(i) Construction of and Island near the corner of A1 and A2, to prevent shortcuts by
vehicles moving from A1-to-A3 and A3-to-A1; also prevent short-cuts from A2-to-A4.
(ii) Two yellow boxes of different sizes: 1stat the A1-A4 line and the 2nd at the A2-A3 zone.
(iii) Zebra markings across A5, A1, A2, and A4; none on A-3,for pedestrians
(iv) Lane markings on pavements of A1, A2, A3, and A5 to guide motorists on acceptable
movements.
(v) Signages (2 pcs triangle+ 2 pcs octagonal+2 pcs rectangle) to be installed at
designated spots
(vi) No specific times were recommended for each of the 4 phases indicated in Figure 5.5,
except to give longest green times to phase 1, next longer to phase 3, and short green
times to phase 2 and phase 4; and to limit cycle time to about 3 minutes. The
signalization of the intersection was being planned by DPWH at that time.
The enforcement component were as follows:
(i) Strictly enforce the Yellow Box Rule”, except when the movement is next in phase and
will not obstruct current traffic streams
(ii) Until traffic signals are installed, adopt and execute a regular pattern of 4 phases, giving
longer green times to A5-to-A3 and A3-to-A5. Second priority only to the simultaneous
A1-to-A3 and A1-to-A4.
(iii) No left turns from A5-to-A1; these can be merged with left turns from A5-to-A2 at smaller
junction.
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(iv) Restrict tricycles; ban them on Shaw Boulevard, including crossing from A1-to-A4.
(v) Direct vehicles on A2-to-A4 direction to wait at front of 2nd (smaller) yellow box, before
executing their movements. Similarly and simultaneously, for A2-to-A3 left turns
5) Evaluation of Time Savings
No attempt was made to quantify the time savings, because the collection of travel time
data were deemed unstable due to frequent occurrence of gridlocks. Instead, the enforcers
manning the intersection were asked about the preliminary impact of the measures during
pre-testing. Instead of building a permanent island, jersey barriers were placed following
the outline of the proposed island.
The recommendations were presented to a focus group coming from the Barangay Council,
including the various options that were dropped or rejected. One alternative proposed was
making Lee Street (A1) one-way - northbound or southbound. The absence of a parallel
street made the one-way system problematic. Laurel Street, about 175m west of Lee Street,
but the two intersects approximately 185m north.
Before implementing the revised scheme, notices were made and published in the local
tabloid.
The proposed solution worked well for about a month; then a new leadership at MMDA took
over and decided to experiment an option which the study team rejected: one-way pairs for
Lee and Laurel Streets. It caused a gridlock at the intersection of Lee and Laurel, and the
queue spilled over to Shaw Boulevard. The previous solution was re-instated and the island
constructed on a permanent basis.
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5.4 Case 2 Multiple Bottlenecks on Same Road

1) Base Situation
Source: JPT
Figure 5.5: Ortigas Avenue Case Study
Ortigas Avenue in San Juan is one of the busiest radial road, 6-lane, median-separated, in
Metro Manila. There are three large educational institutions, aside from a Mall, located
along the corridor that are traffic magnets - especially because majority of the students are
brought to school, and picked up, by cars. It is a high-income neighborhood with gated
communities for wealthy households on both sides of the 6-lane Avenue. Not surprisingly,
the 6 signalized intersections get saturated at certain times of the days; left-turn movements
are higher than the average city intersections.
2) Data Collection and Observation
Data were assembled for each of the 6 intersections by a combination of traffic counts using
CCTV footage, Waze data from the internet, and actual signal parameters being used at
the time of observation. With these, the observed capacity of traffic flow were derived.
Source: JPT
Figure 5.6: Sample Data from Waze
3) Identification of Problems and Issues
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The observed problems for the bottleneck points were:

(i) Inadequate cycle time across all intersections
(ii) Unreliable offset timing at intersections（inadequate signal coordination)
(iii) Insufficient capacity on left turn lane at Club Filipino Drive
(iv) Vague lane configuration at Santolan Road NB
4) Proposed Solutions
Because the traffic flow in 2020 - when Metro Manila was under the general community
quarantine due to the pandemic – was significantly different from the 2019 conditions when
it was analyzed, the initial improvement plan was revised by using 2020 traffic count. Also,
since San Juan City introduced ‘pop-up’ bike and motorcycle lanes in 2020, there was a
need to re-assess the improvement plan.
The following interventions came out of the analyses: (i) geometric improvement; (ii) lane
configuration on Santolan Road NB; (iii) shifting of the center line on the west approach of
the Ortigas Avenue–Santolan Road intersection; (iv) optimization of signal phasing and
revision of offset timing; and, (v) safety measures for bike lanes.
(1) Geometric Improvement
The triangular median island, which was a bottleneck at Ortigas Avenue-Club Filipino Drive
intersection, is proposed for removal to provide an additional left-turning lane for vehicles
from the west approach.
Source: JPT
Figure 5.7: Geometric Improvement of Ortigas Avenue-Club Filipino Drive Intersection
(2) Review of Lane Configuration & Assignment on Santolan Road NB
Comparing two options on lane assignments at the innermost lane on the south approach,
allocating the innermost lane for left-turn movement only yielded better results. This
geometric improvement is illustrated in Figure 5.8.
First Option Second Option

Source: JPT
Figure 5.8: Geometric Improvement on South Approach of Ortigas Avenue-Santolan Road
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(3) Reallocation of Lanes on West Approach of Ortigas Avenue-Santolan Road

Intersection
To increase the capacity of the west approach of the Ortigas Avenue–Santolan Road
intersection, a reallocation of the lanes was conceived. Since road widening is not viable
due to high cost, moving the plastic barriers —which separates the eastbound and
westbound traffic – would increase the capacity of the west approach from two to three
lanes while reducing the number of lanes of the west exit from three to two lanes. This
solution, of course, would shorten the queues and average vehicle delays. The reallocation
of the lanes will only be up to 40 meters from the intersection, as illustrated in Figure 5.9.
Source: JPT
Figure 5.9: Geometric Improvement on West Approach of Ortigas Avenue-Santolan Road

Intersection
(4) Optimization of Signal Phasing and Revision of Offset Timing
Existing traffic signal parameters at all intersections in the pilot project area have not been
adjusted as the traffic flows change overtime. In addition, the signal coordinating function
of the ATC system has been applied to this section but not to match the offset timing
between signals with actual traffic flow. Therefore, several optimization and coordination of
the signal timing parameters for each intersection had to be modified based on 2020 traffic
counts. Through microsimulation using PTV Vistro (a software that can compute signal
parameters), the scenarios with a signal cycle time of 110 sec (Table 5.4) were verified as
the best traffic signal control parameters under 2020 traffic conditions.
Table 5.4: Signal Timing Parameters Determined using Vistro and Capacity Analysis
Vistro Capacity Analysis

Intersection Phase (110 sec) (190 sec) (150 sec)
Split (sec)
A 28 48 38
Ortigas Phase A Phase B Phase C Phase D
B 22 36 29
Avenue-
C 32 59 46
Santolan
D 28 47 37
Road
Cycle 110 190 150
A 17 13 11
59 133 104
B
Avenue-
C 17 23 18
Madison
D 17 21 17
Street
Cycle 110 190 150
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Vistro Capacity Analysis

Intersection Phase (110 sec) (190 sec) (150 sec)
Split (sec)
Ortigas Phase A Phase B Phase C
A 17 21 17
Avenue- B 66 158 124
Roosevelt C 27 11 9
Street Cycle 110 190 150
Phase A Phase B Phase C
A 45 55 44
Ortigas B 48 72 57
Avenue-Club
Filipino Drive C 17 63 49
Cycle 110 190 150
A 27 27 21
B 30 32 26
Ortigas
Phase A Phase B Phase C Phase D Phase E
C 12 67 52
Avenue-
D 26 49 39
Wilson Street
E 15 15 12
Cycle 110 190 150
A 20 59 47
B 53 97 76
Avenue-
C 15
Connecticut
Street D 22 34 27
Cycle 110 190 150
Source: JPT
Also, the offset timing presented in Table 5.5 was determined from VISTRO. This network
object was drawn across the eastbound direction as priority flow to optimize the offset timing.
Table 5. 5: Revised Offset Timings
Intersection Offset (sec) Intersection Offset (sec)

Ortigas Avenue–Santolan Road 0 Ortigas Avenue–Club Filipino Drive 82
Ortigas Avenue–Madison Street 39 Ortigas Avenue–Wilson Street 5
Ortigas Avenue–Roosevelt Street 31 Ortigas Avenue–Connecticut Street 49
Source: JPT
Since the parameters were proposed based on the 2020 traffic count survey, the data
should be updated prior to implementation and after the completion of the geometric
improvement.
(5) Safety Measures for Bike Lanes
In response to safety issues for the bike lane and motorcycle lane, the Study Team reviewed
the preliminary bike lanes installed by San Juan City and proposed improvement measures
based on international and DPWH guidelines.
To enhance road safety, the following principles are recommended:
(i) The bike lane should secure a 1.0m or more width and should be placed on the most
outer lane.
(ii) If there are service roads, they should be utilized to secure capacity for traffic and
ensure safety.
(iii) The exclusive bike lane should be separated by bollards; and
(iv) If the road's traffic capacity would decreased dramatically, a shared lane without
bollards but with arrow markings, should be introduced. Co-sharing with sidewalks
might be a safer option.
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Figure 5.10 shows the proposed drawing of a cross-section with bike lanes.
Present Cross Section:

Madison - Roosevelt Section (Before GCQ)
To Roosevelt To Madison
To Roosvelt To Mad ison
4.2 0.5 3.2 2.9 2.77 2.67 2.7 3.0 3.0 0.5 4.2
Proposed Cross-section
To Roosevelt To Madison
Source: JPT
Figure 5.10: Proposed Cross-section of Pilot Project Area with Bike Lanes
Also, to ensure safety at typical sections, such as intersections and bus stops, where there
are risks of conflict, some safety measures are recommended, as described below.
(a) Intersection Layout with Arrow Markings
(i) Allow appropriate separation and coexistence among pedestrians, bicyclists,
and motorists at intersections;
(ii) Keep the lane in the intersection straight;
(iii) Clarify the direction of traffic within an intersection;
(iv) Serve as safety measures against right turns (signal for bicycle, road marking)
(v) Securing stagnation space for two-step left turns of bicycle
Based on these principles, arrow pavement markings indicate bicycle lanes are
proposed to clarify the traffic flow at an intersection, as illustrated in Figure 5.11.
Source: JPT
Figure 5.11: Proposed Layout of Bike Lanes at Intersection and Sample Intersection in Japan
(b) Improvement of PUB/PUJ Loading and Unloading Areas (Transit Platforms)
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Improvement of PUB/PUJ loading and unloading areas (transit platforms) is proposed to

prevent conflict between bicycles and passengers. Based on the "Guidelines on the Design
of Bicycle Facilities Along National Roads", shifting the bike lane to the curbside to secure
a transit platform and yield to pedestrians are recommended, as shown in Figure 5.12. If
sufficient space is not available, it is recommended that pavement markings displaying bus
bays be applied to warn cyclists that they are approaching a bus stop.
Source: DPWH Guidelines on the Design of Bicycle Facilities along National Roads
Figure 5.12: Sample of Transit Stop Loading and Unloading Bay (with Transit Platform)
In this pilot project, two transit platforms located between Santoan and Madison and
between Madison and Club Filipino eastbound, are proposed. Also, two locations on the
westbound are designed as straight bus bays.
Source: MMDA
Figure 5.13: Proposed Loading and Unloading Bay with a Transit Platform at a Transit Stop
Source: MMDA
Figure 5.14: Proposed Loading and Unloading Bay at a Transit Stop
(1) Evaluation Results of the Desktop Study

In the desktop study, three alternative scenarios were considered (Table 5.6).
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Table 5.6: Alternative Scenarios Examined

Scenario
Alternative Solution
2 3 4
Geometric Improvements
1 Removal of the triangular median island and add one lane for left ✓ ✓ ✓
turns at Club Filipino
2 Left turn only at an innermost lane at the south approach of ✓ ✓ ✓
Santolan
3 Reallocation of lanes at the west approach of Santolan ✓
4 Shared bicycle lanes ✓
5 Exclusive bicycle and motorcycle lanes ✓ ✓
Traffic Signal Control Option
1 VISTRO (110-sec cycle length) ✓ ✓ ✓
Note. Scenario 1 is the base (existing). Other options of traffic signal control, including offset, were also analyzed (refer to Interim Report 2)
Source: JPT and MMDATEC
Under scenarios 3 and 4, dedicated motorcycle and bicycle lanes were introduced. The
road layout under Scenario 3 is shown in Figure 5.15. Solid green lines indicate dedicated
bike lanes, while green border lines near the intersections and at the intersection boxes
signify shared bicycle lanes. Motorcycle lanes, presented as blue lines, were placed along
the main road beside the bicycle lanes. Service roads were also utilized to divert bicycle
traffic to a safer route. Cyclists were assumed to follow a two-step left-turning route as
shown in Figure 5.16 for their safety.
Source: JPT
Figure 5.15: Layout at/near Problem Intersection
`
Source: JPT
Figure 5.16: Routing Rules for Left Turning Bicycles
5- 16
Key performance indicators (KPIs) were set to evaluate the existing situation compared to
the proposed alternatives. The effects of the improvements on the whole network were
considered, and not just those along the corridor. Table 5.7 shows the KPI, while Table 5.8
shows the results.
Table 5.7: Key Performance Indicators on Network Performance
KPI Description
Total travel time (sec) The total travel time of vehicles that have left the network (Veh
Arrived) and vehicles that are still active (Veh Active).
Average travel time (sec/veh) Ratio between the total travel time and the total number of
vehicles.
Average delay (sec/veh) Ratio between the total delay divided and the total number of
vehicles.
Average travel speed (kph) Ration between the total distance traveled and the total travel
time.
Source: JPT
Table 5.8: KPI Results on Network Performance

KPI Base SC2 SC3 SC4
Total Travel Time (sec) 3,702,135 2,943,388 2,785,257 2,744,504
Vehicle Arrived (veh) 10,610 10,693 10,760 10,877
Vehicle Active (veh) 1,254 932 876 936
Ave. Travel Time (sec/veh) 388 330 (15.0%) 332 (14.5%) 320 (17.5%)
Ave. Delay (sec/veh) 223 162 (27.4%) 148 (33.7%) 140 (37.0%)
Ave. Speed (kph) 16.3 20.5 (26.1%) 21.7 (33.3%) 22.4 (37.7%)
*( ) shows the rate of improvement
Note. In the analysis, evaluation which is focused on the area along the corridor, was also analyzed. (Refer to Interim Report2)
On the other hand, the estimated cost of each improvement scenario is shown on Table 5.9.
Table 5. 9: Estimated Costs by Scenario
Estimated Cost (PHP) SC2 SC3 SC4

First Cost 877,593 3,201,098 3,216,098
Indirect Cost (25% Mark-up) 219,398 800,275 804,025
Total VAT 116,639 450,100 450,254
Total Est. Cost 1,213,630 4,451,472 4,470,377
Rounded Total Est. Cost 1,214,000 4,452,000 4,471,000
After computing the Benefit-Cost ratio, Scenario 2 came out with the highest rank, because
of the low benefits from Scenario 3 and Scenario 4. This analysis also illustrated the
importance of determining the network effect of improving the flow on and crossing the
corridor.
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Table 5.10: Cost-Benefit Analysis of Network Performance
Source: JPT
Nonetheless, considering a safer road for the increasing number of cyclists, Scenario 4
showed a significant benefit and was recommended, despite the higher B/C ratio of
Scenario 2 (at 3x).
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5.5 Economic Benefits of Traffic Management

In most instances, the economic justification for traffic management measures (such as
those countermeasures for bottleneck points) is given or conceded - without need for
quantification. After all, any improvement that leads to time savings is beneficial to all. It is
only when those measures entail costs (for road reconfiguration, installation or upgrade of
traffic signals, other physical works) that a more thorough economic analysis be conducted.
Will the benefit exceed the cost (benefit-cost ratio >1.0)?
There are two elements on the benefit side: savings in vehicle operating cost (VOC), and
time savings for motorists and commuters (Value of Time).
At lower speed, motor vehicles consume more fuel, and the consumption varies with types
of vehicles. The fuel consumptions are illustrated in Table 5.11 (assuming pump prices for
diesel = Php60/liter, regular gas =Php62/liter, and premium gas = Php64/liter).
Table 5.11: Vehicle Fuel Cost per Thousand Km
Speed Car LCV Tricycle Jeepney Small Bus Large Bus Light Truck Heavy Truck
5 13,330.0 13,159.9 20,906.4 40,362.0 58,524.9 72,651.6 36,312.0 72,624.0
10 8,690.2 8,579.3 13,379.6 25,824.0 37,444.8 46,483.2 23,238.0 46,470.0
20 6,282.5 6,202.4 9,672.0 18,672.0 27,074.4 33,609.6 16,800.0 33,600.0
30 5,454.9 5,385.3 7,576.4 17,052.0 24,725.4 30,693.6 14,100.0 24,720.0
40 5,028.5 4,964.4 6,689.8 15,870.0 23,011.5 28,566.0 13,500.0 20,520.0
Source:
The savings in fuel consumption, due to speed improvements, are shown in Table 5.12.
These savings, converted into savings per minute, are shown on Table 5.13. The total
savings can then be derived by multiplying the values in Table 5.13 to the calculated savings
per vehicle class per minute arising from the TM measures and extrapolated to annual
equivalents.
Table 5.12: Fuel Cost Savings Due to Speed Improvements (Php/1000km)
Speed Car LCV Tricycle Jeepney S- Bus L-Bus L-Truck H- Truck

5 to 10 kph 139,194 274,836 526,876 1,017,660 1,475,607 2,093,472 457,590 915,390
10 to 20 kph 72,230 142,618 259,532 500,640 725,928 1,029,888 225,330 450,450
20 to 30 kph 24,829 49,025 146,692 113,400 164,430 233,280 94,500 310,800
30 to 40 kph 12,791 25,255 62,062 82,740 119,973 170,208 21,000 147,000
Source:
a road averaging at 10kph. Higher speed improvements produce decreasing fuel savings.
Table 5.13: Fuel Cost Savings Due to Speed Improvements (Php/min)
Speed Car LCV Tricycle Jeepney S- Bus L-Bus L-Truck H- Truck

5 to 10 kph 2.320 1.909 2.509 4.846 7.027 10.904 6.537 13.077
10to 20 kph 1.204 0.990 1.236 2.384 3.457 5.364 3.219 6.435
20 to 30 kph 0.414 0.340 0.699 0.540 0.783 1.215 1.350 4.440
30 to 40 kph 0.213 0.175 0.296 0.394 0.571 0.886 0.300 2.100
Source:
The second benefit element is the value of time. It varies by localities and income class of
commuters. In NCR, the estimated value of time in 2016 was Php126.70 per hour for car
users and Php88/hour for bus/jeepney users. This also requires values for occupancy - say
1.5 for every car, 10 for jeepneys, and 30 for buses. A conservative value is to use the
average hourly minimum wage in the locality.
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6 LESS COMMON PROBLEMS IN TM
6.1 Roadworks
1) A Welcome Headache?
The city or municipality is in a continuous flux. There will always be road diggings and road
constructions causing temporary dislocations in the existing traffic pattern. For example,
telecommunication companies dig the roads to lay down telephone cables. Water utility
companies dig the streets to put in new pipes or repair old ones.
These roadworks indicate progress – a community on the move. However, while these
activities are harbingers of future conveniences, they may also pose traffic obstructions in
the short-term. They have to be managed properly to minimize their negative impacts on
traffic.
Source:
Figure 6.1: Typical Roadworks
2) Local Permit for Roadworks
No road diggings or street closures or road constriction should be allowed to happen without
prior approval or knowledge of a local traffic management authority. This will alert all about
the potential disruptions to traffic; and therefore, allow early planning for counter measures
to alleviate the adverse effects of road works. Roadworks degrade, albeit temporarily, the
flow capacity of the road.
The standard practice in the past is to require prior approval of such roadworks from either
the Building Official or the Engineer’s Office of the concerned LGU. It is good practice to
involve the local traffic management authority, and to ask other utility companies if they
have short-term plans to perform similar disruptive activities affecting the same road section.
This is to prevent repetitive closures or disruptions and avoid unnecessary cost of repaving.
Utility firms should attempt to coordinate their plans insofar as these entail road works and
to share information with the traffic authorities.
This procedure can be imposed, either by Ordinance or by internal arrangement between

the two local departments.
The application for temporary road occupancy – whether accompanied with diggings or not
– should require the following basic information:
(i) Name and location of street
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(ii) Length of the street to be occupied at any given time

(iii) Period of occupancy, i.e., start and end of road works
(iv) Time of daywhen road works will be active
(v) Description of proposed works
(vi) Traffic mitigation plan during the period of occupancy
(vii)Commitment to restore ex ante conditions
Only when a satisfactory traffic mitigation plan is submitted shall the road works be allowed
to commence. Motorists should also be informed beforehand – via bilboards and social
media – about the roadworks, its duration, what to expect and what to do.
3) Minimizing the Adverse Impacts on Traffic
The local traffic management authority as well as the Party undertaking the road works
should exercise creativity in minimizing traffic disturbance. Without realizing it, road users
pay for such road works in terms of time lost and the higher vehicle operating costs. On the
other hand, the Party undertaking the road works gets a ‘free ride’ in the sense that it does
not compensate the road users for such losses. Fairness and equity demands that the
former spend such amount as may be necessary to minimize the losses to the community.
Among the mitigation measures that can be undertaken are:
(i) Perform the road works only when traffic volume is low, e.g., at night time or during a
non-working day
(ii) Road occupancy for a short segment of the road, one work package at a time;
(iii) When the street has more than two lanes, close only one lane at a time;
(iv) Minimize the area to be occupied or utilized by the road works, by ensuring that
earthworks, equipment and other construction materials are removed from the roadway
or located outside the roadway;
(v) Proper signage and information boards are installed to warn and guide motorists;
(vi) Formulate a traffic diversion or re-routing plan where appropriate;
(vii)Time the period of road occupancy such that other road works on alternate routes do
not occur simultaneously or overlap as to render the diversion scheme inutile;
(viii) Adopt construction tunneling method, or temporary overpass structure where feasible,
so that the roadway remains passable.
4) Traffic Re-routing Plan
The most convenient mitigation measure to roadworks is a rerouting plan. This is a first
option – if the road network permits alternative routes and streets. Prior investigation of the
alternate street should be made, as it might be narrower, unpaved, or in need of minor
adjustment. An example of a traffic re-routing plan is shown in Figure 6.2 and 6.3. This was
a real case that happened during the construction of LRT Line 2. The first scheme (shown
on Figure 6.4) implemented by MMDA, forced the east-west traffic to flow on a 2- lane road
(not occupied by the tunneling works) alternating one-way mode. The cycle-time was
approximately 5 minutes: the east-bound traffic had a green time of 5 minutes while the
west-bound traffic endured a red time for 5-minutes. This alternated, manned by traffic
marshals. It created a monstrous traffic jam whose queue lengths stretched for 4-km in both
directions. Reducing a 3-lane road into 2-lane in one direction was bad enough, but the
capacity of the available 2-lanes was also reduced by 50% due to the alternating one-way
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sharing. A revised rerouting plan (shown on Figure 6.3) was subsequently executed by the
project owner (LRTA). As expected, travel time improved to a tolerable level - as both the
east and west-bound traffic moved on one-way simultaneously without interruption (i.e., no
red time). No estimate was done of the economic losses incurred by motorists during the
2-week run of the first scheme.
Source: RS Santiago. (30 Oct. 2021). Untold Stories of 5 Satisfying Traffic Solutions, PICE-EMMC Webinar for PCE
Figure 6.2: TMP Scheme 1
Source: RS Santiago. (30 Oct. 2021). Untold Stories of 5 Satisfying Traffic Solutions, PICE-EMMC Webinar for PCE
Figure 6.3: TMP Scheme 2
6-3
6.2 Corridor Management

1) What is a Corridor?
In an urban setting, a corridor is a generally linear area with large volume of traffic.
Development often occurs more intensively along corridors, creating linear agglomerations
or the linear form of many neighborhood retail areas. It is served by various transportation
modes, within which passenger and freight travel, land use, topography, environment, and
other characteristics are evaluated for transportation purposes. A corridor is associated with
a major road that defines the general direction of traffic flow.
Corridor management focuses on the series of road links as opposed to the management
of intersections or local roads. A link is a section of road between two intersections. Several
road links constitute a corridor. The object is to give priority to the mobility function of the
connected links - with the accessibility/place function as secondary. In so doing, it may
restrict access management to reduce road-side frictions, impose road corridor space
allocation for road users, and sets lane management and speed limits and thereby improve
overall connectivity and flow.
2) Strategic Context of a Corridor
Ideally, corridor traffic management should proceed from a strategic network analysis that
delineates the role of the corridor and the LGUs aspirational road hierarchy. All congested
cities and urban areas have problem corridors that are heavily used and problematic from
the congestion management, safety and mobility standpoints. They are often the origin-
destination passageways where people are commuting between a city center and the key
suburban areas where people reside.
A corridor invites special attention because it is seen as critical to mobility and economic
activity throughout the corridor, is identified as an area requiring significant improvements
or corrections because of concerns about congestion, safety, air and noise pollution.
Improvements in the corridor ripple back to other parts of the network.
A corridor can give priority to buses, while another corridor to/from ports can give priority to
trucks. For example, C4 (aka EDSA) is more than 20-km corridor with the highest volume
of traffic in Metro Manila; it was originally conceived to serve a mobility function, and had
service roads meant to serve accessibility to activity centers along the corridor with
significant place aspects.
if the corridor of interest is within a single jurisdiction, and is of short length, responsibility
may lie with a single agency or LGU within the jurisdiction, but, even in this case, there are
likely to be other stakeholders that need to be coordinated and consulted to ensure
successful interventions.
3) Strategies for Corridor Management
Bottlenecks along the corridor can be identified by plotting speed contours, delays at mid-
blocks and intersections, and formulating counter measures that are low cost solutions,
easily executable, effective and road-user friendly.
In more developed metropolis, strategies proceed from a grand vision of a desired future
for the corridor - from both a land use and a transportation perspective. This vision may
include downgrading or changing the lind of corridor. Since a corridor serves multiple
functions, there would be need to balance competing desires/objectives. A helpful tool is to
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draw a means-ends-tree for the corridor, as in Figure 6.4
Source: NCTS
Figure 6.4: Means-Ends Tree for Corridor Management
First on the table for corridor improvements are minor roadway improvements, such as:
(i) On-street parking restrictions
(ii) Synchronization of signals across several intersections
(iii) Improved signages and markings
(iv) Medians and channelization
(v) Designation of public transport stops, taxi zones at big catchment areas
(vi) Construction of pedestrian underpasses/footbridges
(vii)Sidewalk improvements, off-road bicycle/pedestrian paths
(viii) Landscaping
Access control could include

(i) Driveway consolidation
(ii) Turn restrictions and medians
(iii) Longer intersection spacing, necessitating closure or minor intersections
(iv) Local street infrastructure
Zoning and Land use measures, such as:

(i) Frontage control to prevent direct exit/entry from the main road
(ii) Special site plan review requirements for developments along the corridor
(iii) Promotion of shared parking among adjacent areas
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Other improvements along the corridor:

(i) Delineation of HOV lanes, exclusive or priority
(ii) Instantaneous response to crash incidents
(iii) Travel demand management such as banning of some modes (e.g., trucks, pedicabs,
tricycles) at certain times of, or throughout, the day
4) Major Interventions
To squeeze more capacity for the corridor, investments in additional assets may be
considered, typically involving:
(i) Construction of interchanges or underpasses at intersections
(ii) Lane additions at intersections and specific sections
(iii) Indented bus stops, i.e., loading/unloading bays, with passenger shelters
(iv) Construction of mass transit line (i.e., BRT or railway) as well as intermodal facilities at
hub points
(v) Application of intelligent transport system
5) Alternate Routes and Modes
A corridor-focus approach may blindside traffic planners from other solutions to improve
corridor efficiency: particularly on alternative or bypass routes parallel to the main road.
This is understandable, in the absence of a comprehensive network plan and because new
roads or new routes are often outside the short-term horizon of traffic authorities.
In the Philippines, most medium-sized cities grew with a national highway passing through
its CBD - which function as its major corridor - and have no alternative road. Construction
of bypass roads by the DPWH becomes the logical option, as it relieves congestion within
the LGU and improve travel time for through traffic. In the case of Metro Manila, C5 serve
as a bypass corridor for C4, as well as some secondary streets to bypass bottleneck points.
Replacing existing public transit services into higher-capacity mode is another long-term
but capital-intensive measure. Regular buses can be upgraded to articulated buses, and
their operation integrated into common dispatching and reliability improved via signal-
priority, lane priority and/or exclusive lanes.
6) Integrated Corridor Management
Of recent development is the term ICM, for Integrated Corridor Management. What differs
from ICM from its earlier incarnation is the extensive use of decision support system that
permits real-time monitoring of traffic flow, traffic signal coordination, immediate response
to traffic incidents, integration of transit services, unification of multi-agency efforts and
resources, and advance notification for motorists. Active traffic management is made
possible through extensive use of ITS.
Synthesizing all the components inside an ICM system, including infrastructures and
management strategies, is a complex process. In an ICM system, a basic principle is to
take full advantage of the unused capacity contained in the corridors by parallel routes,
through various strategies. However, the unused capacity varies greatly along with the
changes of demand patterns at different routes, in different transportation modes, at
different times. These are not possible without ITS technology to handle the dynamics.
Readers may wish to see a video about ICM on YouTubehttps://youtu.be/xWPyzgFlf7w
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6.3 Event Traffic Management

1) What Constitute an Event?
An event is a gathering of people and/or vehicles of significant size that takes place on or
adjacent to a public road - and sometimes on the road itself - that has a potential impact
on road operations and the safety of road users, event participants, spectators and event
personnel. Not included are construction work, maintenance activities and the movement
of excess mass and large-dimension vehicles through the road network.
For the purposes of these guidelines, event activities can be classified as static or non-
static.
(1) Static Events
These activities are location-specific for the entire event duration. They generate traffic
clusters. Events that are primarily static in nature include:
(i) Street markets (for example, farmers market/village markets)
(ii) Filming
(iii) Community events (mass assemblies, religious gatherings, political rallies)
(iv) Concerts and sporting events - conducted open-air or at a stadium or theater
(v) Festivals
Source: https://www.dreamstime.com/manila-philippines-apr-people-vegetable-
market-capital-center-governance-education-finance-street-image106990849
Figure 6.5: Typical Static Events
(2) Non-Static Events
For non-static events, participants generally use part of the roadway and are mobile. Events
that are typically non-static include:
(i) Funeral cortege, which is common in many LGUs
(ii) Motorcades
(iii) Road races - running as in fun runs, fundraising walks, cycling or motor races
(iv) Parades (for example, independence day, religious procession, military displays, etc)
(v) Planned protest marches
(vi) Transportation of high-profile VIPs (visiting dignitaries)
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Source:
Figure 6.6: Non-Static Event
Some events maybe a mixture of static and not-static elements. For example, a marathon
race on public roads would be considered non-static in nature, but it may have a celebration
zone or finish line area that requires closure of a portion of a public road for a specified
duration.
Some “events” are unexpected or generally not foreseen, but which still require alterations
to prevailing traffic patterns. These are otherwise referred to as “traffic incidents”. They
require swift action to close down some roads, and require subsequent management of
alternate routes to accommodate diverted motor vehicle traffic. These incidents are those
related to the following:
(i) Accidents involving a motor vehicle and/or pedestrians
(ii) Floods that make a road impassable
(iii) Fires and similar incidents, where firemen have to cordon an area
(iv) Scenes of crimes that require conservation of evidences
(v) Other abnormal events which present conditions dangerous to road users.
Figure 6.7: Events of the Third Kind
2) Event Traffic Management Plan (ETMP)
For any of the preceding events, the local traffic authority should be prepared to address
the following issues:
(i) Loading and unloading equipment and goods at permanent and temporary venues e.g.
amusement devices, building and catering supplies
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(ii) Where possible, restricting public access to the area during bump in and bump out
(iii) The type of vehicles and traffic routes and how these may differ during each event
phase
(iv) Public transport, vehicle types and peak periods
(v) Walkways and crossings
(vi) Parking and parking control
(vii)Crowd control and movement and crowd safety
(viii) Emergency service access, and
(ix) Effective monitoring of and response to traffic management throughout the event.
For static and non-static events, there should be an Event Traffic Management Plan that
takes into account the stages of an event as well as the preceding issues:
(i) Pre-event preparation - “bump in”
(ii) Actual event staging
(iii) Event dismantling or tear down – “bump out”
An initial ETMP should be prepared by the event organizer and submitted to local traffic
authorities for approval and issuance of permits. The ETMP should contain important
information, such as the following:
(i) Inputs to be provided by the event organizer - type of event, location (route), number of
participants/spectators, duration, timing, setup and removal requirements, and
associated activities
(ii) Scope is related to the series of activities that are planned to happen during and before
the event, the location especially for static events, access to adjoining properties that
maybe affected by the event, event parking requirements,
(iii) Risk management involves the identification and analysis of traffic safety risks likely to
arise during each stage of the event (that is, including prior, during and after the event
takes place). All potential site-specific traffic management risks should be taking into
account.
(iv) Event staging plans (or diagrams) should be prepared for each stage of the event to
illustrate the general traffic management arrangements
(v) Traffic guidance schemes for each staging plan, to implement traffic management
arrangements
(vi) Traffic marshals to be deployed by the event organizer, or may be needed from police
and local traffic authority
(vii)Implementation and removal of temporary traffic control devices that event organizer
may install
(viii) Notification and communication to a range of stakeholders (road users, residents,
business entities, public transport service providers, etc) that maybe affected by the
event. Advance warnings should be issued via social media, news bulletins, or
billboards at or near the event location.
(ix) Incident management refers to processes and procedures detailing how incidents within
or adjacent to the event will be managed and documented. In addition, the designated
contact persons should be provided.
(x) Post event evaluation shall review the effectiveness of traffic management plans to
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evaluate and document any lessons learnt which can be applied to future events.
Aspects to consider during the evaluation should include: adequacy and effectiveness
of traffic management devices to control traffic, pedestrians, spectators and event
participants, traffic performance during the event, and traffic-related complaints or
incidents.
3) Traffic Routes During Events
As a general rule, traffic routes should be separate for vehicles and pedestriansatan event
site.
Easily identifiable collection and drop off areas with waiting space to avoid interfering with
traffic flows should be provided for the general public, disabled people, taxis and public
transport.
Traffic routes should be:

(i) One-way if possible with adequate passing space around stationary vehicles
(ii) Designed with separate entries and exits for large vehicles and include turn around
points for vehicles
(iii) Wide enough for emergency vehicle access and the largest vehicle and its load using
them
(iv) Designed so there is enough visibility at intersections so drivers can see and be seen,
and
(v) Clearly sign-posted to indicate restricted parking, event patron parking, speed limits,
vehicle movement and other route hazards.
Loading and unloading areas should be designed or changed to avoid the need for vehicles
to reverse where there is potential for pedestrians or other vehicles to interact. All users of
loading and unloading areas should have clear sight of other users.
Emergency services access and their ability to get to an incident should be managed. Entry
and exit areas should be adequate for emergency services and provisions made for
emergency vehicles to pass through pedestrian traffic areas.
In most instances, a scheduled event can be managed with a traffic rerouting plan similar
to a roadwork incident. What differentiates an event from a roadworks is its shorter duration
and absence of physical alteration of the roadway.
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6.4 Dealing with Public Transport

1) Is Public Transport Good or Bad?
Traffic enforcers often see public transport vehicles as the cause of traffic congestion,
because of their negative behavior on the road. This adverse behavior arises from their
habit of picking up and unloading passengers at any point along the road. The stop-and-go,
as well as lane weaving, disrupt the flow of other vehicles. Hence, their bad image.
Public transport is also the long-term and sustainable solution to traffic congestion. If daily
commuting is done through shared transport, rather than by individual private cars, there
will be less vehicles on the road and hence, less congestion.
Source: SSTRIM
Figure 6.8: Main PT Mode in Cities
Related to the second is the appropriate size or scale of public transport. Five tricycles can
deliver 10 passengers on the same route, but it takes only one multi-cab or Filcab to
transport the same number. However, the waiting time for the mult-cab would be 5 times
longer, because of headways or frequency of service.
2) Changing Roles of LGUs
For almost 3 decades now, the LGUs have been empowered to regulate tricycles and
pedicabs under the Local Government Code. This power is subject to the implementing
guidelines issued by DoTr; its more important provision is a prohibition on the use of
national arterial roads to ensure safety. Slow-moving tricycles should not be put at risk by
co-using with a bus or a truck running at high speed on arterial roads.
For other types of public transport (jeepney, bus, taxi), the LGU has been excluded from
the process, hence the disconnect between demand and supply. This has given rise to the
paradox of oversupply in the CBD and deficiency of service in outer areas. Two things have
changed the situation towards greater involvement of LGUs in public transport regulation:
(i) The introduction of the Public Utility Vehicle Modernization (PUVM) in 2017 by DoTr
and the corollary issuance of DoTr-DILG Joint Circular 001(dated 19-June 2017). Its
significant provision is for the LGU to re-structure the existing routes of jeepneys or
buses (if these are operating locally) and plan future public transport routes, as basis
for LTFRB action or grant of franchise.
(ii) The passage of the revised Public Service Act of 2022 will have the effect of
deregulating PUVs belonging to a network, but not those operating independently under
the old business model. This would create two types of public transport services within
an LGU jurisdiction: a regulated segment in competition with unregulated fleet, and
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could exacerbate traffic congestion if they all converge on the profitable ones and clog
the roads.
The preceding developments present an opportunity for LGUs: to take a pro-active
approach and ensure an efficient public transport system for their constituents. Three things
it can do:
(i) Plan the routes and service areas of public transport service providers;
(ii) Enact the corresponding ordinance to enforce the route plan as a traffic management
scheme;
(iii) Decide on the appropriate mode of public transport for every route
Regardless of who regulate their operations, buses, jeepneys, taxis and tricycles do not
carry with them the license to violate traffic rules and regulations. Hence, their street
behaviors are subject to control of local traffic enforcers. Along this line, the local traffic unit
of the LGUs should ensure that:
(i) They follow traffic rules and regulations;
(ii) Load/unload only at designated bus stops, which shall be ≥ 25 meters distance from a
busy intersection;
(iii) Do not wait for passengers on sections of roads not designated for such purposes;
(iv) Do not overload or exceed their capacity
(v) Vehicles are equipped with working signals and lighting system
3) Basic Support Facilities for PT
Because public transport services are owned and operated by the private sector, the LGUs
have been reluctant to provide the infrastructure support for a decent public transport
system. National agencies also do not include them in their programs.
For more efficient traffic flows, however, the LGUs must step up into the institutional gap
and assume the obligation of building or installing the basic facilities for passenger loading
and unloading, Their proper location can not be left to the vicissitudes of the market.
Figure 6.9 are some examples of infrastructure facilities intended to reduce roadside friction.
As much as possible, the bus/jeepney bays should be offset from the road as to keep the
kerb side lane open.
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Source: https://www.cyclemanual.ie/manual/detailsright/busstops/
Figure 6.9: PT Loading/Unloading Facilities
For multi-lane roads, rights-of-way permitting, the DPWH recommends appropriate

pavement markings for loading and unloading areas, as shown in Figure 6.10.
Source: DPWH Highway Safety Design Standards Manual: Part 2
Figure 6.10: Pavement Markings for PU Lanes
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4) How to Step Up for the Other Challenges
If the LGU wants to avoid future traffic congestion, it must include public transport services
as part of its essential obligation to the public.
Accordingly, the LGU should re-examine their organizational units dealing with tricycles -
the local Traffic Regulatory Unit (TRU) and their local traffic management unit (LTMU).
Integration of these two bodies, especially for the 33 highly urbanized cities in the
Philippines – 14 of whom are part of Metro Manila.
Regardless of size or class, all LGUs should effect a closer interaction between traffic and
transport concerns. The LTMU should exert influence in the approvals or disapprovals of
new or additional tricycles (or pedicabs), by performing the following tasks:
(i) Determine if the proposed area of operations (of tricycles) will utilize only local or
neighborhood roads, and will not run along national roads traversed by either buses,
trucks, or jeepneys;
(ii) Ensure that tricycles use only municipal or city roads with heavier vehicles like trucks,
buses and jeepneys on the same roadway;
(iii) Off-street terminals (for tricycle or jeepney) are available to accommodate the proposed
operation;
(iv) Tricycle drivers undergo training on proper traffic behavior and traffic rules;
(v) Tricycles have working front and rear lights, plus a reflectorized red tape (at least 2” x
6”) at the rear for night time operations.
(vi) Provide the infrastructure support, primarily loading and unloading facilities (off-road
loading/unloading bays, passenger sheds, corresponding road markings and signages)
(vii)Modify or designate the turning points of public transport vehicles, to minimize traffic
congestion;
(viii) Regulate their terminals in accordance with the Building Code as well as ensure that
no adverse traffic impact arises from their operations;
For public transport remaining under the LTFRB regulatory umbrella, the LGUs should
embrace local public transport route planning (under the joint DoTr-DILG Circular 2017-
001) as its continuing obligation. Accordingly, it should drive decisions of LTFRB in the
granting of franchises, updating of transport routes, and right-scaling of fleet.
5) What is the Appropriate Scale of Public Transport?
As the city grows, the demand for public transport would also increase. At some point, the
capacity of its public transport system would reach its limit. The usual response is to
increase the number of vehicles, but more vehicles of the same size equals more
congestion.
When that threshold is reach, the better solution is to switch from a low-capacity mode (like
trikes) to a higher capacity one (trikes to mini-bus, or minibus to regular bus). When does
a locality’s mass transit graduate from jeepney to bus, or bus to rail system? Figure 6.11
provide a general guidance. As the chart illustrates, at lower level of demand, a jeepney or
minibus would be sufficient. Moving from a lower to a higher level, however, also means
higher capital cost.
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Source: JPT
Figure 6.11: Mass Transit Options
DOTr’s Department Order 2017-011 (issued 19 June 2017) entitled “Omnibus Guidelines
on the Planning and Identification of Public Road Transportation Services and Franchise
Issuance” provide additional information relative to the issue. It defined different types of
services as follows:
(a) Filcab Services: shall serve routes with passenger demand of 500 pphpdor lower. The
vehicle is a local adaptation of min-vans to carry 7 to 11 passengers.
(b) Jeepneys (PUJ): shall serve routes with passenger demand of 1,000 pphpd or less.
The capacity of a jeepney was not mentioned, but could be presumed to be 16
passengers.
(c) Minibus: shall serve routes with passenger demand up to a maximum of 5,000 pphpd.
It should be noted that the PUVM program alluded to earlier aimed to replace PUJ into
minibus. The indicative capacity is 24 passengers.
(d) Regular Bus (PUB): utilizes a vehicle 11 meter or more in length, that has capacity
for 40 to 60 passengers. It can be presumed to serve demand > 5,000 pphpd.
For the 33 highly urbanized cities of the Philippines, the viable option is buses and railways.
For the 146 chartered cities, jeepneys and minibuses would be the recommended scale.
For the remaining LGUs – approx. 1,500 – the backbone of their public transport system
will continue to be tricycle in the foreseeable future.
The preceding guidance from DoTr and LTFRB however, is incomplete as it fails to consider
the following factors:
(i) Headways or frequency of service. If a Filcab is the most appropriate mode for demand
≤ 500pphpd, then 50 units would be the upper limit for a typical 10-km route. However,
it the route is 3 times longer, the 50 units would only have 1/3 the service frequency
and throughput below 500pphpd.
(ii) Route distance and average operating speed. The journey time for a 10-km route at an
average travel speed of 20kph is 30 minutes. The fleet size needed to maintain a 72-
second headway would be 50 units. At travel speed of 30kph, however, the fleet size
requirement for the same headway would fo down to 34.
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(iii) Route overlaps. Two or more routes may share a common section or street. That
section would hit 1,500pphpd, if there are 3 converging routes of 500pphpd each. It
would be impractical to require a minibus for the common street section and a Filcab
for streets unique to a tributary route.
(iv) Demand varies by time of day and from start-to-end of a route. Demand could be 3,000
pphpd during peak hour, but falls below 1,000 on some other time. Which value shall
be used?
By way of example, the number of buses plying on EDSA (C-4) in Metro Manila is indicted
on Figure 6.12. Prior to 2021, there were 34 routes using EDSA with a combined fleet of
about 3,500 units. The critical section - common to all 34 routes - was the 9.3km stretch
between Ayala Avenue and Aurora Boulevard. That section recorded 3,000 buses in
operation delivering nearly 8,000pphpd.
Source: EDSA Bus Route Revalidation Survey
Figure 6.12: Bus Ridership on EDSA, End-to-End (2005)
In addition, the 34 bus routes on EDSA exhibited passenger demand that varies by time of
day (load profile of one route is shown on Figure 6.13).
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Source: JPT
Figure 6.13: Passenger Load by Time of Day
In traffic management, the critical value is the highest demand on any section of the route, or
on the road segment(s) shared by many public transport routes, i.e., the critical street. That is
where traffic bottleneck or congestion first manifest itself and where transitioning to a higher-
capacity mode needs to be considered.
By filling out the missing information, a simplified warrant for public transport is offered in
Table 6.1. The data requirement is simple: the average number of PUVs passing through
the critical street during peak hour over a period of several months. When that number hits
30 jeepneys, or buses per hour per direction (headway of 2 minutes),a more detailed study
on upgrading to a higher occupancy mode is recommended, over and above the
introduction of HOV lanes. Instead of adding more jeepneys after reaching 30, further
improvement in capacity can be achieved by shifting to minibuses or regular buses. This
would not add to congestion, as 2 minibuses replaces 3 jeepneys.
Table 6.1: Threshold Number of Vehicles on the Road per Hour
Mode Headway and Throughput, One Direction

Choice 5min pphpd 3min pphpd 2min pphpd
Tricycle 12 36 20 60 30 90
Filcab 12 120 20 200 30 300
Jeepney 12 192 20 320 30 480
Minibus 12 288 20 480 30 720
Regular Bus 12 720 20 1,200 30 1,800
Source:
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7 SYSTEM-WIDE SOLUTIONS
7.1 Allure of “Shotgun” Schemes

The systemic traffic congestion faced by many urban centers has inmspired a number of
instant solutions. Who does not want a scheme with immediate results? Political leaders
love them because they showcase their problem-solving capability to electorates.
On the other hand, the process of identifying traffic bottleneck points and resolving them
takes time, and their impact localized as to be noticeable by motorists in general. Traffic
experts resort to this type, because they are grounded on facts, do-able, incremental and
replicable. Decision can be made at their level. On the other hand, a big-push solution
would have wider impact, high visibility, and immediately felt. It is akin to a magic wand that
cures several or multiple bottleneck points at once. Decision is often at the political level.
Thus, the allure of many transport demand management solutions such as truck bans,
vehicle volume reduction, one-way scheme, flexible working hours, and the like. On the
other hand, transport supply solutions - (TSM) like building a new road or a new railway line
- take years to plan and build.
Unfortunately, shot gun solutions do not solve the root causes of traffic congestion, are
often palliative and have unintended consequences.
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7.2 High Occupancy Vehicle Lanes

1) What is HOV?
High Occupancy Vehicles (HOVs) is a concept of granting road priority to vehicles that carry more
passengers. It started in the USA in the 1970s to encourage carpooling, car sharing, or van
pooling. A lane on the freeways is assigned for exclusive use of HOVs during pre-defined
hours. It made sense to pursue HOV in the Western context due to their high car
dependency. It has not received wide acceptance in Europe where modal shares of public
transit were comparatively higher.
The Philippines context, and that of developing countries, is vastly different from USA or
Europe. Application of HOVs would target public transit in terms of yellow lanes, or bus-
only lanes. Vans carrying more than 5 passengers should be included (1 van can replace 3
to 4 cars on the road). In Metro Manila, vans have been excluded from the yellow lanes.
HOVs applicable for private cars was adopted for several years in Jakarta. It spawned a
cottage industry, called ‘jockeys for hire”; where people would lineup before the screen line,
offer to ride a car for a fee, and get down at a convenient distance thereafter. In short,
owner-driven cars were able to circumvent the restriction by hiring the extra passengers. In
the USA, some creative motorists used dummy passengers, which are inflatable dummies
dressed to look like a human being. Sometime in 2018, the MMDA floated the idea of HOV,
but backtracked after massive outcries from motorists about the impracticality of enforcing
the same with prevalence of tinted-car windows. Another government agency, the LTFRB,
also contributed to its abortion with its insistence that car-poolers needed a franchise as a
public transport operator.
HOV lanes should be considered on major roads with ≥ 4 lanes and with high bus and/or
jeepney usage. The width of the lane should be 4 meters or more, but not less than 3.2
meters. There are three pathways to implement yellow lanes in highly urbanized cities of
the Philippines, to wit:
(i) Pavement markings to delineate road lanes assigned tor public transport use;
(ii) Traffic signs that display lane operating hours, and other guidance for motorists, at
about every 100 meters.
(iii) Traffic signal pre-emption, at signalized intersections
2) Yellow Lane Markers
The standard prescription is a continuous yellow line, complemented by a pavement

markings that says “Bus Only”.
In some cities, such as New York, the exclusive bus lane is painted in Red. In New Zealand,
a road is colored Green at beginning and end of the lane, and sometimes in-between.
On EDSA, concrete and jersey barriers were utilized to separate buses from other vehicles.
This method is not recommended, for their unsafety and for preventing queue jump among
buses.
There are better and safer alternatives to concrete barrier, such as those shown on Figure
7.1.
7-2
Singapore Bus lane Taipei’s Busway New York City Bus
Source:
Figure 7.1: Bus Only Lane in Selected 3 Cities
Aside from pavement markings, other non-harmful alternatives are shown in Figure 7.2.
If concrete barrier has to be deployed to delineate bus-only lanes, then the the first few
pieces in front should crumple or give way with increasing resistance: plastic barriers filled
with increasing volume of water that are meant to absorb the impact of a car-crash. The
first barrier that maybe impacted in case of crash should be filled only at ¼ level, the second
at ½, the 3rd at ¾, and the 4th at full. The purpose is to minimize damage to cars, by
creating a cushioning effect.
Reflectorize Rumble Rubberized Strips/Gutter Flexible Bollards

d Strips
Source:
Figure 7.2: Raised Pavement Markers/Separators
3) Traffic Signs for Transit Priority
Chapter 3.1 discusses the different type of traffic signs. Illustrative examples of specialized
signs for bus lanes are shown in Figure 7.3 below. They re-enforced pavement markings
and should conform to the general guidelines on roads signs - in color, shape, legend, and
text.
Source:
Figure 7.3: Illustrative Road Signs for Bus Lanes
7-3
4) Transit Signal Priority
Bus priority or transit signal priority (TSP) refers to various techniques to improve service
and reduce delay for road-based mass transit vehicles at intersections (or junctions)
controlled by traffic signals. TSP techniques are most commonly associated with buses, but
can also be used for jeepneys mix with or in competition with general vehicular traffic.
TSP can generally be classified as "active" or "passive". Passive TSP involve optimizing
signal timing or coordinating successive signals to create a “green wave” for traffic along
the transit line's route. Passive techniques require no specialized hardware (such as bus
detectors and specialized traffic signal controllers) and rely on simply improving traffic for
all vehicles along the bus’ route.
Active TSP, on the other hand, detecting buses as they approach an intersection and
triggers an adjustment in the signal timing dynamically. It requires installation of a
transmitter on-board the vehicle and one or more receivers (detectors); with the signal
controller “TSP capable”, i.e. sophisticated enough to perform the required timing
adjustments. Active strategies include:
(a) Green Extension: the green interval is extended to a preset maximum value if a transit
vehicle is approaching. Detectors are located so that any bus that would just miss the
green light ("just" meaning ≥ specified maximum green extension time) extends
the green so the bus is able to clear the intersection rather than wait the entire red
interval cycle.
(b) Early Green (Aka Red Truncation): this shortens, by a pre-determined amount, the
conflicting phases whenever a bus arrives at a red light in order to return to the bus's
phase sooner. Early green can be combined with green extension at the same
intersection.
(c) Early Red: If a transit vehicle is approaching during a green interval, but is far enough
away that the light would change to red by the time it arrives, the green interval is ended
early and the conflicting phases are served. The signal can then return to the transit
vehicle's phase sooner than it otherwise would.
(d) Phase Rotation: The order of phases at the intersection can be shuffled so that transit
vehicles arrive during the phase they need. For example, it is common for traffic
controllers to give protected left turn phases followed by the adjacent through phases
("leading lefts"); however, this order can be reversed so that the through phases are
followed by protected lefts ("lagging lefts").
(e) Actuated Transit Phase(s): These are phases that are only called if a transit vehicle
is present. These might be seen along streetcar lines or on dedicated bus lanes. They
could also be used where transit vehicles are allowed to make movements that general
traffic is not (“No Left Turn Except Buses”) or at the entrances and exits to transit hubs
(e.g. bus stations). Transit signal faces often look different from a standard
green/yellow/red face to avoid confusion with the signals for general traffic. For example,
bus traffic signals may show a letter "B".
(f) Phase Insertion: a signal controller return to a critical phase more than once in the
same cycle if transit vehicles that use that phase are detected. For example, if a left-
turning bus arrives at an intersection after the left turn phase has been served, the
signal can insert a second left turn phase before proceeding to serve the side street.
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In case of dedicated bus lane, a special device on-board bus is not necessary for transit
signal priority as all vehicles running on that lane is the priority vehicle. Instead, vehicle
detector embedded on pavement (loop detector) or installed above lane (ultrasonic
detector) works well for this purpose. Even some kinds of sensor (photoelectric or ultrasonic
sensor) installed on the median in side-fire way can be used for this purpose. Transit signal
priority can be easily implemented with minimum cost in this way.
A video about bus signal priority can be seen on YouTube
(1) Priority Strategies
A number of different priority strategies for transit can be considered, in designing the right
TSP. These are:
(a) P0 No Priority: None of the buses in the network are given priority. This is the base
case.
(b) P1 Extensions Only: All buses in the network are awarded traffic signal extensions,
where required, but traffic signal recalls are not awarded to any bus. This is a moderate
form of priority that, from previous experience, has little or no negative effect on non-
priority traffic.
(c) P2 Priority to Late Buses Only: Buses that are late receive the highest priority level,
while buses that are on time or early do not receive any priority.
(d) P3 Hybrid of P1 and P2: Buses that are late receive full priority while other buses are
eligible for a traffic signal extension only.
(e) P4 Full Priority: This is the most extreme, strongest priority strategy possible and the
most likely to have a negative effect on non-priority traffic.
(2) Challenges in Philippine Settings
As of 2022, there are no TSP system in operation anywhere in the Philippines. The Cebu
BRT would’ve been the first application of TSP, but the project is still mired in
implementation woes.
To bring TSP into reality in major urban centers, several things must happen:
(i) Reform of the public transport sector, so that a single operator or entity is responsible
for the route or corridor where TSP would be in effect.
(ii) Fragmented efforts between traffic management and transport regulation must be
bridged through greater cooperation, collaboration, or integration. Who will be
responsible for investing and maintaining the TSP-enabled system?
The two pre-conditions for TSP, unfortunately, are outside the realm of traffic management
authorities to effect.
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7.3 TDM and Volume Reduction

1) What is TDM
Transportation demand management, traffic demand management or travel demand

management (TDM) is the application of strategies and policies to reduce travel demand,
or to redistribute this demand in space or in time. Instead of expanding road capacity,
density of users is reduced. TDM seeks to do two things: 1) promote efficient travel modes
(those that consume less roadway space per passenger-kilometer);and 2) shift travel by
inefficient modes to off-peak periods to reduce congestion. There are several TDM tools
(see Figure 7.4) at the disposal of traffic management authorities. These tools are “carrot-
and-stick” meant to squeeze more throughput – in passengers flow - from available road
assets.
Source: https://www.tn.gov/tdot/long-range-planning-home/air-quality-planning/transportation-demand-management-tdm.html
Figure 7.4: Array of TDM Tools
2) Methods of Car Rationing
LGUs contemplating on a version of car rationing should consider it as a means to an end

- like improvement of public transit (better reliability, frequency, ease of transfers, comfort
and convenience), telecommuting (shift from working at the office to working-at-home),
rideshare or carsharing (from 1.5 average riders per car to 3+). In short, volume reduction
per se (the stick part) is not the answer – it may yield temporary relief but will be counter-
productive in the long run without the other accompanying (the carrot part) measures.
The second variable is the selection of the area where car rationing would be imposed –
either for specified period of the day, or throughout the day. There is no point in banning car
use in all areas of the city, or on uncongested roads. It penalizes necessary trips without
corresponding benefit to other users. Moreover, a traffic restraint policy over a smaller and
compact area is easier to implement and more acceptable to the public.
In Metro Manila, the few cities (Muntinlupa and Marikina) that opt out of the UVVRP are
none-the-worse; and might even have benefitted from new business locators.
Next to defining a restriction area, is the mechanics for restricting cars. The preferred choice
is the vehicle plate number; they are easy to differentiate on the road, but leakages in
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enforcement can undermine its benefits. When darkness falls, plate numbers are less
visible. Use of CCTV cameras is more efficient but expensive. More sophisticated
technologies are available, such as the Singapore-style of ERP or the London plate number
readers. However, they require resources – financial and manpower - that a city may not
have nor afford to have. With proper planning, a form of ERP can be self-liquidating
financially.
The window of effectivity should also be studied. When car rationing first appeared in Metro
Manila sometime in the 1990s, it was “odd-even” throughout the day. Half of the car
population was banned during the day. The bad outcome forced a shift to a less-severe
restraint of 1 day in a week. Buses and jeepneys were exempted, then covered in the ban,
and then excluded again. Other variations were tried, like window hours of no restraint from
10AM to 3PM. Recently, MMDA was reported to be thinking of tinkering with the UVVRP
again – with Wednesday as no-restraint day. Without any post-impact evaluation studies, it
is difficult to see the rationale for such changes.
When Singapore piloted its car rationing program, it defined an Area Licensing Zone
(ALZ) where entry during peak hour was tolled and car parking spaces provided
before entry into ALZ. Cars pay a fee for entry into the ALZ. The bus transit system
was improved so that affected car users can shift. This system has since evolved
into electronic road pricing that is considered a model urban traffic scheme in the
world. Prices vary according to demand and location. ERP is very efficient but they
costs big money, requires detailed planning, and long preparation more complex
than installing signs or signals.
For a short video about Singapore’s ERP, the reader may visit
https://youtu.be/fyJiKUyZp2M
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7.4 Reclaiming Public Roads

1) City of Manila Sets an Example
Sometime in the 2nd half of 2016, the City of Manila resurrected an old prescription: reclaim
roads occupied by ambulant vendors and roads converted into parking spaces by
commercial establishments. These produced immediate relief on the affected roads, as
available lanes for traffic was released for motoring use.
Divisoria market along CM Recto Avenue was notorious for occupancy of lanes by vendors.
It had been cleared - of and on - in the past. Other prominent streets were also cleared of
parked vehicles – which appeared to have been ‘authorized’ for a fee. The road clearing
adversely affected businesses deprived of parking spaces for their customers, but
benefitted other road users. These small successes can be sustained over the long term, if
complemented by other measures. Similar to car rationing, a scheme that eliminate on-
street parking or street vending does not eliminate the intrinsic demand for that kind of road
occupancy. When enforcers are away, the illegal occupants return. A cat-and-mouse game
is not sustainable.
Source:
Figure 7.5: CM Recto after Clearing
2) What Constitutes Road Clearing?
To replicate the success of the City of Manila, the DILG executed a presidential directive to
clear all public roads of illegal structures and constructions. This was formalized under DILG
Memorandum Circular 2019-121 (dated 29-July 2019), which directed all local officials to
reclaim public roads that are used for private ends. As part of road clearing operations, the
LGUs were enjoined to “place no-parking signs, no tricycle allowed signs in national
highways” and to enact “ordinances imposing penalties for violators”.
Declared as road obstructions are any of the following:
(a) Illegal Parking: which arose because residential houses got built before the car-era,
and/or later converted into commercial purpose;
(b) Illegal Terminal: common sites for tricycles and jeepneys waiting for passengers;
(c) Unauthorized Vending Sites: street vending is a favorite hustle of low-income and
poor households
(d) Building Encroachments, Residential or Commercial: owners trying to maximize

use of their properties not only cheat on street but also on creeks or riverways
(e) Construction Materials: a common feature during road works, or building construction,
that should also include construction equipment set up or parked on one road lane.
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3) The case of “Private” Roads Really
Strangely, the directive failed to mention the closure of many public roads by homeowners
associations in the name of security. There is a provision in the local government code
allowing the temporary closure of roads for an event subject to prior permitting, but none
about permanent or long-term expropriation of public roads for private ends.
The extent of roads in Metro Manila that is classified as “private” can be as high as 30% of
the network. Estimates for other LGUs in the Philippines are not available, but should also
be large in rapidly urbanizing areas. Releasing a portion of these roads to public use will
have tremendous impact on traffic. Most subdivision developments that sprouted in cities
were or are private in origin. However, many of these developers also left the roads to the
care of LGU – either formally (with a deed of transfer) or informally (no documentation).
When such roads get rehabilitated or repaired using public monies, they are deemed public.
LGUs do not have the resources to demolish gates and/or illegal occupancies. To reclaim
these roads, including illegal encroachments, a self-enforcing and effective measure is a
local ordinance imposing a property tax or equivalent amount as penalties.
4) Lessons Learned on Road Clearing
Post-evaluation studies have not yet been conducted on the impact of road clearing
operations. For sure, their implementation were spotty, inconsistent, and non-uniform.
Parking were prohibited on some neighborhood roads with very little external traffic, but not
in other barangays. Their efficacy is dependent on mobile police enforcements, which can
not be sustained.
Anecdotal evidence, however, point to the following refinements:
(i) Road clearing operations should focus on primary and secondary arterials, and spare
tertiary or local roads with very little through traffic;
(ii) Alternative locations for street vendors should be provided, or allowed on streets at
certain day of the week (say, Sunday) or time of day (night-time market)
(iii) Built off-road pay-parking facilities near or in areas with recurring and high demand,
such as those needed by commercial establishments.
(iv) For construction debris and materials, adopt the procedures laid out for roadworks (see
Chapter 6.1)
(v) Study “private” roads fenced off by homeowners association, and identify those roads
that fits the bill of missing links in the network and/or can function as alternate roads.
Arrange for their opening to other users – either for 24 hours or a window (say 6:00 AM
to 8:00 PM) - via negotiation, expropriation, or imposition of property taxes.
5) On Street Parking Management
On street parking management is a major plank to reclaiming public roads, because most
of the recurring and common obstructions are due to unregulated, if not illegal, parking.
(1) Where to Start?
The starting point for an LGU is to do an inventory of parking spaces – to short-list those
roads where parking shall be totally banned, where it can be permitted with some rules (like
time of day, length, paid or free), and where demand exists. Generally, parking should be
restricted on national primary roads with consistently heavy traffic volumes. At the other
end are local neighborhood roads with very few vehicles and where curb parking is not
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harmful. That leaves a select area or zone in the city where on-street parking maybe
allowed. Reconnaissance surveys can narrow the list further by looking at streets with
observable demand. In those streets, detailed studies should then be conducted to
characterize supply and demand, and from there proceed to develop parking solutions.
In small towns and less urbanized LGUs, the poblacion is usually the zone with high
demand for parking and where supply of off-street parking is short. The spillover demand
naturally gets to the streets, which constrict road capacity and leads to congestion. The
typical traffic generators are: public market, hospitals, city hall and other government offices
that have high public face-to-face transactions, and clusters of commercial and business
establishments.
In metropolis and highly urbanized cities, the locations of target parking management focus
are not easily identifiable because they occur at several pockets and exhibit different
profiles. High turnover is usually observable at places where visitors come and go (short
transaction) but very low at employment concentrations (car-using employees parked the
whole day, empty at night). On the other hand, overnight parking is high on residential
districts.
(2) On Street Parking Solutions
Traffic management authorities of LGUs should consider any or a combination of the

following measures:
(i) Improve information for motorists - often cars cruise around in looking for space to park
at destination
 Adequate road signs informing motorists about location of parking spaces, hours,
fees, and alternatives, as well as no-parking zones;
 Provide pavement markings for curbside parking spaces;
(ii) Strengthen parking enforcement by such means as enactment of ordinance, contracting
of parking attendants from ambulant vendors, collaboration with businesses, residents,
other agencies, formation of street traffic management associations;
(iii) Address spillover parking problems via some form of compensation or benefits to
residents who bear the negative impacts;
(iv) Manage residential on-street parking by issuing annual parking permits for residents for
free, or for a fee, as well as short-term guest permit fee;
(v) Replace surface parking lots with multi-level facilities, or subterranean lots, through
PPP
(vi) Identify load/unload zones for businesses with quick turnarounds (banks, dry cleaners)
and delivery needs. Usually these zones have a 30-minute time limit.
(vii)Where adequate parking exists, adopt any of the following:
 Signed parking restrictions. Encourage short-term parking and turnover, and

loading/unloading. Changes are generally at the request of adjacent business and
property owners.
 Metered parking. Mainly used in commercial areas with the support of business and
property owners. Meters encourage short-term parking access and availability, and
turnover that businesses value. In the Philippine setting, marshalling the
unemployed maybe a better option to metered parking.
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 Angled parking. Can increase overall supply of on-street parking, if the street is wide
enough.
 Valet parking is useful for restaurants and reduces the number of cars driving around
(viii) Shuttle services from off-site parking lots (such as airports, entertainment centers,
malls)
(ix) Shared parking or split parking. For example, residential parking lot is generally filled
during the night but often empty during the day when nearby businesses need them.
Conversely, a business parking lot can be turned into a night market for street hawkers.
(x) Other creative combinations of the above measures
The Makati Business district demonstrates a good system for on-street parking
management, which other LGUs can emulate. A non-governmental organization (Makati
Parking Authority, co-owned by the city and business groups) employs parking attendants
who are equipped with portable wireless devices for issuing parking tickets/fees. Curb
parking for 3 hours or less is allowed for a fee on designated streets, during working days,
but free on holidays and Sundays. Off-street parking facilities were designed for longer
parking users.
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7.5 TM Measures Tried in the Past

Over a course of five decades, many traffic management schemes have been tried in Metro
Manila, then abandoned or faded away, because of bad science and bad outcomes. These
are listed in Table 7.1 for instructional purposes.
Table 7.1: Experimentations in Traffic Management
Name Description Comments

Traffic Efficiency Zone Tried in the mid-1970s as the immediate It can be considered as a form of corridor
response of the newly-created Metro traffic management, except that the
Manila Commission (predecessor of experiment ignored traffic counts (the
MMDA), the TEZ involved the closure number of left-turning vehicles) and over-
of many crossroads, prohibition of left- estimated the capacity of U-Turns.
turns on the remaining open The unintended consequence was
intersections, and declaring the main gridlock at the termini of TEZs, where U-
road benefiting from the smoother flow turning vehicles got concentrated. This
as an efficiency zone. rippled downstream and eventually
stopped traffic.
Pook Batayan (A Model This was initiated by the private sector It can be classified as a traffic bottleneck
Place) who wanted to show its support of the solution. For a while, it produced some
newly-installed government (after the temporary relief as motorists became more
EDSA People Power revolt of 1986). disciplined and enforcers more energetic.
Under this scheme, a private company However, ‘donors’ fatigue’ and
would adopt one intersection for which it ‘enforcement fatigue’ set in, and the
would provide logistics and managerial movers behind the scheme soon realized
manpower to supplement traffic that human efforts alone cannot sustain
enforcers and volunteer traffic auxiliaries. the “Pook” in the long run. As traffic volume
Private monies helped purchased traffic continues to escalate, the efforts got
control devices and pavement markings, overwhelmed.
watch huts, and other necessities to
sustain manual attention everyday.
Truck Ban and Truck It started in the 1980s as a truck ban No trucks on the road meant instant relief
Routes during peak hours, complemented by to private cars (1truck = 3 cars), but raised
designation of truck routes where heavy- the logistics cost of tradeable goods and
goods traffic can move throughout the hampered operations at the Port of Manila.
day. This morphed into a total ban on With limited window hours, and limited
narrow streets, as well as local and number of roads to use, truckers have to
secondary roads. buy more trucks to carry the same cargo
In 1994, a revised truck ban was adopted volume. Compounding the trucker’s woes
by MMDA that further limited truck were the multiple jurisdictions and
operations on EDSA to evening hours disjointed ban hours along the way. A truck
9:00PM to 6:00AM.. Eventually, this can be compliant in one LGU but run afoul
limitation became a total truck ban on at the next LGU.
EDSAat all times.
More recently, light trucks (<4tons) were
included in the ban.
Reversible Lanes This scheme was tried at various times In a corridor with pendulum traffic (inbound
and various through fares (EDSA, South flow higher in the AM peak, outbound flow
and North Expressways, Commonwealth in the PM peak), making one lane
Avenue, etc). The results were mixed: reversible adds capacity where demand is
worked well on expressways, but not on higher.
EDSA. While the queue length on the
congested side became shorter because The choice of the road section matters, as
of the additional lane, travel time well as when to execute and unwind.
remained the same but longer on the Movable traffic cones and road signs
other side. Recently, MMDA rebranded should be in-place to prevent motorists
reversible lane into Zipper Lane. from adopting reversible lane at their whim
and unexpectedly.
Odd-Even Number Sometime in 1995-96, an odd-even This scheme was inspired by Mexico's
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Scheme Traffic scheme was implemented along “Hoy No Circula” program to reduce air
major roads in Metro Manila. Vehicles pollution.
with plate numbers ending in an even In theory, this should be made in tandem
number were banned on peak hours: with improvement in the public transport
7:00 to 9:00 AM and 5:00-7:00 PM on system, so that suppressed demand can
Monday, Wednesday, and Friday; and shift to mass transit.
those with plate numbers ending in on In Metro Manila, however, no
add number were restricted for the same synchronization happened, i.e., public
period on Tuesday, Thursday and transport remained unattractive option to
Saturday. car travel. The national agency in charge
The measure exempted carpoolers, i.e., of public transport is separate from the
cars with 3or more passengers. local traffic authority.
Unified Vehicular Volume The odd-even scheme was modified into Reducing car volumes on the road would
Reduction Program a (mislabeled) Color-Coding System in mean less traffic congestion, at least that
June 1996. Instead of 3-days in a week, is the expectation. If a car is banned for 1-
motor vehicles were banned for 1 day day a week, intuitively, it 20% would be
from 7:00AM to 7:00PM based on the last withdrawn. However, this has not
digit of the license plate number. Those happened. Surveys did show a decrease
with plate numbers ending in 1 and 2 of 2% in the short-term period, but which
were banned on Monday, 3 and 4 on were subsequently negated by higher
Tuesday, 5 and 6 on Wednesday, and 7 growth rate in number of cars.
and 8 on Thursday, and 9 and 0 on After more than 2 decades of volume
Friday. reduction, the efficacy of the scheme has
Weekends and holidays, no restriction become stale. Car-owners opted to buy a
was imposed. Buses, jeepneys and taxis second car, or hold on to an old one in
were initially included in ban, then lifted addition with the new.
and re-imposed. Latest version freed However, it remains in-place for its
Public Transport from the number coding symbolism – an attempt to rein in private
scheme. car use.
Controlling Street Several measures were implemented at Providing priority lane, or exclusive lanes,
Behavior of Buses various times, that were, at heart for public transport is a measure widely
Jeepneys measures to control or discipline the adopted in many parts of the world. It’s
behavior of buses along major roads. purpose is to facilitate the operations of
Yellow lanes or buses and jeepneys buses by giving it faster travel time, better
were first introduced in the 1970s on than taking a private car. However, it was
Aurora Boulevard (R-6). It was replicated used by enforcers as a means to fence-in
on EDSA (C-4) in the 1990s. or prevent them from jumping the queues.
The 2 curb-side lanes on C-4 were The rules for right-turning vehicles were
modified with separators (e.g., concrete also not clearly defined. On the whole, it
barriers, wire fences) meant to keep help streamline bus operations on C-4, but
buses from straying out of the 2 lanes. fell short of its objective because of the
This was re-enforced by an Organized sheer number of buses (~3,500 by more
Bus Priority Scheme in 2005-2010, that than 500 operators) converging from
pre-assigned buses to load/unload different routes (30+) and operating
passengers only at their assigned bus without coordination.
stops. To limit the number of buses, a The shift to middle lane worsened
common dispatching scheme was also passenger accessibility, as commuters
tried by MMDA. From priority during peak were forced to walk longer distances in
hours, the effectivity of the bus lanes on transferring from other routes and walking
C-4 was changed into full day, and more up/down the co-used MRT3 stations.
recently (2020) into a exclusive busway Effectively, the EDSA Busway reduced the
on the inner lane. Latter was supposed to number of buses on C-4 from about 3,500
function as a BRT. to about 200 by 2022.
One-Way Street Sometime in the early 2000s, MMDA got One-way scheme requires 2 parallel pair of
enamored with one-way street scheme roads that are also crisscrossed with
and tried to apply it to more streets in streets every 500m or so (like a grid street
several areas of the metropolis. They did pattern). Best example of such a system is
not have the same success as the paired Manhattan Island NYC.
Emilia-Finlandia Streets parallel to Gil It succeeded in QC circle because it was
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Puyat Avenue on the western side of an oversized rotonda in the first place, with
SLEX/Osmeña Avenue. Its notable 7-8 radiating roads.
success was the one-way scheme on QC C4 and C5 was proposed for conversion
Circle. into one-way sometime 2019. Fortunately,
it was rejected. It would’ve been a
spectacular failure, had it been tried.
Replacing Signalized This policy became dominant in Metro There are generally-accepted guidelines
Intersections with U-Turn Manila between 2004 and 2010. Nearly on when an intersection should move up to
Pairs 200 signalized intersections (installed a signalized one, and when to progress
under TEAM 1 to -4 project of DPWH next into a grade-separated interchange.
over 2 decades) were replaced with 2 U- There are none, on the reverse way – that
Turn slots at mid-blocks, a few meters of moving back.
downstream and upstream of the A roundabout is a good solution to
intersection. All crossing traffic, including resolving conflicts at intersection.
left-turning movements, were diverted to However, they require adequate space to
the U-Turn slots. The purpose was to build the circular island. On the other hand,
mimic the operation of a Rotonda or most of the U-turn slots built by MMDA
Roundabout. happened on roads with no sufficient
After 2010, the signals were gradually re- spaces; width of median were less than the
installed. Several of the schemes are still minimum turning radius for cars as to eat
in-place. The remaining few on C-4are in up another lane on the through street.
conflict (not compatible) with the Research showed that U-Turn at mid-
busway on the median lane. blocks do work when there are gaps
between vehicles (i.e., low-volume) in a
platoon sufficient enough for tunring
vehicles to merge safely. They fail under
bumper-to-bumper traffic.
Source:
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8 FUTURE TRENDS IN TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT
1) Game-Changing Technologies: Next 20 Years
The changes that happened in the last 50 years are nothing compared to what will happen
in the next 20. The following sections are meant to inform readers about potential changes
to many heuristics contained in this Guidebook.
Uber pioneered the car-sharing model that envisaged an end to car ownership, but not car
usage. One can have a choice of car to use when needed, without buying one. It was
launced in 2009 with a simple idea: “What if you could request a ride from your phone?” It
quickly grew into a global brand, copied and adapted by others (such as Grab in Singapore,
Malaysia and Indonesia; Gojek in Indonesia; Didi in China) and ran into strong opposition
from traditional taxi companies. It is said that owning a car is a Filipino household dream
that comes with higher income. What if the growth in motorization is decoupled from income
growth?
Driverless cars are no longer science fiction. Google unveiled a working prototype as far
back as 2014. Since then, other start-ups like Tesla (including the world’s biggest car
manufacturers) have joined the excitement. By 2022, trial deployment of autonomous cars
in real world setting are on pilot-test in such cities as San Francisco, Boston, Las Vegas,
and Michigan. The advent of autonomous cars raises fundamental questions in traffic
management. Can a traffic enforcer issue a traffic citation ticket to a robot? Who is at fault,
if an autonomous car gets into an accident?
Mobile payment system for public transport usng cellular phones as wallet is already
mainstream in more than twenty cities in the world, such as Hongkong, Singapore, Istanbul.
Digital or cashless payments are gaining acceptance in the Philippines, such as Gcash and
Paymaya. Some transit operators are already using stored-value cards (i.e., Beep) that can
be upgraded.
Intelligent transport system is another frontier. Adaptive traffic signals driven by artificial
intelligence to alter and modify its timing and phasing in accordance with changing volumes
and movements of vehicles. Combined with robot-driven cars running on sensor-laden
roads, ITS could double or triple road capacity without building new roads or road-widening.
Gaps between cars would be smaller and vehicle density higher. Imagine expressway
capacity (2,000 pcu/hour/lane) on major urban arterials (now constrained to less than 1,000
pcu/hr by road-side frictions and intersections). That means the speed-volume curve
(shown in Figure 8.1) would expand and shift.
8- 1
8.1 Innovative Designs for Intersections

1) The Rising Popularity of Roundabouts
The Philippines followed the American model in roadway design - which was heavily tilted
to private cars. The use of roundabouts (or Rotonda) were very few, and far between, in
contrast to its wider adoption in Europe.
Beginning 2010, the USA warmed to the idea of roundabouts with the release of specific
design guidelines:
(i) Provide slow entry speeds and consistent speeds through the roundabout by using
deflection.
(ii) Provide the appropriate number of lanes and lane assignment to achieve adequate
capacity, lane volume balance, and lane continuity.
(iii) Provide smooth channelization that is intuitive to drivers and results in vehicles naturally
using the intended lanes.
(iv) Provide adequate accommodation for the design vehicles.
(v) Design to meet the needs of pedestrians and cyclists.
(vi) Provide appropriate sight distance and visibility for driver recognition of the intersection
and conflicting users.
Source:
Figure 8.1: Basic Features and Dimensions of Roundabouts
Roundabout is expected to blossom on Philippine roads as an alternative to signalization

on urban roads. The recommended guidelines in the design of roundabouts on urban roads
are shown on Table 8.1 below.
Table 8.1: Design Factors for Roundabouts
Design Element Mini-Roundabout Compact Single-Lane Double-Lane

Maximum Design Entry Speed 25kph 25kph 35kph 40kph
Max. Number of Entering Lanes per 1 1 1 2
approach
Typical inscribed circle diameter 13m to 25m 25m to 30m 30m to 40m 45m to 55m
Splitter island treatment Raised if possible Raised, with Raised, with Raised, with
crosswalk cut crosswalk cut crosswalk cut
Typical daily volume, on 4-leg 10,000 15,000 20,000 ≥20,000
roundabout
Source:
8-2
For more details on design of roundabouts, readers can refer to the USDOT publication
#FWHA-RD-00-067 entitled “Roundabouts: An Informational Guide” (June 2000).
2) Displaced Left Turn (DLT)
The distinguishing feature of the DLT alternative intersection is the relocation of the left-turn
movement on an approach to the other side of the opposing roadway, which consequently
eliminates the left-turn phase for this approach at the main intersection. Traffic that would
normally turn left at the main intersection first crosses the opposing through lanes at a
signal-controlled intersection several hundred feet upstream of the main intersection
(presumably when the opposing traffic is red). Left-turning vehicles then travel on a new
roadway parallel to the opposing lanes and execute the left-turn maneuver simultaneously
with the through traffic (on green) at the main intersection. This is illustrated in Figure 8.2.
Source:
Figure 8.2: Displaced Left Turn
Microsimulation analyses showed savings in average control delay and average queue
length, as well as an increase in intersection capacity. This would work provided the left
turning volume is not large, and its queue length does not spill over into main road and can
be accommodated on the left turn bay.
3) Median U-Turn (MUT)
Median U-turns resembles the U-Turn scheme implemented by MMDA from 2004 to 2010,
but differs in key aspects.
The MUT takes off from the experience of Michigan and a few other USA states as a
treatment to balance intersection congestion and safety problems. It involves the
elimination of direct left turns from major and/or minor approaches (usually both). Drivers
desiring to turn left from the major road onto an intersecting cross street must first travel
through the at-grade main intersection and then execute a U-turn at the median opening
downstream of the intersection. These drivers then turn right at the cross street. Drivers on
the minor street desiring to turn left onto the major road must first turn right at the main
intersection, execute a U-turn at the downstream median opening, and proceed back
through the main intersection. Figure 8.3 shows the left-turn movements of a typical MUT
geometric design. The optimum directional crossover spacing was recommended to be
200m (±30m) from the main intersection. Elimination of left-turning traffic from the main
intersection simplifies the signal operations at the intersection, which accounts for most of
the intended benefits. The MUT intersection is typically a corridor treatment applied at
8-3
signalized intersections, but are also used at isolated intersections to alleviate specific
traffic operational and safety problems.
Readers may want to see a video about MUT on
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fshW_O_XggI
Source:
Figure 8.3: Median U-Turns
The MMDA scheme differed from a MUT design, however, as it banned the through traffic
on minor streets and forced it to perform a right-turn followed by U-Turn and then right turn.
This overloads the U-Turn slots with high volume. Where the width of the median is less
than the minimum radius of curvature (>9 meters) for the design vehicle, an additional lane
is taken over and withdrawn from the major street. At an MUT, the design of the main
intersection is similar to the geometry of a conventional intersection, except that the main
intersection is designed for larger volumes of right-turn movements than a conventional
intersection serving the same total volumes because the left-turning vehicles become right
turning vehicles. However, in the case of Metro Manila, most of the right-turn bays were not
of sufficient width and length to accommodate the increased volume of turning vehicles.
4) Quadrant Roadway (QR)
At a QR intersection, all four left-turn movements at a conventional four-legged intersection

are rerouted to use a connector roadway in one quadrant. Figure 8.4 shows the connector
road and how all four of the left-turning movements are rerouted to use it. Left turns from
all approaches are prohibited at the main intersection, which consequently allows a simple
two-phase signal operation at the main intersection. Each terminus of the connector road
is typically signalized. These two secondary signal-controlled intersections usually require
three phases.
Quadrant Roadways should be designed so that the left turn with the highest demand is
the one that receives the most direct path. Its strong appeal is that this scheme costs less
than DLT or MUT, provided a suitable quadrant or urban block is available.
8-4
Source:
Figure 8.4: Quadrant Roadway
A video about QR can be seen onhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eJwYLr88WsA
The discussions on Section 8.2 relied substantially on “Recent Roadway

Geometric Design Research for Improved Safety and Operations” published by
the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine 2012.
Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
https://doi.org/10.17226/14661.
8-5
8.2 Mobility as a Service

1) MaaS Buzzword
Maas is a buzzword among transport practitioners but is perhaps still unfamiliar to many
traffic authorities. It is an acronym for Mobility As a Service, a digital application on mobile
devices (e.g., cellular phone) intended for commuters to plan and undertake their daily
commutes on any available modes of transport (trike, taxi, jeepney, bus, railway). It
integrates various forms of transport services into a single mobility service accessible on
demand. A MaaS operator facilitates a diverse menu of transport options to meet a
customer’s request, be they public transport, ride-, car- or bike-sharing, taxi or car
rental/lease, or a combination thereof. For the user, MaaS can offer added value by using
a single application to provide access to mobility with a single payment channel instead of
multiple ticketing and payment operations.
Road traffic patterns could change as a result of MaaS because commuters can adjust their
travel demand on as needed basis, and transit operators can also respond dynamically.
MaaS aims to provide an alternative to using the private car that may be as convenient,
more sustainable, help reduce congestion and constraints in transport capacity and be even
cheaper.
A better appreciation of the promise and potentials of MaaS can be viewed on:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5jejbfPKWrQ&t=3s
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IkKb9EDIRR4
2) Prospects for Philippines LGUs
While many providers have sprang in developed countries, there are active players in the
Philippines already developing and promoting their home-grown MaaS.
Viewed in tandem with progress in mobile payments as well as parallel efforts to improve
the urban public transport system, MaaS should become palpable in highly urbanized cities
in the next 10 years. The on-going pushto consolidate multiple operators in a route should
drive demand for digital fleet management system (a major telecom entity is already
marketing the product with some local bus companies as initial users), which in turn will
nurture growth of MaaS.
8-6
8.3 Intelligent Traffic System (ITS)

A generally-accepted definition of an intelligent transportation system (ITS) is an advanced
application which aims to provide innovative services relating to different modes of transport
and traffic management and enable users to be better informed and make safer, more
coordinated, and 'smarter' use of transport networks.
Some of these technologies include calling for emergency services when an accident
occurs, using cameras to enforce traffic laws or signs that mark speed limit changes
depending on conditions. The directive of the European Union 2010/40/EU limited ITS into
“systems in which information and communication technologies are applied in the field of
road transport, including infrastructure, vehicles and users, and in traffic management and
mobility management, as well as for interfaces with other modes of transport.”
ITS vary in technologies - from basic management systems such as car navigation; traffic
signal control systems, container management systems, variable message signs,
automatic number plate recognition or speed cameras, and automatic incident detection or
stopped vehicle detection systems to more advanced applications that integrate live data
and feedback from a number of other sources, such as parking guidance and information
systems; weather information; deicing systems; and the like. Additionally, predictive
techniques are being developed to allow advanced modelling and comparison with
historical baseline data.
This topic is probably too futuristic for LGUs still grappling or understanding 2nd generation
traffic control system such as SCAT or SCOOT. ITS, on the other hand, is about 5th
generation systems. The fifth-generation self-adaptive traffic signal control system is based
on the abilities of self-learning and high efficiency calculation in automated vehicles and
regular vehicles environment. Artificial intelligence supervising traffic control and interacting
with autonomous vehicles on roads embedded with sensors.
Considering the Philippines situation right now (2022), it may take more than 20 years for
ITS to become palpable. Nevertheless, traffic authorities should be aware of the future of
traffic as they deal with today’s problems.
An overview on how several technologies are being brought together into an Intelligent
Transport System can be viewed on
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dS4pWnNlxfA
8-7
APPENDIX A
Glossary of Terms
APPENDIX A
Glossary of Terms
Abandoned any vehicle left unattended for more than twenty-four (24) hours on a public road, unless otherwise
vehicle defined by local ordinance.
Acceleration lane a speed change lane used for increasing speed and merging with fast
moving vehicles.
Accident, Motor Any event that results in unintended injury or property damage attributable directly or indirectly to
Vehicle Accident the motion of a motor vehicle or its load.
Alley A narrow lane built to provide access to the rear of properties, and maybe public or private. Alleys
intersect local roads and are not meant for through traffic..
Authorized tow any vehicle specially constructed for towing vehicles, other than trucks and farm or road tractors,
vehicle which is designated as an authorized tow vehicle by the City.
Auxiliary Lane The portion of the roadway adjoining the through traveled way for parking, speed change, turning,
storage for turning, weaving, truck climbing or for other purposes supplementary to through traffic
movement.
Average Daily The total volume of traffic in both directions on a highway during a time period of greater than one
Traffic day but less than or equal to a year, then divided by the number of days for which traffic was
collected. The term is commonly abbreviated as AADT when number of days is one year.
Average Overall For all traffic, or component thereof, the summation ofdistances divided by the summation ofoverall
Travel Speed travel times.
Average Running For all traffic, or component thereof, the summation of distances divided by the summation of
Speed running times.
Average Spot The arithmetic mean of the speeds of all traffic, or component thereof, at a specified point.
Speed
Betterment The improvements,adjustments, or additions to a highway which more than restore it to its former
good condition and which result in better traffic serviceability without major changes in its original
construction.
Bicycle any two-wheeled vehicle designed to be propelled solely by human power.
Bicycle path or away established for the exclusive use of bicycle, including tricycles propelled by human power,
lane but excluding pushcarts and animal drawn vehicles.
Built-up area an area with streets normally characterized by relatively low speeds, wide ranges of traffic volumes,
narrower lanes, frequent intersections and driveways, significant pedestrian traffic, and prevalence
of businesses and houses; any area with entries and exits especially signposted as such or defined
in domestic legislation
Capacity The maximum amount of traffic on any transportation facility that can be accommodated and still
function. It could refer to the number of cars flowing through a lane under prevailing weather and
traffic conditions, or number of passengers per lane per hour per direction. Latter is more relevant in
transport management, while the former measurement is more relevant in traffic engineering.
Carriageway the part of the road normally used by vehicular traffic.
Center in relation to a thoroughfare, means a line or series of lines, marks or other indications placed at the
middle of the thoroughfare or, in the absence of any such line, lines, marks, or other indications, the
middle of the main traveled portion of the thoroughfare.
Channelized an intersection provided with islands meant to guide and limit vehicle movements.
intersection
Clearway a length of carriageway generally defined by signs, along which vehicles may not stop or be left
standing at times of the day as provided on the signs.
Collector A road that is a principal carrier within neighborhoods or single land use areas. Collectors link
neighborhoods with major activity centers, other neighborhoods and arterials, carry low-to-moderate
volumes of traffic at low-to-moderate speeds. Generally, fewer lanes than an arterial.
Connector A road that straddles between a Collector and street’sstreet, and often functions similarly as a
collector road in collecting traffic from and distributes traffic to local streets, and are not for through
traffic. Traffic calming measures maybe appropriate.
Control of Access The condition where the right of owners or occupants of abutting land or other persons to access,
light, air, or view in connection with a highway is fully or partially controlled by public authority. Full
control of access means that the authority to control access is exercised to give preference to through
traffic by providing access connections with selected public roads only, by prohibiting crossings at
grade or direct private driveway connections. Partial control of access means that the authority to
Appendix A- 1
control access is exercised to give preference to through traffic to a degree that, in addition to access
connections with selected public roads, there may be some crossings at grade and some private
driveway connections.
Conveyance A written instrument by which a title, estate, or interest in property is transferred.
Corridor A transport corridor is a generally linear area that is defined by one or more roadways. Development
often occurs along transportation corridors because they carry so many people, creating linear
agglomerations or the linear form of many neighborhood retail areas.
Crosswalk A marked lane for passage of pedestrians, bicycles, etc., traffic across a road.
Cul-de-sac Street A local street open at one end only and with special provision for turning around.
Curb Loading Roadway space adjacent to a curb and reserved for exclusive use of vehicles during loading or
Zone unloading of passengers or property.
Cycle any vehicle which has at least two wheels and is propelled solely by the muscular energy of the
persons on that vehicle, in particular by means of pedals or hand-cranks.
Cycle Time The time required for one complete sequence of signal indications.
Dead-end Street A local street open at one end only without special provision for turning around.
Deceleration Lane a speed change lane used for decreasing speed, preparatory to stopping or exiting a fast lane.
Delay The time lost while traffic is impeded by some element over which the driver has no control
Density Also known as concentration (“k”) is the number of vehicles present within a unit length of lane,
carriageway or road at a given instant of time. Density is usually expressed as vehicles per kilometer
(veh/km), or where appropriate for analytical purposes, vehicles per meter (veh/m).
Depressed Median A median that is lower in elevation than the traveled way and so designed to carry a certain portion
of the surface water.
Design Capacity The maximum rate at which vehicles can be reasonably expected to traverse a point or uniform
segment of a lane or a roadway during a specified period of time (usually, one hour)under previling
roadway, traffic and control conditions. Expressed as vehicles per hour, or pcu/hr.
Design Speed A speed determined for design and correlation of the physical features of a highway that influence
vehicle operation. It is the maximum safe speed that can be maintained over a specified section of
highway when conditions are so favorable that the design features of the highway govern.
Design Volume A volume determined for use in design, representing traffic expected to use the highway. Unless
otherwise stated, it is an hourly volume.
Desire Line A straight line on amapjoining the origin and destination. Desire lines are normally plottedwithwidths
proportional to the trip volumes.
Destination The place where a trip ends.
Detectors Mechanical or electronic devices that sense and signal the presence or passage of vehicular traffic
at one or more points in the roadway.
Direction of traffic In the Philippines, the right-hand side, wherebythe driver of a vehicle must allowan oncomingvehicle
to pass on his left. Steering wheel of vehicles are on left-side of the vehicle.
Directional The directional split of traffic during the peak or design hour, commonly expressed as percent in the
Distribution peak and off-peak flow directions.
Diverging The dividing of a single stream of traffic into separate streams.
Divided road a highway or road with separated carriageways for traffic traveling in opposite directions.
Driver any personwho drives a motorvehicle or other vehicle (including a cycle), orwho guides cattle, singly
or in herds, or flocks or draught, pack or saddle animals on a road.
Driveway A private road giving access from a public way to a building on abutting grounds.
Easement A right to use or control the property of another for designated purposes.
Emergency Signal Any type of traffic control device installed solely for the purpose of assigning right of way to
emergency vehicles at locations where standard traffic control devices are unwarranted.
Emergency 1. conveying member of the police force on urgent police duty, 2. of a fire brigade traveling to or on
vehicle means a duty at any place in consequence of a fire or an alarm of fire, 3. being an ambulance or any other
motor vehicle: vehicle, answering an urgent call or conveying to a hospital any injured or sick person urgently
requiring treatment, 4. being used to obtained or convey blood or other supplies, drugs or equipment
for a person urgently requiring treatment which may or may not carry a siren, bell or repeater horn
for use as a warning instrument, or 5. duly authorized as an emergency vehicle for purposes of this
Code by the appropriate authority.
Encroachment Unauthorized use of highway right of way or easements as for signs, fences, buildings, etc.
Expressway Also referred to as Freeway (or tollway, when user fee is charged). A controlled access, divided
highway for through traffic. Cross street access is only allowed at interchanges, i.e., no at-grade
intersection is allowed.
Fixed Delay Delay caused by traffic controls
Appendix A-2
Flow Movement of traffic.
Footway that portion of road set aside for pedestrian use only. Also, referred to as sidewalk or pedestrian
footpaths.
Frontage Road A local street or road auxiliary to and located on the side (i.e., parallel) of an arterial highway for
service to abutting property and adjacent areas and for control of access.
Functional A method of categorizing roads based on the type of service provided. Roads are generally classified
classification as Expressway, major arterials, minor arterials, collectors, or local road.
Grade The rate of ascent or descent of a roadway, expressed as a percent; the change in roadway elevation
per unit of horizontal length.
Grade separation A crossing of two highways, or a highway and a railroad, at different levels.
Green Time That period of any phase assigning right of way to that movement(s) of vehicular traffic.
Guardrails Traffic barriers used to shield hazardous areas from errant vehicles.
Headway A headway is the time interval separating the passing at a fixed point by two consecutive vehicles in
a traffic stream. The average headway (‘h’) of the stream over a given time interval (usually 1 hour)
is the arithmetic mean of the series of headways occurring over that interval. Headways is usually
expressed in units of seconds or minutes per vehicle
Highway Term used to describe higher capacity roads; also includes rights-of-way, bridges, railroad crossings,
tunnels, drainage structures, signs, guardrails, and protective structures in connection with highways.
Exclude local and private roads.
Infrastructure A term connoting the physical underpinnings of society at large, including, but not limited to roads,
bridges, transit,water and waste systesm, public housing, sidewalks, utility installations (like electric
poles), public buildings and communication networks. Last one is now associated also with digital
infrastructure.
Interchange A multilevel highway intersection arranged so that vehicles may move from one road to another
withoutcrossing streams of traffic, i.e., no traffic conflicts.
Interrupted Non-continuous movement of traffic.
Intersection Any level crossroad, junction or fork, including open areas formed by such crossroad or fork.
Interval A discrete portion of the signal cycle during which signal indications do not change.
Jurisdictional A method of classification of roads based on ownership of the road: national, provincial, city,
Classification municipal, barangay, or private.
Lane A strip of roadway used for a single line of vehicles; one of the longitudinal strips from which the
carriageway can be divided, whether or not defined by longitudinal road markings
Lane Occupancy Lane occupancy is not one of the five principal traffic flow descriptors but can be very useful. It is the
proportion of time, over a given time interval, that there is a vehicle present at a specified point in the
lane. Given this definition, lane occupancy is a dimensionless measure.
While the definition applies to ‘a specified point in the lane’ over ‘a given time interval’,essentially the
same lane occupancy will be experienced (for the sametime interval) along any length of lane over
which vehicles
cannot enter or leave the lane. This will be true as long as the length is such that a vehicle’s travel
time over that length is short compared to the time interval used in calculating the occupancy.
It is worth noting that lane occupancy (average carriageway occupancy) is utilized in control systems
for freeways. It is therefore important that an understanding of the importance of the accuracy of
information
captured to determine lane occupancy is understood
Laned means a thoroughfare divided into two or more marked lanes for vehicular traffic.
thoroughfare
Level of Service A qualitative measure describing operation road (traffic) conditions and the perception of motorists
of the existing conditions. Six levels of service are defined for each type of facility, ranging from A to
F, from best to worst. Initially used to define the road network, the concept has been expanded to
included bicycle and pedestrian conditions.
Level-crossing any level intersection between a road and a railway or tramway track with its own track formation.
LGU an acronym for Local Government Units, either provincial, city or municipal government, empowered
under RA 7160to pursue traffic management plans and programs.
Local Street A street or road designed to provide access to residence, business or other abutting property, and to
connect to higher order roads such as collectors and minor arterials. A driveway can be considered
as a local street.
Major Arterial A road that primarily carries local and thorugh traffic to and from destinations outside local
communities; connects cities and towns, and carries moderate-to-heavy volumes of traffic at
moderate-to-high speeds. For example, the 10 radial and 5 circumferential roads of Metro Manila.
Appendix A-3
Median The portion of a divided highway separating the traveled ways for traffic in opposite directions.
Median Lane A speed-change lane within the median to accommodate left-turning vehicles. Merging – the
converging of separate streams of traffic into a single stream.
Motor vehicle any power-driven vehicle which is normally used for carrying persons or goods by road or for drawing
on the road, vehicles used for the carriage of persons or goods. This term embraces trolley-buses,
that is to say, vehicles connected to an electric conductor and not rail-borne. It does not cover
vehicles, such as agricultural tractors, which are only incidentally used for carrying persons or goods
by road or for drawing,on the road, vehicles used for the carriage of persons or goods. Exceptions
are roadrollers, trolley cars, street sweepers, sprinklers, lawn mowers, bulldozers, graders, fork-lifts,
amphibian trucks, and cranes if not used on public highways and vehicles run only on rails or tracks,
and tractors, trailers and traction engines of all kinds used exclusively for agricultural purposes
Motor Vehicle Any motor vehicle accident occurring on any highway, street, or road, or anyway or place of which
Traffic Accident any part is open for the use of the public.
Motorcycle means any two-wheeled vehicle, with or without a side-car, which is equipped with a propelling
engine. LGUs may also treat as motorcycles in their local ordinances three-wheeled vehicles whose
unladen mass does not exceed 400 kg. The term "motorcycle" does not include mopeds, although
LGUs may, provided they make a declaration to this effect treat mopeds as motorcycles.
Network A graphic and/or mathematical representation of multimodal paths in a transportation (or
communications) system.
No parking area means a portion of a thoroughfare between two consecutive “No Parking” signs and with arrows
pointing generally towards each other or other appropriate signs.
Non-moving Vehicle – is said to be: (i) Standing" if it is stationary for the time needed to pick up or set down
vehicles persons or to load or unload goods; and (ii) Parked" if it is stationary for any reason other than the
need to avoid interference with another road-user or collision with an obstruction or to comply with
traffic regulations, and if the period during which the vehicle is stationary is not limited to the time
needed to pick up or set down persons or goods; It shall be open to LGUs to regard as "standing"
any vehicle which is stationary for a period not exceeding that fixed by domestic legislation, and to
regard as "parked" any vehicle which is stationary for a period exceeding that fixed by domestic
legislation
Off-Premise Sign An outdoor sign, display or device advertising a service or product at a location other than on the
property where such service or product maybe obtained
One-Way means a thoroughfare on which vehicles are permitted to travel in one direction only, as indicated by
thoroughfare appropriate signs or signals.
On-Premise Sign Outdoor sign, display or device advertising activities conducted on the property on which it is located
or the sale or lease of that property.
Operational Delay Delay caused by interference between components of traffic.
Option A written agreement granting a privilege to acquire property or interest therein at a fixed price within
a specified period.
Overall Travel The speed over a specified section of highway, being the distance divided by overall travel time.
Speed
Overall Travel The time of travel, including stops and delays except those off the traveled way.
Time
Overpass An elevated roadway that crosses over another thoroughfare or railroad; also called Overcrossing.
Overtake to pass or attempt to overtake or pass aslower-moving vehicle traveling in the same direction.
Park or Parking The act of stopping and keeping a motor vehicle for a time on a public way. Parked – a vehicle is
said to be parked if it is stationary for the period during which the vehicle is not limited to the time
needed to pickup or set down persons or goods.
Parking a vehicle is said to be parked if it is stationary for the period during which the vehicle is not limited to
the time needed to pickup or set down persons or goods.
Parking area means a portion of the thoroughfare where parking is permitted as indicated by appropriate notices
or parking signs.
Parking Lane An auxiliary lane primarily for the parking of vehicles.
Partial Taking The acquisition of a portion of a parcel of property.
Passenger Car The representation of other types of vehicles - such as trucks, buses and jeepneys - into their
Equivalence (pcu) equivalent number of passenger cars for use. PCU then becomes a single unit of measure in LOS
and capacity analyses. The magnitude of the equivalency is dependent upon vehicle size and weight,
vehicle operating characteristics, vehicle speeds, and roadway characteristics such as gradient.
Typical values, jeepney = 1.4 and bus = 2.2.
Passing The length of highway required for a vehicle to execute a normal passing maneuver as related to
Appendix A-4
design conditions and design speed.
Peak Hour The 60-minute period during which the largest volume of travel is experienced. In a saturated
network, the length of time may stretched to more than 60-minutes,
Peak Travel Period The period in the morning (AM peak period) and afternoon or evening (PM peak period) when
additional transportation services are needed/provided to handle higher traffic/passenger volumes.
The period begins when normal travel times are increased and ends when travel times are returned
to normal. In Metro Manila, the AM peak period is generally 7:00AM to 9:00AM and the PM peak
period is 5:00PM to 8:00PM each weekday.
Pedestrian A person traveling on foot or in a perambulator
Pedestrian Path A footway or track reserved for use by pedestrians orjoggers, normally on curb side of roads
Permissible the maximum mass of the laden vehicle declared permissible by the competent authority of the State
maximum mass in which the vehicle is registered.
Person Trip A one-way trip made for any purpose, by any (usually vehicular) travel mode by one person.
Phase Those right of way and clearance intervals in a cycle assigned to any independent movement(s) of
vehicular traffic or pedestrians.
Planting An easement for reshaping roadside areas and establishing, maintaining, and controlling plant growth
Easement thereon.
Power-driven any self-propelled road vehicle, other than a moped in cities / municipalities which do not treat
vehicle mopeds as motorcycles, and other than a rail-borne vehicle.
Pre-Timed Signal Any type of traffic control device installed solely for the purpose of assigning right of way to
emergency vehicles at locations where standard traffic control devices are unwarranted.
Profile Grade The trace of a vertical plane intersecting the top surface of the proposed wearing surface, usually
along the longitudinal centerline of the roadbed. Profile grade means either elevation or gradient of
such trace according to the context.
Progressive A series of traffic control signals timed and coordinated in such a way as to provide optimum
Signal System movement of traffic through the system.
Public Road Any road or street under the jurisdiction of and maintained by a public authority (DPWHor LGU) and
open to public. Some public roads in Metro Manila are excluded from public access by residential
associations with or without permissions by public authority, and thus reduce network capacity.
Public Transit Generally refers to passenger service provided to the general public along established routes with
fixed or variable schedules at published rates (i.e., government approved fares). Related terms
included transit, mass transit, paratransit, public transportation. Transit modes include rail – heavy,
light or monorail, bus, jeepney, multicab, or other vehicles designated for commercial transportation
of non-related persons.
Right Turn on Red A turning movement at an intersection which provides for movement of traffic during a fixed delay.
(RTOR) Usually allowed and regulated by statute.
Right-of-Way A general term denoting land, property, or interest therein, usually in a strip, acquired for or devoted
to transportation purposes, and inclusive of travel lanes, parking, bikeways, sidewalks, utilities,
shoulders, etc.
Right-of-Way Map A plan of a highway improvement showing its relation to adjacent property, the parcels or portions
thereof needed for highway purposes, and other pertinent information.
Road A general term denoting a public way for purposes of vehicular travel, including the entire area within
the right of way. (Recommended usage: in urban areas - highway or street; in rural areas - highway
or road); entire surface of any street open to traffic.
Road Markers any traffic control device laid out or painted on the surface of the road or carriageway used to regulate
traffic or to warn or guide road users, used either alone or in conjunction with other signs or signals
to emphasize or clarify their meaning. Median islands are not defined as road markers.
Roadside Control The public regulation of the roadside to improve highway safety, expedite the free flow of traffic,
safeguard present and future highway investment, conserve abutting property values, or preserve
the attractiveness of the landscape.
Roadside Those items necessary to the complete highway which provide for the preservation of landscape
Development materials and features; the rehabilitation and protection against erosion of all areas disturbed by
construction through seeding, sodding, mulching and the placing of other ground covers; such
suitable planting and other improvements as may increase the effectiveness and enhance the
appearance of the highway.
Roadside Zoning The application of zoning for roadside control.
Roadway - The portion of a highway, including shoulders, for vehicular use. A divided highway has two or more
(General) roadways. (In construction, the portion of a highway within limits of construction activities).
Roundabout an intersection where all traffic travels in one direction around a central or circular island. Also called,
Appendix A-5
Rotonda.
Running Speed The speed over a specified section of highway, being the distance divided by running time.
Running Time The time the vehicle is in motion.
Scenic Easement An easement for conservation and development of roadside views and natural features.
Semi-trailer any trailer designed to be coupled to a motor vehicle in such away that part of it rests on the motor
vehicle and that a substantial part of its mass and ofthe mass of its load is borne by the motorvehicle.
Separation line a line marked on the pavement of a thoroughfare to separate traffic traveling in opposite directions.
Setback Line A line outside the right of way, established by public authority or private restriction, on the highway
side of which the erection of buildings or other permanent improvements is controlled.
Shoulder The portion of the roadway contiguous with the traveled way primarily for accommodation of stopped
vehicles for emergency use, and lateral support of base and surface courses.
Sidewalk That portion of the roadway primarily constructed for the use of pedestrians.
Sight Distance The length of highway visible to the driver.
Sight Line An easement for maintaining or improving the sight distance.
Easement
Signal Change That portion of any phase warning the vehicular traffic or pedestrians of that movement(s) of the
Interval impending termination of the right of way for that movement. Time duration for yellow light.
Signal Indication The illumination of traffic signal lens or of a combination of lenses at the sametime.
Spacing A spacing is the distance between the fronts of two consecutive vehicles in a traffic stream at a given
instant of time. The average spacing (‘s’) of the stream over a given length of lane or carriageway is
the arithmetic
mean of the individual spacings occurring over that length at that instant of time. Spacing is usually
expressed in the units of meters per vehicle (m/veh).
Speed Speed (‘v’) is the distance travelled by a vehicle per unit time and is typically expressed as either
meters per second (m/s) or kilometers per hour (km/h). The average speed of a stream of vehicles
maybe expressed as either the time mean speed orthe space mean speed,which are defined below.
Time mean speed, vt , is the arithmetic mean of the measured speeds of all vehicles passing a given
point during a given time interval. Such individual measured speeds are called ‘spot speeds’.
Space mean speed, vs , is the arithmetic mean of the measured speeds of all vehicles within a given
length of lane or carriageway, at a given instant of time.
Speed-Change An auxiliary lane, including tapered areas, primarily for the acceleration or deceleration of vehicles
Lane entering or leaving the through traveled way.
Standing a vehicle is said to be standing if it is stationary for the time needed to pick up or set down persons
or to load or unload goods.
Stop line a line marked across the thoroughfare near a traffic control signal, stop sign, children’s crossing or
intersection.
Stop or Stopping The act of bringing a motor vehicle to a halt.
Stopping Distance The length of highway required to safely stop a vehicle traveling at design speed.
Street A general term denoting a public way for purposes of vehicular travel, including the entire area within
the right of way.
Thoroughfare meansthat portion of a road improved, designed or usedfor vehiculartravel exclusive ofthe shoulder.
Through Street Every highway or portion thereof on which vehicular traffic is given preferential right of way and at
the entrances to which vehicular traffic from intersecting highways is required by law to yield right of
way to vehicles on such through highway in obedience to either a stop sign or a yield sign, when
such signs are erected.
Through Traveled The portion of the roadway for the movement of vehicles, exclusive of shoulders and auxiliary lanes.
Way
Time Cycle The time required for one complete sequence of signal indications.
Toll Road or Toll highway or tunnel open to traffic only upon payment of a direct toll or fee.
A
Tunnel
Traffic Actuated A traffic control signal whose right of way interval selection and interval times are varied by the
Signal demands of vehicular traffic for those intervals or movements.
Traffic Control A sign, signal, marking or other device placedonor adjacent to a street or highway by authority of a
Device public body or official havingjurisdiction to regulate, warn, or guide traffic.
Traffic Control Any device whether manually, electrically, or mechanically operated by which traffic is alternately
Signal directed to stop or permitted to proceed.
Traffic Controls Traffic control systems are designed to reduce travel time, delays and stops, while also improving
the average speed on arterial roadways and freeways. These systems included elements such as
coordinated traffic signals, continuous optimization of timing plans, use of bus priority signal control
Appendix A-6
system, and implementation of computer-based traffic control and freeway traffic management.
Traffic Island a defined area within the roadway, usually at an intersection and set off above ground level, from
which traffic is intended to be excluded and which is used for control of vehicular movements and as
pedestrian refuge.
Traffic Lane The portion of the traveled way for the movement of a single line of vehicles.
Traffic refers to the city’s or municipality's organization or office designated and authorized to perform traffic
management engineering, planning, education, and/or enforcement activities.
authority
Traffic Markings All lines, patterns, words, colors, or other devices, except signs, set into the surface of, applied upon,
or attached to the pavement or curbing or to the objects within or adjacent to the roadway, officially
placed for the purpose of regulating, warning, or guiding traffic.
Traffic Operation A program of action designed to improve the utilization of a highway,a street, or highway and street
Plan network, through the application of the principles of traffic engineering.
Traffic Sign A device mounted on a fixed or portable support whereby a specific message is conveyed by means
of words or symbols,officially erected for the purpose of regulating, warning, or guiding traffic.
Traffic Signal A power-operated traffic control device by which traffic is regulated, warned, or alternately directed
to take specific actions.
Trailer a vehicle not otherwise self-propelled, includes caravan but excludes the rear portion of an articulated
vehicle. Trailer – any vehicle designed to be drawn by a power-driven vehicle and includes semi-
trailers.
Transportation A program of ac ion to provide effectively for present and future demands for movement of people
Plan and goods. This program must necessarily include consideration of the various modes of travel.
Transportation Current TSM practices are fundamental traffic engineering actions taken to improve the operation of
System the highway system. TSM actions are usually categorized as "supply-side" (actions intended to
Management increase the existing vehicle capacity on the system) and "demand-side" (actions that are designed
to reduce vehicle demand on the system by increasing vehicle occupancy, see TDM). For example:
 Traffic engineering improvements: left- and right-turn lanes, one-way streets, bus turnout
lanes.
 Traffic control improvements: traffic signal interconnection, use of bus priority signal
control.
Travel Demand Measures designed to change single-occupant vehicle driver behavior with programs such as
Management ridesharing (carpooling and vanpooling). Other demand-side actions include parking management
strategies (like park and ride lots or preferential parking for carpooling/vanpooling) or transit service
improvements (like express bus service, or by-pass ramps for buses).
Travel Time Customarily calculated as the time it takes to travel from "door-to door." In transportation planning,
the measures of travel time include time spent accessing, waiting, and transferring between vehicles
as well as time spent traveling.
Traveled Way The portion of the roadway for the movement of vehicles, exclusive of shoulders.
Two-way means any thoroughfare where traffic is permitted in opposite directions.
Thoroughfare
Underpass A grade separation where the subject highway passes under an intersecting highway or railroad; also
called Undercrossing, as opposed to Flyover.
Uninterrupted Continuous movement of traffic, without any intersection or intervening traffic control devices
Urban roads Roads in highly populated towns and cities, where the speed limit is usually set to 60 kph or less
U-turn means a movement which causes a vehicle facing or traveling in one direction to face or travel in the
opposite, or substantially the opposite direction.
Vehicle means any conveyance or other device propelled or drawn by any means and includes an articulated
vehicle and a bicycle and, where the context permits, includes an animal driven or ridden, but does
not include a train.
Vehicle Hours of The sum of time all vehicles spend traveling, calculated most typically over a 24-hour period. This
Travel statistic is most commonly summed over some area like a city, but can also be calculated for specific
routes or trip purposes like work.
Vehicle A standard area-wide measure of travel activity. The most conventional VMT calculation is to multiply
Kilometers of the average length of trip by the total number of trips.
Travel
Volume Volume (sometimes called ‘flow’ or ‘flow rate’ and heredesignated by the symbol ‘q’) is the number
of vehicles per unit time passing a given point on a road. Volume may relate to a lane, a carriageway
or a road and, in the case of a road, may include traffic in either one or both directions. In traffic flow
Appendix A-7
analysis,a volume usually relates to only one direction of flow. The unit of time used in relation to a
volume may vary according to the application. Volumes expressed as vehicles per second (veh/s) or
vehicles per hour (veh/h) are typically used in traffic flow analysis, while daily or annual volumes may
be appropriate in other contexts, such as analyses of traffic growth overtime
Volume-to- The number of vehicles that travel on a road divided by the theoretical capacity of the road. Actual
Capacity (V/C) road capacity depends on a wide variety of factors such as lane width, pavement condition, total
number of lanes, weather conditions, and more.
Waiting means a vehicle permitted to remain stationary with the motor running.
Weaving The crossing of traffic streams moving in the same general direction accomplished by merging and
diverging.
Zoning The division of an area into districts and the public regulation of the character and intensity of use of
the land and improvements thereon
Appendix A-8
APPENDIX B
Standard Road Traffic Signs

APPENDIX B
Standard Road Traffic Signs
1 INTRODUCTION
This Annex is a condensed version of the more relevant provisions indicated in the
International Convention on Road Traffic Signs, which the Philippines follows, and
articulated in the DPWH internal manuals as well as LTO primer for driver’s licensing.
Those who need more detail about road signs should refer to the DPWH “Highway
Safety Design Standards, Part 2: Road Signs and Pavement Markings Manual,
Chapters 1 to 8, May 2012 edition.
A standardized road traffic system is essential to ensure that drivers acquire the
information necessary to enable them to comply with road regulations and to navigate
their way around the road system in a safe and efficient manner.
As in the case of any other type of control devices, road signs should be used only
when these are necessary and where their use has been justified by field studies.
1.1 Classification of Signs
Signs are classified into groups according to their use:
 Regulatory Signs (Type R)
 Warning Signs (Type W)
 Guide Signs or Informative Signs (Type G)
 Signs for Expressways (Type GE). These are omitted in this Guidebook.
 Signs for Special Purposes (Type S)
 Hazard Markers (Type HM)
2 REGULATORY SIGNS (TYPE R)
In general, all regulatory signs are also mandatory. Failure to obey is punishable with a
fine. Figure 2.1 shows the most common signs, which are self-explanatory.
Appendix B- 1
Source: https://xwalk.com/product-categories/standard-signs/standard-traffic-signs-mutcd-compliant/
Figure 2.1: Regulatory Signs
3 WARNING SIGNS (TYPE W)
The standard warning signs are in triangle shape; color in white with a black border
around them, they are there for the safety of road users. Some signs are in yellow and
shaped differently. Non-compliance is risky to motorists.
Appendix B-2
Source: https://m.facebook.com/smjautomobiledrivingschool/photos/a.110326624255418/254937013127711/
Figure 3.1: Different Types of Warning Signs
4 INFORMATIVE SIGNS (TYPE G)
Informative signs may be white, green or blue with black or white letters. They are there
to orient road users. They can be classified into:
 Advance Direction Signs (G1)
Appendix B-3
 Intersection Direction Signs (G2)
 Reassurance Direction Signs (G3)
 Finger Board Direction Signs (G4)
 Street Name Signs (G5)
 Town Name and Geographical Feature Signs (G6)
 Service Signs (G7)
 Route Markers (G8)
 Tourist and Tourist Destination Signs (G9)
Table 4.1: Informative Signs
Type G1 Shape is rectangular, with long

Placed in advance of an axis horizontal
intersection to indicate Bakcground is Green
destinations along each Border and Legend color is white
route
Type G2 Shape: Rectangular with long
Supplement G1 signs axis horizontal
located within or near the – Background color: green
intersection – Bordercolor: White
– Legend color: white

Reassure who are travelling axis horizontal
toward their intended – Background color: green
designation and to indicate – Bordercolor: White
the distance to the desired – Legend color: white
destination
Type G4 – Shape: Rectangular with long
Provide directions to towns, axis horizontal with
scenic tractions, one side pointed to indicate the
geographical interests, and direction
to other local – Background color: usually white
facilities such as postoffices, – Bordercolor: none BAGUI O
railway stations. – Legend color: black
Gives information of the axis horizontal
names of roads and streets Color: white legend on blue or
green background. Other
combinations maybe used
except red as background
Type G6
Conveys general information Shape: Rectangular with long
of interest such as axis horizontal
geographical Background Color: white
Locations. Bordercolor: none
Erected at the boundary or Legend color: black
entrance to a town or the
location of interest
Appendix B-4
Informs location of service axis horizontal
facilities like Gasoline Background Color: blue
station, hotel, Bordercolor: White
restaurants, telephone, rest Legend color: white
room, etc
Type G8 (Tourist Info & Shape: rectangular

Direction Signs) Background color: brown
Bordercolor: white
Legend: white
Type G9 (Route Markers) Shape: Shield
arterial roads and national Background color: white
highways that have Bordercolor: black
significance as ‘through’ Legend: black numeral
routes
Source: JPT and DPWH Highway Safety Design Standards Manual
5 SIGNS FOR SPECIAL PURPOSES (TYPE S)
These special instruction signs are used at locations where ordinary guide and
regulatory signs do not achieve the desired results. They instruct motorists to follow a
direction or to execute a course of action.
Special Instructions
Roadworks
Detour Signs Lane & Road

Closures
Road condition
signs
Pedestrian Control
Source: DPWH Road Works Safety Manual
Figure 5.1: Signs for Special Purposes
6 HAZARD MARKERS (TYPE HM)
Hazard markers are used to emphasize to the approaching driver a marked change in
the direction of travel and the presence of an obstruction.
Appendix B-5
The typical hazard markers are shown on Figure 6.1.
Width Marker Obstruction Marker

One-Way Hazard Marker Two-Way Hazard Marker
Source: DPWH Road Works Safety Manual
Figure 6.1: Hazard Markers
7 SOME GUIDELINES ON APPLICATION

7.1 Uniformity and Application
Uniformity of application is as important as standardization, with respect to face design

and placement. Identical conditions should always be treated with the same type of
signs so that road users can readily anticipate the course of action required.
To be effective, the road sign should meet the following five basic requirements:
 Fulfill a need;
 Command attention;
 Convey a clear, simple message;
 Command respect; and
 Give adequate time for proper response
Signs required by temporary road conditions or restrictions shall be removed
immediately after those conditions ceased to exist or the restrictions are withdrawn.
This Guidebook provides criteria for the application of signs and where applicable,
includes warrants or guides for use.
7.2 Color
The standard colors for signs are as follows:
(a) Red is used as a background for STOP signs, as border color on GIVE WAY signs,
warning signs and prohibitive signs in the regulatory type.
(b) Black is used as a legend color for signs having white, yellow, orange, fluorescent
orange, fluorescent yellowgreen background and as a chevron for hazard markers.
(c) Yellow is used as background color for roadwork signs.
(d) White is used as background color for most signs and legends for some colored
background.
(e) Fluorescent Yellow Green is used as background color for signs related to
pedestrian movement, school zones, and road work hazard markers to give
additional emphasis and guidance to vehicle operators.
(f) Fluorescent Orange is used as background color for roadwork signs whose
legends relate to personnel working.
(g) Green is used as background color for direction signs.
Appendix B-6
(h) Blue is used as background color for service signs
(i) Brown is reserved as background color for all tourist facility directional and
information signs.
7.3 Shape
Standard sign shapes are:
 Octagon is reserved exclusively for the STOP sign
 Equilateral Triangle, with one point vertically downward, is reserved exclusively for
the GIVE WAY sign;
 Circle symbol mainly used for regulatory signs;
 Equilateral Triangle with one point vertically upward is used for warning signs;
 Rectangle, usually with long axis horizontal is used for directional signs, service
signs, road work signs, signs for special purposes, and supplementary plates for
warnign signs;
 Rectangle, with long axis vertical is generally used for facility information signs,
instruction signs, guide signs, and destinations of point of interest;
 Pentagon, with point up is used only for pedestrian and crossing sign.
7.4 Installation
Signs should be mounted approximately at right angles to the direction of, and facing,
the traffic they are intended to serve. For most roads, this would be on the right side of
the carriageway to face the approaching traffic. At curve alignments, the angle of
placement should be determined by the course of approaching traffic rather than by the
roadway edge at the point where the sign is located.
To eliminate possible and undesirable reflection from the surface of the sign, such as
those caused by headlights, it should be turned 5 degrees away from the normal
headlight beam. After signs are installed, it is good practice to test them by trial
approach runs in a motor vehicle borth by daya and night.
As to height of the post holding the signs, readers are advised to read.
Appendix B-7
APPENDIX C
Pavement and Curb Markings

APPENDIX C
Pavement and Curb Markings
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Functions and Limitations

Markings on highways have important functions in providing guidance and information
for the road user. Major marking types include pavement and curb markings, object
markers, delineators, colored pavements, barricades, channelizing devices and islands.
In some cases, markings are used to supplement other traffic control devices such as
signs, signals and other markings. In other instances, markings are used alone to
effectively convey regulations, guidance, or warnings in ways not obtainable by the use
of other devices.
Pavement markings can enhance roadway delineation with the addition of audible and
tactile features such as bars, differential surface profiles, raised pavement markers, or
other devices intended to alert the road user that a delineation on the roadway is being
traversed. Markings have limitations. Visibility of the markings can be limited by debris,
water on or adjacent to the markings, traffic, etc. Marking durability is affected by
material characteristics, traffic volumes, weather, and location. However, under most
highway conditions, markings provide important information while allowing minimal
diversion of attention from the roadway.
Pavement markings can enhance roadway delineation with the addition of audible and
tactile features such as bars, differential surface profiles, raised pavement markers, or
other devices intended to alert the road user that a delineation on the roadway is being
traversed.
1.2 Standardization of Application
Each standard marking shall be used only to convey the meaning prescribed for that
marking. When used for applications not described herein, markings shall conform in
all respects to the principles and standards set forth herein.
Markings that are no longer applicable for roadway conditions or restrictions and that
might cause confusion for the road user shall be removed or obliterated to be
unidentifiable as a marking as soon as practical. Markings that must be visible at night
shall be retroreflective unless ambient illumination assures that the markings are
adequately visible.
Option. Markings may be temporarily masked with tape until they can be removed or
obliterated.
1.3 Materials
Pavement and curb markings are commonly placed by using paints or thermoplastics;
however, other suitable marking materials, including raised pavement markers and
colored pavements, are also used. Delineators, object markers, barricades, and
channelizing devices are visibly placed in a vertical position similar to signs above the
roadway.
Road surface markings should be of non-skid materials and should not protrude more
than 6 mm above the level of the carriageway. On concrete roads, raised pavement
Appendix C- 1
markers should not protrude more than 25mm above the level of the carriageway.
The materials used for markings should provide the specified color throughout their
useful life. Consideration should be given to selecting pavement marking materials that
will minimize tripping or loss of traction for pedestrians and bicyclists. Object markers
and delineators should not present a vertical or horizontal clearance obstacle for
pedestrians.
These studs or similar devices used for marking should not protrude more than 1.5cm
above the level of the carriageway (or more than 2.5cm in the case of studs
incorporating reflex reflectors).
1.4 Colors
The color of pavement markings shall be white, except for the alternative uses of yellow
as specified below:
 Double yellow no passing lines;
 Unbroken portion of no passing lines
 Curb markings for prohibition of parking
 On islands in line of traffic;
 Bus and PUJ lines;
 Keep intersection Open markings.
Red shall be used in:
 No Loading/Unloading Zone, and

 Fire lane zone
Black may be used in combination with the above colors where a light-colored
pavement does not provide sufficient contrast with the markings. When used in
combination with other colors, black is not considered a marking color, but only a
contrast-enhancing system for the markings.
Blue is not a standard color on pavement markings. It is acceptable for curbs that
stipulate parking for the disabled only. Motorists must have a disabled person parking
placard or disabled person or disabled license plate.
2 LONGITUDINAL PAVEMENT MARKINGS
2.1 Center Line
A center line is used to separate opposite traffic movements of an undivided roadway

and is generally placed centrally on all road8 and bridges 6.0m or more in width. Under
some circumstances this line may be placed off-center (e.g. where an extra uphill traffic
lane is provided or parking on one side of the road only).
(a) Warrants for Marking Center Lines. A center line may be marked on an urban or
rural road if one or more of the following conditions are met:
(i) Two-lane road (greater than 6.0 meters in width) carrying an Average Daily
Traffic (ADT) in excess of 1000 vehicles.
(ii) Two-lane road (less than 6.0 meter but more than 5.0 m in width) carrying an
ADT volume in excess of 300 vehicles.
Appendix C-2
(iii) Winding roads with widths of 5.0 meters or more. Irrespective of these warrants,
marking of other sections may be desirable where the following conditions
apply:
 Frequent horizontal or vertical curves, or both
 Sub-standard curves
 In areas subject to fog
 On approaches to major roads
 Where accident record indicates the need
 Continuity of an arterial road
 Heavy night or tourist traffic, or both.
(b) Center Line on Urban Roads. The center line on a two-lane urban road where the
85 percentile speed (or speed limit) is 60km/hr or below shall be a broken white line
with a minimum width of 100mm and equal line segments of 3.0 meters and equal
gaps of 4.5 meters. For high speed roads, line segments and gaps are the same as
for rural roads. However, a solid white line of 200mm wide may be used in the
following cases:
(i) On roads with more than two lanes if not separated by median islands.
(ii) Around a curve where no warrant exist for yellow barrier lines.
(iii) On approaches to an intersection junction.
Source: CTMP Pilot Project 2: Module 4 (Traffic Control Devices)
Figure 2. 1: Illustrative Center Lines
(c) Center Line on Rural Roads. The center line on a two-lane two-way rural road or
any other road where the 85 percentile speed (or speed limit) is greater than 60 kph,
shall be a broken line, with a minimum width of 100 and 3.0m long with gaps of
9.0m spacing. A solid white line of 200mm wide may be used in the cases as
specified for urban roads.
(d) Center Lines at Bridges. Where approaches to bridges are line marked, they shall
be marked as follows:
(i) If bridge is 5.0m or more between curbs, center lines (or separation line) shall
be continued across the bridge.
(ii) If bridge is less than 5.0m between curbs, center lines shall be discontinued
30m from the bridge abutments.
Appendix C-3
2.2 Lane Line
A lane line is used to separate adjacent lanes of traffic moving in the same direction.
Lane lines on roads with an 85th percentile speed (or speed limit) of 60 km/hr or less
shall be a minimum width of 100mm and 3.0 meter long with 4.5 meter gaps.
Lane lines on roads with the 85th percentile speed (or speed limit) in excess of 60 km/hr
shall be 100mm wide, 3.0 meter long and 9.0 meter gaps.
Lane lines must not be continued:

(i) Across intersections
(ii) Across side street entrances unless the street is a one-way street (in only)
(iii) Past the start of the taper at which a multi-lane road narrows down to a two-lane
road. Lane lines are generally broken lines except where lane changing is to be
discouraged (but not prohibited) particularly on approaches to intersections.
As a guide, lane lines should be used in the following cases:
(i) Where the road is wide enough for two or more lanes of traffic in one direction with
a two way ADT of 8000 or more (depending on whether parking is permitted);
(ii) At approaches to widened or signalized intersections;
(iii) On divided roads.
Where practicable, the following standard lane widths are desirable.
(i) Traveled lanes: Urban 3.3m, Rural 3.7m
(ii) Traveled lane adjacent to curb: 3.7m
(iii) Parking lanes: 2.0m
Figure 2.2: Example of Lane Line
A lane width defined by lane lines should only be reduced to 2.75 meters in city areas.
Aminimum of 2.5 meters is only permissible in special cases where a maximum number
of lanes must be made available such as at a signalized intersection where provisions
must be made for the most efficient storage of stopped vehicles. The center lanes on
roads without median islands should have a minimum width of 3.0 meters in urban
areas and 3.5 meters in rural areas.
2.3 Barrier Lines
Barrier lines may consist of either two unbroken yellow lines (usually reflectorized) or a
Appendix C-4
single yellow line with a broken white line.
Double yellow lines should only be used where overtaking from both directions and all
crossing movements are prohibited. Vehicles must always keep to the right of the
double yellow lines.
Combination of an unbroken yellow line and white separation line have the same
regulatory significance as a double unbroken yellow line for vehicles proceeding in the
direction where the unbroken yellow line appears on the right of the marking, but
vehicles traveling in the other direction are permitted to cross this line.
The following are the cases where barrier lines should be used:
(i) As center lines on approaches to signalized intersections.
(ii) As center lines of multi-lane roads where overtaking must be prohibited, because
of sight restrictions.
(iii) ’No-Passing’ zones where there is a restricted sight distance due to horizontal or
vertical curves, or both.
(iv) As center lines on approaches to railway crossings.
The size of the double yellow lines shall be 100mm in width and shall have a gap space
of 100mm-150mm (max).
Figure 2.3: Barrier Lines
No Passing Zones. No passing zones shall be established at vertical and horizontal

curves and elsewhere on two-and three-lane highways, where passing must be
prohibited because of dangerously restricted sight distance or other hazardous
conditions.
The legal basis for the establishment of no-passing zones is as follows:
(i) The DPWH is hereby authorized to determine those portions of any highway where
overtaking and passing or driving to the left at a roadway would be especially
hazardous and may, by appropriate signs or markings on the roadway, indicate the
beginning and end of such zones, and clearly visible to an ordinarily observant
person. Every driver of a vehicle shall obey the directions thereof.
(ii) Where signs or markings are in place to define a no-passing zone, no driver shall
at anytime drive on the left side of the roadway within such no-passing zones or on
the left side of any pavement striping designed to mark such no-passing zones
through its length.
Appendix C-5
Table 2.1: Guide for Marking No Passing Zones
Minimum Sight Minimum length of Road Minimum

85 Percentile Minimum
Distance (1.15 with Sight Distance Below Length of
Speed Distance Between
and 1.15m) the Minimum Barrier Lines
(Kph) Barrier Lines (m)
(m) (m) (m)
Roads with less than 1000vehicles per day
All speeds 150 25 75 125
Road with more than 1000vehicles per day
40 120 20 60 100
50 150 25 75 125
60 180 30 90 150
70 210 35 105 175
80 240 40 120 200
90 270 45 135 225
100 300 50 150 250
110 330 55 165 280
>110 360 60 180 300
Source: DPWH Highway Safety Design Standards Part 2
Marking of ‘No-Passing’ Zones. The method arid procedures applied to marking of ‘No
Passing’ zones are as follows:
(i) Vertical and horizontal curves on a two-lane sealed road shall be marked as ‘No
Passing’ zones in accordance with Tables 2.1 above.
(ii) Barrier lines shall not be marked unless the sight distance available falls below the
appropriate minimum sight distance for at least the length shown in the tables.
If the length of road with sight distance below the minimum sight distance is less than
the minimum length of barrier line shown in the tables, the additional length of the
marking shall be added to the beginning of the zone. Where the distance between the
end of one barrier line end the beginning of the next barrier line restricting traveling in
the same direction is less than that shown in the tables, the barrier lines shall be joined
to form one continuous barrier line.
Figure 2.4: No Passing Zones
Methods for establishing ‘No-Passing’ Zone. The beginning and the end of barrier lines
for vertical and horizontal curves shall be located as illustrated in Figure 2.5.
Methods for establishing ‘No-passing’ zones as illustrated are as follows:
(a) Vertical Curves
Appendix C-6
(i) Start on upgrade side of curve proceeding in direction A as shown in the sketch.
(ii) When B’s target just drops out of A’s sight, mark the position of A (start of barrier
line in direction A) and the position of B (end of barrier line in direction B).
(iii) When B’s target again comes into A’s sight, mark the position of A (end of barrier
line in direction A) and the position of B (start of barrier line in direction B).
(iv) When the minimum sight distance is different in each direction the barrier lines
must be marked out separately in each direction. The curve is then spotted out
in accordance with standard practice.
(b) Horizontal Curves
(i) Start in advance of the curve on the pavement center line. When A’s view of B
is obstructed, mark the position of A (the start of the no passing zone for
direction A) and the position of B (the end of no passing zone for direction B).
(ii) When A can again see B, mark the position A (end of no-passing zone for
direction A) and the position of B (the start of no-passing zone for direction B).
(iii) Before any road on which ‘no-passing’ zones are marked is resealed or
resurfaced, the beginning and end of each barrier line in each direction should
be marked by wooden or steelstakes, painted white, at the left side of the road.
(c) Climbing Lane
A particular use of ‘no-passing’ lines is associated with the provisions of slow moving
vehicles or climbing lanes on one side of a two-lane pavement. The center line of the
two-lane pavement should be marked as follows:
(i) Double unbroken lines where visibility is restricted for downhill traffic.
(ii) Where visibility is unrestricted for downhill traffic the double line should be continued
with and unbroken line on the side uphill traffic and a broken line on the side of
downhill traffic
Appendix C-7
Source: Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD)
Figure 2.5: Rules on No Passing Zones: Vertical and Horizontal Curves
2.4 Edge Lines
The edge line is used to delineate the edge of the traveled way to distinguish it from the
shoulder area or curb. It should be a solid white line between 100mm and 200mm wide.
Studs, or raised pavement markers may be used in conjunction with edge lines.
The purpose of installing edge lines is generally threefold:
(i) To discourage travel on road shoulders;
(ii) To make driving safer and more assured, particularly at night and during inclement
weather by providing a continuous guide for the driver;
Appendix C-8
(iii) To act as a guide past objects which are close to the edge of pavement and which
constitute hazard.
On undivided roads and on roads of more than one lane, edge lines may be used to
supplement center or lane lines only on pavements 6.5 meters or more in width, unless
for special reasons such as poor alignment, fog or similar conditions. For pavements
less than 6.5m, edge lines may be used under special conditions without lane or center
lines. On divided roads, edge lines should be used at left hand edge of each pavement
if the median is not curbed. They may also be used to delineate raised concrete curbs
at medians or to define sealed or unsealed shoulders
Figure 2.6: Edge Lines
Table 2.2: Recommended Line Widths

Outer Lane Edge Line
Road Type
Width Width
Urban Arterial 3.5m (min) 100mm
Rural Arterial 3.5m (min) 100mm
>3.5m 150–200mm
Freeway 4.0m (min) 300 mm
Pavement Edge. An edge line should not reduce an adjacent lane width to less than
3.5 m. Widths of edge line vary from 100mm to 300mm depending on the available lane
width and the prevailing speeds of the vehicles on that road. In general the line widths
applied should conform to Table 2.2.
Medians. Edge lines at raised medians are 100mm wide and placed with the center of
the line not more than 300mm from edge of the median curbing. The line should not
reduce the adjacent lane width to less than 2.75m in urban areas and 3.5m in rural
highways and expressways.
2.5 Continuity Line
A continuity line is used to indicate that portion of a carriageway assigned to through

traffic and which is intended to be crossed by traffic turning at an intersection, or
entering or leaving an auxiliary lane at its start or finish.
This line is generally 1.0m long, 100mm-200mm wide with gaps of 3.0m.
Appendix C-9
Figure 2.7: Continuity Lines
2.6 Transition Lines
Transition lines are used to guide traffic safety past obstructions on roadways such as
islands, median strips, bridge piers or indicate changes in the width of the traveled
portion of the roadway and an increase or reduction in traffic lanes.
Lane, edge, separation or continuity lines may be used as transition lines whichever is
appropriate. Minimum transition lengths shall be in accordance with the prevailing
speed of the road, as shown in the following table, Table 2.3.
Figure 2.8: Illustrative Transition Line
Table 2.3: Transition Lengths vs Speed

Minimum Length per meter or Lateral
Speed (km/hr) Deviation
Diverging (m) Merging (m)
Up to 60 9 9
80 12 12
100 15 15
110 17 17
3 TRANSVERSE MARKINGS
Transverse lines are markings across the carriageway, perpendicular to the flow of
traffic.
Because of the low angles at which the markings are viewed, it is necessary that all
transverse lines be proportionally widened to give visibility equal to that of longitudinal
or to avoid apparent distortion where longitudinal and transverse lines are combined in
Appendix C- 10
symbols or lettering.
Transverse lines may be classified into the following types:
(i) Stop Lines
(ii) Give Way (Yield) lines
(iii) Pedestrian crossing markings.
Figure 3.1: Transverse Lines
3.1 Stop Lines
General. Stop lines should be marked across the appropriate portion of the roadway at
positions where vehicles are required to stop in compliance with a stop sign, traffic
signals, or any other legal requirement. A Stop Line is a sold white line not less than
300mm or more than 450mm wide on urban roads and up to 600mm on rural roads.
Placement of lines. The positions of the stop lines shall be in accordance with the
following situations:
(a) Signalized intersections.
Line to be placed 1.5 meters (center to center of line) in front of and parallel to the
nearest pedestrian lane. Where there is no pedestrian crossing lane, the stop line
should be at the desired stopping point, no more than 6 meters or less than 1.5 meters
from the prolongation of the curb line of the intersecting road.
(b) Isolated “Stop” Signs
If a stop line is used in conjunction with the "STOP" sign, it should generally be placed
inline with the stop sign. At an intersection or junction, such lines shall usually be placed
in line with the edge of the sidewalk or shoulder. The exact location of the stop sign
shall depend on the sight distance requirement of the stopping vehicle.
(c) Pedestrian actuated signals (mid-block)

The stop line should be placed 3.0 meters before the nearest pedestrian crossing line.
(d) Railway Crossing
Stop lines may be supplemented by the word “STOP” marked on the carriageway. The
distance between the word “STOP” and stop line should be between 10 to 25 meters.
Appendix C- 11
Source: https://www.flickr.com/photos/walkingsf/6508082835 and https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/394205773602852869/
Figure 3.2: Pedestrian Actuated Signals
3.2 "GIVE WAY" ("YIELD") Lines
Give Way (Yield) or holding lines are markings consisting of adjacent broken white lines
across the carriageway at which drivers must give way or yield to all traffic. The
minimum width for holding lines should be 200mm and the maximum 600mm. The
distance between the two lines should be at least 300mm. The gap between line
segments shall be 600mm.
The give way lines may be supplemented by the "GIVE WAY" symbol. The distance
between the base of the "GIVE WAY" triangle and the nearest Give Way line should be
between 5 to 25 meters depending on the location. wo types of pedestrian crossings
are in use:
(a) "Zebra" crossing (non-signalized crossing)
The marking consists of a series of longitudinal bars 300mm or 600mm wide and
generally not less than 4.0m long. The bars are placed parallel to the road center line
with gaps of equal width to the bar.
(b) Crosswalks (Signalized crossing)
Crosswalks are defined by a pair of solid white lines across the road surface not less
than 4.0 meters and not more than 8.0 meters apart, 150-300mm in width. They should
be used in conjunction with mid-block or intersection signals.
Appendix C- 12
Source: https://nacto.org/publication/urban-street-design-guide/intersection-design-elements/
Figure 3.3: Illustrative Crosswalks
4 OTHER LINES
4.1 Turn Lines
A turn line may be used to guide vehicles through a turning movement at intersections.
Turn lines, if used, should be so designed as to indicate the proper course for turning
vehicles without being needlessly confusing to through traffic or traffic marking other
turns. The line segments are 600mm long and 100mm wide with 600mm gaps. The line
generally forms an arc and is positioned on the left hand edge of the turning lane. The
line commences at the termination of the lane, edge or separation line, and shall
continue up to but not across another turn line.
Figure 4.1: Typical Turning Lines
4.2 Parking Bay Lines
There are two types of parking bays, parallel parking and angle parking. In parallel
parking without bays marked, the parking line is a 100mm wide white line, at 2.0m from
and parallel to the curb. Bays, if marked, shall be also 100mm wide white line at
minimum bay length of 6.0m. The end bay shall be 5.0m minimum. For angle parking,
bay width shall be 2.5 meters minimum and the minimum bay length (i.e. minimum
distance from curb to end of bay) shall be 4.8 meters to but not across another turn line.
Appendix C- 13
Source: https://www.td.gov.hk/mini_site/cic/en/laws/cap374c.html
Figure 4.2: Different Types of Parking Bays
To ensure that the flow of turning traffic is not impaired, parking near intersections
should be prohibited within the following distances from the boundaries of lateral roads:
(a) Parallel Parking: 5m on both approach and exit sides
(b) Angle Parking: 10m on approach side and 8m on exit side.
On approach to intersections where traffic signals are operating, a minimum distance

of 20m from the traffic signal post is recommended. Angle parking should be permitted
only where there is sufficient pavement width and light traffic.
4.3 Painted Median Island
Painted median islands are used on wide roads where light traffic volume cannot justify
the installation of solid curbed median island.
The painted outline of the median shall be at least 100mm with a minimum median
width of 2.0 meters. No painted median should be installed on roads less than 10 meters
wide.
Source: https://www.valleydrivingschool.com/blog/main/what-you-need-to-know-about-road-lines
Figure 4.3: Painted Median Island
Appendix C- 14
4.4 Bus and PUJ Lane Line
The Bus and PUJ lane line is an unbroken yellow line 150-300mm wide used to
separate other vehicles from buses and PUJs. It is usually located on the outermost
lane or the curb lane - in recognition of the fact that Bus Stops are on the curb side.
The Bus Lane can be exclusive throughout the day or only at designated peak hours.
In other countries, the line color is white - signifying a non-mandatory lane barrier, i.e.,
private cars can occupy the Bus lane when necessary, as in turning right to exit the
road.
The Bus and PUJ lane line can be supplemented by raised pavement markers on
concrete surfaces - especially if exclusive. In some cities, the entire width of the
pavement of an exclusive lane is painted RED.
The line is tapered at the approach to the signalized intersection. The distance between
the taper and the stop line should be determined according to the capacity of the
intersection and should generally be less than 100 meters. The tapering in other
location is recommended, when a high volume of right-tuning cars are expected to
occur
Source: https://www.transpo.com/roads-highways/materials/pavement-marking-material/bus-lanes
Figure 4.4: Bus Lane Markings
4.5 Loading and Unloading Bay Lane Line
The loading and unloading bay lane line is an unbroken white line 150mm wide with a
gap of 1000mm used to indicate the proper location of loading/unloading zone of public
utility vehicles, preferably with parking retriction. It can be supplemented by road signs.
5 OTHER MARKINGS
5.1 Approach Markings to Islands and Obstructions
Diagonal marking on approaches to obstructions and median islands shall consist of a

splayed line or lines 100mm wide extending from the center of lane line to a point of
300mm to 800mm to the right side or to both sides, of the approach end of the
obstruction.
The width of the diagonal bars (at 45o to splayed lines or the direction of travel) is
600mm and gaps between bars should generally be 4 meters minimum on urban roads
and 8m on rural roads. The total length of the splayed line depends on the width of the
island or obstruction but should generally be a taper of 1 in 25 for roads on which the
85th percentile speed is below 60 kph and 1 in 50 for roads with higher 85th percentile
speeds.
Appendix C- 15
5.2 Chevron Markings
Chevron markings are often used to guide traffic into the, right turning lanes separated
by island, such as a corner island at a signalized intersection. The outline width is
generally 100mm (150mm on high speed roads). Bars of 500mm to the outline in the
direction of travel and spaced generally at 2-4 meters apart in urban roads. The spacing
between the bar and the outline shall be 100mm (or 150mm on high speed roads).
Diagonal marking on sealed shoulders or other sealed portion of the road where traffic
is not desired. Such markings are of the same bar width as other diagonal markings.
The spacing between bars is generally 6 meters.
Source: https://tinyurl.com/4zkctck5
Figure 5.1: Chevron Markings
5.3 Marking on Exit and Entrance Ramps of Expressways
Exit ramp marking. A solid line at least 100mm in width shall be placed along the sides
of the triangular neutral area between the edges of the main roadway and the exit ramp
lane at the fore of every ramp terminal. With a parallel deceleration lane,a broken white
line shall be placed from the apex of the triangular area for a distance of approximately
one-half of the length of the full width deceleration lane. Diagonal markings should be
used in the neutral area.
Entrance ramp marking. A solid white line at least 100mm in width shall be placed along
the sides of the triangular neutral are adjacent to the ramp lane at the fore of every
entrance ramp terminal. With parallel acceleration lanes, a broken white line but net
beyond the point where the tapered line meets the outer edge of the near through lane.
Appendix C- 16
Figure 5.2: Markings at Entry and Exit of Freeways
5.4 Curb Markings for Parking Restrictions
The curb markings for parking restrictions shall be of solid yellow color, covering the
face of the curb. Such markings are usually supplemented by parking prohibition signs
to indicate the extent of the area where parking is legally prohibited at all times.
5.5 Approach to Railroad Crossing
Pavement markings consisting of a cross, the letter RR, a “No-Passing” zone marking,
and a double solid stop bar at a distance of 3.0m to 12.0m in front of and parallel to the
railway line, shall be placed on all paved approaches to railroad crossings. Such
markings shall be white except the NO PASSING barrier line which shall be yellow.
Where there are boom gates at the signal controlled crossings, stop bars are to be
marked parallel to the boom gates. These markings are auxiliary to the standard
international sign for railroad advance warning and the crossing signals for gates.
The design of railroad pavement markings is illustrated in Figure 5.3.
Appendix C- 17
Figure 5.3: Railroad Crossings
6 MESSAGES AND SYMBOLS

6.1 Messages
Messages when used should be limited to as few words as possible, never more than
three. They shall only be used to supplement other traffic control devices. The distance
between words is variable depending on the message and location at which it is based.
(Usually twice the length of the word if achievable).
The first word of the message is to be nearest the motorist on rural roads. In urban low
speed areas, the order is optional.
Messages are white in color with letters or numerals used on roads in urban areas shall
be at least 2.5m and on high speed highways, they may need to be at least 5 meters.
Messages generally in use are:
Appendix C- 18
STOP
KEEP CLEAR
SCHOOL
PED XING
RAILROAD XING
SIGNAL AHEAD
NO RIGHT (LEFT) TURN
BUS & PUJ LANE
Source: http://guide.saferoutesinfo.org/engineering/pavement_markings.cfm
Figure 6. 1: Messages on Pavements
6.2 Symbols
"GIVE WAY" (Yield) Symbol. The symbol used to supplement the give way sign consist
of an isosceles triangle having two equal sides of 3.1m and a base 1.0m. Outline width
is 450mm at the base and 150mm for the sides. The distance of the symbol from the
holding line is between 5 and 25 meters depending on the location and vehicle speeds
on that road.
Pavement Arrow. Pavement arrows are used for lane use control. White in color, they
are generally 5 meters in length on urban roads and 7.5 meters on high-speed roads.
The Pavement Arrow. Pavement arrows are used for lane use control. White in color,
they are generally 5 meters in length on urban roads and 7.5 meters on high-speed
roads. The sizes and arrowheads are illustrated in Figure 6.2. For half turn movements,
the stems of the straight arrows can be bent to suit the particular direction of movement.
The first set of arrows should be placed at a distance of 15m from the stop bar and the
subsequent sets should be placed at 45m apart
Appendix C- 19
Figure 6.2: Examples of Standard Arrows for Pavement Markings
6.3 Numerals
The only numerals should be used are those associated with speed limits at locations
to supplement speed limit signs which are continuously disregarded by drivers or which
are obscured and cannot be resisted easily.
Appendix C-20
7 OBJECT MARKINGS
7.1 Application of Object Markings
Object markers are used to mark physical obstructions in or near a roadway that
constitute serious hazard to traffic. Installations designed for the control of traffic shall
also be adequately marked. Typical obstructions of this character are:
 Bridge supports
 Monuments
 Traffic islands
 Beacon, signal and sign support
 Loading islands
 Railroads and draw-bridge gate
 Posts of narrow bridges
 Underpass piers and abutments
 Culvert headwalls, and
 Poles, trees, rocks, and structures giving restrictions to overhead clearance.
Judgment must be exercised in the marking of objects off the roadway, but it may be
noted that even where they are theoretically at a safe distance from the roadway,
marking them may prevent serious accidents and facilitate night driving. In addition to
markings, a guardrail should be placed in advance of solid obstructions to deflect
runaway vehicles and reduce the severity of impact. Guardrails should be painted white
and reflectorized.
When used, object markers may consist of an arrangement of one or more of the
following types:
(a) Type 1 - either a marker consisting of nine yellow retroreflectors, each with a
minimum diameter of 75mm, mounted symmetrically on a yellow or black diamond
panel 450mm or more on a side; or on an all-yellow retroreflective diamond panel
of the same size.
(b) Type 2 - either a marker consisting of three yellow retroreflectors, each with a
minimum diameter of 75mm, arranged either horizontally or vertically on a white
panel; or on an all yellow retroreflective panel, measuring atleast 150mmx 300mm.
(c) Type 3 - a striped marker, 300mm x 900mm, consisting of a vertical rectangle with
alternating black and retroreflective yellow stripes sloping downward at an angle of
45 degrees toward the side of the obstruction on which traffic is to pass. The
minimum width of the yellow stripe shall be 75mm.
A better appearance can be achieved if the black stripes are wider than the yellow
stripes. Type 3 object markers with stripes that begin at the upper right side and slope
downward to the lower left side are designated as right object markers (OM-3R). Object
markers with stripes that begin at the upper left side and slope downward to the lower
right side are designated as left object markers (OM-3L).
When used for marking objects in the roadway or objects that are 2.4m or less from the
shoulder or curb, the mounting height to the bottom of the object marker should be at
least 1.2m above the surface of the nearest traffic lane. When used to mark objects
Appendix C-21
more than 2.4m from the shoulder or curb, the mounting height to the bottom of the
object marker should be at least 1.2m above the ground.
Source: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/27-Types-of-Object-Markers_fig22_282442797
Figure 7. 1: Type of Object Markers
7.2 Objects within the Roadway
Obstructions in the roadway, if not illuminated shall be marked with reflectorized hazard
markers. For additional emphasis it is advisable also to mark obstructions other than
islands with reflectorized white paint with not less than five alternating black and
reflectorized white stripes. The stripes shall slope downward at an angle of 45 degrees
towards the side of the obstruction on which traffic shall be uniform and not less than
100mm in width. A large surface, such as a bridge pier, may require stripes of 300mm.
In addition to the marking on the face of an obstruction in the roadway, warning of

approach to the hazard shall be given by line markings on the pavement.
Where an obstruction lies in the direct lines of traffic it shall be marked and whenever
practical, illuminated by a floodlight so constructed that it will adequately light the object
but will not throw a glare in the face of traffic approaching from either direction. When
floodlighting is not practical, reflective hazard markers shall be used. A flashing yellow
beacon may be used at unusually hazardous obstructions.
7.3 Marking on Curbs
Reflectorized yellow should be used on curbs of all islands located in the line of traffic
flows especially on curbs directly ahead of traffic at ‘T’ and offset intersections.
7.4 Objects Adjacent to the Roadway
Hazard markers either as signs or painted markings are to be used on objects so close
to the edge of the roadway as to constitute definite hazard. These include such
encroachments as underpass piers, abutments, culvert headwalls, utility poles and
ornamental buildings, etc.
Other adjacent objects which are not likely to be hit unless a vehicle runs off the road,
such as guardrails, trees and rocks may be painted white, but reflectorized
Appendix C-22
8 RAISED PAVEMENT MARKERS
8.1 General
Raised pavement markers are small dome shaped devices which are fixed to the
pavement surface to stimulate or supplement painted pavement markings. The markers
can be reflective or non-reflective.
Raised pavement markers generally have heights of at least 10mm mounted on or in a

road surface that is intended to be used as a positioning guide or to supplement or
substitute for pavement markings.
Raised pavement markers are generally not obscured at night under wet conditions and
the reflective types are more brilliant than reflectorized paint markings.
8.2 Warrants for Use

Because of the high cost of installation and maintenance, use of raised pavement
marking may be considered only in hilly areas where fog and rain are frequently the
cause of traffic accidents.
8.3 Raised Pavement Markers as Vehicle Positioning Guides
The substitution of painted lines by raised pavement markers should on occur where
necessary and is usually reserved for lane lines where the visual, auditory and tactile
effect of the markers help to keep the motorists/in a given lane. The markers used for
this purpose are a combination of reflective and non-reflective markers.
The raised pavement markers are used as positioning guides with longitudinal line
markings without necessarily conveying information to the road user about passing or
lane-use restrictions. They are particularly useful when placed at regular intervals in
gaps along a line and may help to define the line particularly at night or under foggy or
wet conditions. In such applications, markers may be positioned between the two lines
of a one-way or two-way no-passing zone marking or positioned in line with or
immediately adjacent to single solid or broken centerline or lane line markings.
A typical spacing for such applications is 2N, where N equals the length of one line
segment plus one gap. Where it is desired to alert the road user to changes in the travel
path, such as on sharp curves or on transitions that reduce the number of lanes or that
shift traffic laterally, the spacing may be reduced to N or less
8.4 Raised Pavement Markers Supplementing Other Markings
The use of raised pavement markers for supplementing longitudinal line markings
should conform to the following:
(a) Lateral Positioning
(i) When supplementing double line markings, pairs of raised pavement markers
placed laterally in line with or immediately outside of the two lines should be
used.
(ii) When supplementing wide line markings, pairs of raised pavement markers
placed laterally adjacent to each other should be used.
(b) Longitudinal Spacing
(i) When supplementing solid line markings, raised pavement markers at a
Appendix C-23
spacing no greater than N should be used, except when supplementing left
edge line markings, a spacing no greater than N/2 should be used. Raised
markers should not supplement right edge line markings.
(ii) When supplementing broken line markings, a spacing no greater than 2N
should be used. However, when supplementing broken line markings identifying
reversible lanes, a spacing no greater than N should be used.
(iii) When supplementing dotted line markings, a spacing appropriate for the
application should be used.
(iv) When supplementing longitudinal line markings through at-grade intersections,
one raised pavement marker for each short line segment should be used.
(v) When supplementing edge line extensions through freeway interchanges, a
spacing of N/2 should be used.
Raised pavement markers also may be used to supplement other markings for
channelizing islands or approaches to obstructions.
8.5 Raised Pavement Markers Substituting for Pavement Markings
Retroreflective or internally-illuminated raised pavement markers, or non-retroreflective

raised pavement markers supplemented by retroreflective or internally-illuminated
markers, may be substituted for markings of other types.
If used, the pattern and color of the raised pavement markers should simulate the
pattern and color of the markings for which they substitute. The normal spacing of raised
pavement markers, when substituting for other markings, should be determined in
terms of the standard length of the broken line segment.
The side of a raised pavement marker that is visible to traffic proceeding in the wrong
direction may be red. When raised pavement markers substitute for broken line
markings, a group of four or five markers equally spaced at N/12, or at the one-third
points of the line segment if N is other than 12m, with at least one retroreflective or
internally illuminated marker per group shall be used. When raised pavement markers
substitute for solid lane line markings, the markers shall be equally spaced at no greater
than N/8, with retroreflective or internally-illuminated units at a spacing no greater than
N/2.
Raised pavement markers should not substitute for right edge line markings.
When raised pavement markers substitute for dotted lines, they shall be spaced at N/8,
with not less than one raised pavement marker per dotted line. At least one raised
marker every N shall be retroreflective or internally-illuminated. When substituting for
wide lines, raised pavement markers may be placed laterally adjacent to each other to
simulate the width of the line.
Appendix C-24
Source: https://tinyurl.com/4z6fk86c
Figure 8. 1: Raised Pavement Markers
9 HAZARD MARKERS
9.1 General
Hazard markers are rectangular in shape and generally consist of a series of alternate
black and white bands. The white portion is always reflectorized, but the reflective
material may cover only the central portion of each white band in order to achieve a
balance between the areas of black and white under headlight illumination. The bands
may consist of either diagonal strips where only a target is required, or of chevrons
where directional as well as target, properties are desirable. Markers are either installed
metal signs or as painted markings on the object to be marked.
9.2 Types of Hazard Markers
Directional. Directional markers are used at road hazards where it is necessary to

emphasize to approaching traffic the direction to be taken if the marker appears in the
drivers’ line of approach. The direction is indicated by chevrons, which may point to the
left or right as required.
Typical uses are:
(i) At rotondas and traffic islands which involve the deflection of traffic paths
(ii) On through carriageways where one or more traffic lanes end abruptly (e.g. at a
narrow bridge).
(iii) On substandard curves (two or more markers maybe used to emphasize the curve).
(iv) At dead-end streets.
(v) At T junctions.
Width Markers. Width markers are erected in pairs on either sides of a hazard formation
which narrows over structures such as culverts, bridge piers or end posts. They are
warranted where the clearance from the normal pavement width to vertical obstructions
is:
(i) 600mm or less for a pavement 7.4m wide
(ii) 1m or less for a pavement 6.2m wide or
(iii) 1.2m or less for a pavement 5.6m wide.
Width markers should generally be erected on the line of vertical obstruction. Where
wide curbs or footings exist special consideration should be given to the position of the
marker.
Appendix C-25
Each width marker is normal 450mm x 900mm but this may be viewed to suit a
particular condition
Vertical obstruction markers. Vertical obstruction markers are erected singly on utility
poles, central bridge piers or other vertical obstructions which are so close to the
carriageway as to be a hazard. The dimensional proportions may be viewed to fit the
particular obstruction.
Source: DPWH Manual Pavement Markings
Figure 9.1: Hazard Markers
9.3 Usage
HB-1 To be used at the ends of narrow obstructions
HB-2 To be used at the ends of wide obstructions
HB-3 To be used where no through traffic is allowed
HB-4 To be used where traffic can proceed on either side of a wide obstruction
HB-5 To be used where traffic can proceed on either side of a narrow obstruction
HB-6 To be erected singly or in pairs on utility poles, central bridge piers or other vertical
obstructions, on or near the carriageway.
All retroreflective material shall be Class I Silver White.

10 DELINEATORS
10.1 General
Delineators are small reflective panels or buttons mounted on guide posts or guard
fence as an effective aid for night driving. Delineators are particularly beneficial at
locations where the alignment might be confusing or unexpected, such as at lane
Appendix C-26
reduction transitions and curves. Delineators are effective guidance devices at night
and during adverse weather. An important advantage of delineators in certain locations
is that they remain visible when the roadway is wet.
Delineators are considered guidance devices rather than warning devices.
10.2 Design and Application
Delineators are made of reflective material capable of reflecting light clearly visible
under normal atmospheric condition from a distance of 300-500 meters when
illuminated by the upper beam of standard automobile head lamps. They are mounted
above the roadway surface and along the side of the roadway in a series to indicate the
alignment of the roadway. Delineators shall consist of retroreflector units that are
capable of clearly retroreflecting light under normal atmospheric conditions from a
distance of 300 m when illuminated by the high beams of standard automobile lights.
Retroreflective elements for delineators shall have a minimum dimension of 75mm.
Delineators may be used on long continuous sections of highway or through short

stretches where there are changes in vertical and/or horizontal alignment or in
pavement width.
When used on through roadways, delineators shall be single white reflective units
100mmx 50mm placed on the right-hand side of a two-way and on both sides of a one-
way road.
Where delineators are used on the left at a hazardous right hand curve on a two-way
road, they may be bi-directional; i.e. delineators with two faces, visible from both
directions or two delineators mounted back to back.
10.3 Delineator Placement and Spacing
Generally delineatorsareplaced on posts or guard fence near the edge of’ the’ shoulder
at a height such that the lower edge of the reflecting bend should not be less than
500mm above the pavement surface level. Delineators should be located at intervals
not exceeding 300m with closer spacing on curves and should be approximately
300mm from the outer edge of the shoulder.
Elongated retro-reflective units of appropriate size may be used in place of two retro-
reflectors mounted as a unit.
Appendix C-27
Figure 10. 1: Typical Delineator Installation
Table 10.1: Approximate Spacing for Delineators on Horizontal Curves

Radius, R, of Curve Approximate Spacing, S, on Curve
(meters) (meters)
15 6
35 8
55 11
75 13
95 15
125 18
Appendix C-28
Radius, R, of Curve Approximate Spacing, S, on Curve
(meters) (meters)
155 20
185 22
215 24
245 26
275 27
305 29
Source: MUCD, 2003
Spacing for specific radii may be interpolated from Table 10.1. The minimum spacing
should be 6.1m (20 ft). The spacing on curves should not exceed 90m (300ft). In
advance of or beyond a curve, and proceeding away from the end of the curve, the
spacing of the first delineator is 2S, the second 3S, and the third 6S but not to exceed
90m. "S" refers to the delineator spacing for specific radii computed from the formula
S=1.7 √R − 15.
10.4 Reference Materials:
(i) DPWH, Highway Safety Design Standards – Part 2: “Road Signs and Pavement
Markings Manual”, May 2012.
(ii) Federal Highway Administration, US DOT. “Manual on Uniform Traffic Control
Devices” 2009 edition.http://mutcd.fhwa.dot.gov/pdfs/2009/mutcd2009edition.pdf
Appendix C-29
APPENDIX D
Active Transport aka Non-Motorized Transport

APPENDIX D
Active Transport aka Non-Motorized Transport
1 ACTIVE TRANSPORT AND TRAFFIC
Active transport refers to walking and biking. It is a term popular in the field of biology,
and perhaps adopted by advocates of “green” (i.e., zero carbon) transport to give the
two age-old mode of travel a more upscale caché. It is also called non-motorized
transport (NMT).
From a traffic standpoint, they are not solutions to traffic congestion per se –although
their proponents tend to hype them (without empirical basis) as able to produce higher
capacities than public transit. Beyond the oversell, NMT should be viewed as useful
and valid additions to the menu of travel choices for commuters. If more people walk or
bike, instead of taking motor vehicles - especially for very short trips - then that will be
beneficial to all road users. With less motorized trips, traffic flow should improve and
vehicular emissions considerably reduced.
However, the problem is how to accommodate these 2 forms of travel on existing urban
road network without compromising safety and reducing road capacities.
2 SOUND GUIDEPOSTS
First, is to accept that active transport or NMT is not for all trip makers, nor for all kinds
of trip purposes. They are efficient for short personal trips, but inefficient for long hauls
and mass mobility. Neither are they appropriate to PWDs. In the Philippines, it is still a
niche – and maybe, growing - segment
Second, is to consider demand – existing and latent. Everybody walks, all trips for
whatever purpose begin and end with walking. One walks to a PUV stop to board a bus
or a jeepney; and then walks after disembarking. Therefore, footpaths and sidewalks
deserve the highest priority in infrastructure investment. On the other hand, bike users
are few and far between; it maybe used for leisure/sports or for commuting. The
requisite bicycle path for the first type would be different than for the second group,
although some sections may converge. Building the infrastructure does not create
demand, where latent demand does not exist. Experiences from Vietnam and China –
pioneers in biycle usage – show that bike for commuting is transitory and shifts to
motorcycles use as personal income rises.
Third, planning for active transport should start with the existing road hierarchy. They
are unsafe on expressways and arterials where design speed ≥ 30 kph. Unless, there
is sufficient right of way that can allow separate and protected pathways, providing for
shared lane for active transport is dangerous. One should consider first local roads,
the Class C and D roads mentioned in Chapter 2.3; these class of roads are suitable
starting points in planning for sidewalks and bicycle paths. When there are no viable
options for connecting bike paths should a planner consider Class A and B roads.
Fourth, the ideal facilities for active transport are those designed specifically for that
purpose. Bike lanes built from the ground up - rather than carve out of existing roads –
is ideal. Existing roadways were designed for motorized vehicles with no regard for
future bicycle lanes. It is recognized, however, that majority of bicycling will take place
Appendix D- 1
on ordinary roads; hence, the 3rd point above.
Lastly, the planning and provision of facilities for active transport should be the primary
responsibility of LGUs. Each LGU is different, and their needs peculiar and their
circumstances unique. They are the most appropriate institution to plan and execute
bicycle-related projects and programs. On the other hand, national agencies (DPWH,
DoTr, and DILG) have a national perspective (one-size-fits-all viewpoint for all LGUs)
but should be supportive in terms of national safety standards and accommodation of
bicycles in future transport and road projects.
3 SIDEWALKS AND FOOTPATHS
There is no need to re-emphasize the value and need for sidewalks. They are part of
roadway construction, although often not built at the same time. The right-of-way for
roadway includes - almost always - a provision for sidewalk (at least 1.5 meters wide).
Facilities for walking can deviate from a sidewalk when it is not along a roadway.
Road widening works therefore should not sacrifice sidewalks, especially in built-up and
urbanized zones.
Readers who need mode detailed guidelines on sidewalk design can refer to AASHTO
"Guide for the Planning, Design, and Operation of Pedestrian Facilities."
Source: AASHTO
Figure 3.1: Guide for Planning, Design, and Operation of Pedestrian Facilities
4 BICYCLE FACILITIES
4.1 Planning Considerations
Facilities are only one of several elements essential to a comprehensive bicycle

program. Bicycle safety education and training, promotion of bicycle use in a community
unaccustomed to bikers, and the application and enforcement of the rules of the road
as they pertain to bicyclists and motorists should be combined with facilities to form a
comprehensive community approach to bicycle use.
Bicycle traffic usually is generated where residential areas are close to accessible
destinations. Areas near bicycle traffic generators should be reviewed, and existing and
potential bicycle users identified.
The identification of potential bicycle path starts with inventory of existing conditions as
spring board to develop a plan for system-wide improvements for bicycling.
Appendix D-2
Improvements and programs should address both the physical aspects as well as the
education and accommodation of bicycling in the community.
Factors to consider in the planning are the following:
(i) Skill-level of potential users
(ii) Existence and location of motor vehicle parking
(iii) Barriers such as railroads, rivers, and electric posts
(iv) Crash reduction
(v) Directness of bicycle route
(vi) Accessibility
(vii)Aesthetics
(viii) Personal safety and security
(ix) Stops - bicyclists dislike frequent stops that interrupt their momentum
(x) Conflicts with other road users
(xi) Pavement surface quality
(xii)Truck and bus traffic
(xiii) Traffic volumes and speeds
(xiv) Bridges
(xv)Intersection conditions
(xvi) Costs and funding
For additional information, readers may wish to see
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M_FDALrOEjY
4.2 Design Factors for Bicycle Lane
Width is the most critical variable affecting the ability of a roadway to accommodate
bicycle traffic. Most Philippine roads have not been designed with bicycle in mind. In
general, 4.2m (14 feet) of usable lane width is the recommended width for shared use
in a wide curb lane.
The smoothness of the riding surface affects the comfort, safety and speed of bicyclists.
Pavement surface irregularities can be harmful and cause loss of control
Drainage inlet grates with slots parallel to the roadway, or a gap between the frame and
the grate, can trap the front wheel of a bicycle, causing loss of steering control.
Bike lanes should be one-way facilities and carry bike traffic in the same direction as
adjacent motor vehicle traffic.
On one-way streets, bike lanes should generally be placed on the right side of the street.
Bike lanes should never be placed between the parking lane and curb lane.
To examine the width requirements for bike lanes, Figures 4.6 to 4.9 shows four typical
locations for such facilities in relation to the roadway. For roadways with no curb and
gutter, the minimum width of a bike lane should be 1.2 m. If parking is permitted, the
bike lane should be placed between the parking area and the travel lane and have a
minimum width of 1.5 m. Where parking is permitted but a parking stripe or stalls are
not utilized, the shared area should be a minimum of 3.3 m without a curb face and 3.6
Appendix D-3
m adjacent to a curb face. If the parking volume is substantial or turnover is high, an
additional 0.3 to 0.6m of width is desirable.
A bike lane should be delineated from the motor vehicle travel lanes with a 150-mm
solid white line.
Raised pavement markings and raised barriers can cause steering difficulties for
bicyclists and should not be used to delineate bicycle lanes.
Bike lane striping should not be installed across any pedestrian crosswalks, and, in
most cases, should not continue through any street intersections.
Readers who wish to get more detailed design guidelines for bicycle lanes can refer to
the following:
(i) “Guide for the Development of Bicycle Facilities”, published by AASHTO;
(ii) “Bicycle Facility Design Guide” version 2, 2020 issued by the Washington DC
Department of Transportation.
(iii) A video on YouTubehttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2YcvkNJ0EW4
Source: AASHTO
Figure 4.1: Guide for the Development of Bicycle Facilities
4.3 Learning from the First Movers
Marikina City is the first LGU in the Philippines to implement a bicycle path. It started in
2003. To date it has 52-km of bicycle paths. It provides lessons to other LGUs.
An overview of its bicycle facilities can be seen on YouTube
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GvLCNuCsFh0
Source: https://bluprint.onemega.com/make-bike-lanes-work/
Figure 4.2: Bicycle Facility in Marikina
Appendix D-4
In 2014, Iloilo City embarked on its own bicycle program. Now, it touts itself as the bike
capital of the Philippines – and bested other LGUs for the top honors of having the best
biycle infrastructure in the country (in 2021).
Iloilo developed a comprehensive plan for a bicycle lane. From 11-km, it has expanded
its facility to 32-km and has no intention of slowing down.
There are several videos on YouTube about the city’s bicycle project, one of these is on
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fbIZDmTQmA
Source: Iloilo LGU
Figure 4.3: Proposed Comprehensive Bicycle Lane of Iloilo City
Lessons can also be learned from the mistakes of the bicycle lanes in NCR that were
hurriedly built during the lockdown cause by the pandemic. A reconnaissance survey
across the metropolis points to under-utilization, indicative of their wrong locations
and/or construction.
Without endorsing any one, among the videos available to the public about the bicycle
project are the following:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6SE5-F6PfbA
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zuFJ9cfZahs&t=373s
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6MNI1HQqNLA
4.4 Traffic Impact of Bicycle Lane
In the craze to promote NMT in the Philippines, the traffic management aspect has been
relegated or ignored. It is as if, bicycle is more equal than the other modes which pay
their share of annual road user charges.
Appendix D-5
The question that should always be kept in mind: will it lead to better (and safer) mobility
for the greater majority of travelers?
A bicycle lane in NCR,

on a major road,
showing predominant
use of the lane by
motorcycles, with cars
respecting the ‘green
lane’ despite absence of
a barrier (which means
co-shared, not
exclusive), and bikers
using the sidewalks with
little pedestrian traffic
Source: MMDACPT
Figure 4.4: Bicycle Lane in NCR
“The Project for Comprehensive Traffic Management Plan for Metro Manila” decided to
include a pilot study on the impact of bicycle lanes. It was not part of the original scope
of work, But the widespread implementation of the bicycle lane during the pandemic
warranted a look – from a traffic management standpoint.
(1) Study Area
Ortigas Avenue was chosen for 3 reasons: (i) its is a major corridor; ii) the local
government of San Juan already implemented the project; and (iii) it coincides with its
previously chosen pilot study on multiple traffic bottlenecks on the same road. The six
(6) intersections affected by the bicycle project were:
(i) OrtigasAve.–Santolan;
(ii) OrtigasAve.–Madison;
(iii) OrtigasAve.–Roosevelt;
(iv) OrtigasAve.–Club Filipino;
(v) OrtigasAve.–Wilson St.; and
(vi) OrtigasAve.–Connecticut St.
Source: JPT
Figure 4.5: Study Area
Appendix D-6
(2) Study Approach
With the study area in mind, new scenarios were postulated and modeled. Since there
were no traffic volume counts for the post-pandemic traffic count, reasonable
assumptions were made. After assuming the post-pandemic traffic demand, the
corresponding adjustments in signal phasings were derived, and included in the
simulation. The simulation model utilized in the previous Pilot Project on the same road
were revised and adjusted to fit the new scenarios. From the model results, some
conclusions on the impact of the bicycle lanes on the traffic flow were then formulated.
These are discussed in the following sections.
(3) Road Profile
The number of lanes and road widths of Ortigas Avenue from Santolan to Connecticut
were reviewed. The road profile would suggest how the bicycle lane can best be
accommodated - as a separate or shared lane. The configuration of the road segments
along Ortigas Avenue are presented below.
The road segment of Santolan to Madison has three lanes per direction, as shown in
Figure 4.6 . The eastbound road to Madison has lane widths ranging from 2.90 to 3.00m,
while the westbound road to Santolan has lane widths ranging from 2.80m to 3.20m.
Source: JPT
Figure 4.6: Cross-section of Segment Santolan to Madison
Source: JPT
Figure 4.7: Road Profile of Segment Madison to Roosevelt
The 2nd road segment - from Madison to Roosevelt - also has three lanes per direction.
The road to Roosevelt (eastbound) has lane widths ranging from 2.85 to 3.05m, while
the road to Madison (westbound) has lane widths ranging from 2.90 to 2.95m.
Going to Club Filipino eastbound, vehicles may take the service road with a
carriageway width of 5.30mor the main road, which has three lanes with widths ranging
Appendix D-7
from 2.55 to 2.90m. For vehicles going to Roosevelt westbound, they can take the main
road which has three lanes with widths ranging from 2.90 to 3.00m.
Source: JPT
Figure 4.8: Cross-section of Segment Roosevelt to Club Filipino
On the 4th segment, vehicles going to Wilson eastbound has two options: traverse the
service road with a carriageway width of 5.25m, or proceed to Wilson from the main
road which has three lanes with widths ranging from 3.20 to 4.10m. As for vehicles
going to Club Filipino (westbound), they also have two options: the service road or the
main road which has three lanes with widths ranging from 2.40 to 3.40m.
The service road extends until Connecticut (5th segment) when going eastbound. The
service road has a carriageway width of 5.30m, while the main road has three lanes
with widths ranging from 2.70 to 3.45m. Going to Wilson westbound, vehicles could
pass along the service road or along the main road.
Source: JPT
Figure 4.9: Cross-section of Segment Club Filipino to Wilson
Based on design guidelines,a bike lane cannot be dedicated if the lane is less than 4m.
In this particular case, only the service road has satisfactory width of 5.30m.
(4) Traffic Volume
Data on the 14-hour traffic volume count were gathered for the 5 segments spanning 6
intersections along the Ortigas Avenue corridor. These are shown on Table 4.1 for the
periods 2019 and 2020. Total volume went down, but by different degrees: the number
of jeepneys went down by 73.89% from 2018/2019 to 2020, while the number of UV
express also declined by 52.90%. Bus numbers also plummeted, by 36.68%. This was
the consequence of the government restriction on public transport starting in 2020. It
was presumed, or hoped for, that the commuting public would resort to bicycles as a
consequence of the shortage in mobility supply. There was indeed an increase of
bicycle traffic from 2018/2019 to 2020 - about twice, Overall, volume on Ortigas Avenue
went down by 5.54% from 201818/2019 to 2020.
Appendix D-8
Source: JPT:
Figure 4.10: Cross-section of Segment Wilson to Connecticut
Table 4.1: Comparison of 14-hour Vehicle Volumes of 2018/2019 and 2020
Continuation
Source: JPT
Figure 4.11 shows the 14-hour count vehicle composition of years 2019 and 2020. The
chart showed a decrease in the modal share of cars from 60% in 2019, to 51% in 2020.
There was an increase in the share for motorcycles from 32% in 2019 to 38% in 2020,
and bicycles with 1% in 2019 to 4% in 2020.
Appendix D-9
Source: JPT
Figure 4.11: Change in Vehicle Composition from 2019 to 2020
The same pattern could be seen for the AM peak hour counts. The AM peak hour period
for 2019 was from 8-9 AM; it shifted to 11 AM-12 PM in 2020 for reason unknown. Cars
also decreased from 56% to 51% from 2019 to 2020; while an increase in the modal
share was also seen for motorcycles and bicycles from 2019 to 2020.
(5) Post-Pandemic Traffic Count
It is unclear what the traffic volume and composition would be, after the pandemic. As
of this writing, the lifting of all restrictions have not yet happened; work and classes
remained suspended.
In the scenario testing, it was assumed that the same number of PUVs would return
and that bicycle usage will continue in the post-pandemic scenario. As for the other
vehicles (cars, taxi, truck, trailer, motorcycle, and tricycle), the 2019 traffic counts were
assumed to return, but composition adjusted based on the 2020 modal split. The
assumed traffic after 2022 is shown on Table 4.2.
Source: JPT
Figure 4.12: Change in Vehicle Composition (AM Peak Hr Count)
Appendix D- 10
Table 4.2: Presumed Traffic Count Post Pandemic
Year Cars PUJ UV Taxi PUB Truck Trailer MC Tricycle Bicycle Total
(veh/hr)
2019 19,520 711 51 1,521 365 300 0 12,522 27 429 35,447
2020 18,870 120 4 1,730 163 702 250 14,325 17 811 36,992
Post-
18,108 714 53 1,582 366 704 242 13,657 24 811 36,261
Pandemic
Source: JPT
(6) Post-Pandemic Scenarios
A total of eight scenarios were postulated – as summarized in Table 4.3. The following
traffic management countermeasures were applied in all scenarios: (i) geometric
improvements at Club Filipino and (ii) regulation change at the Santolan intersection.
The methods also used different traffic demand data: scenarios 1 and 2 used the 2020
traffic volume counts; scenarios 3 and 4 used the 2019 traffic volume counts; scenarios
5A and 5 used the post-pandemic traffic volume counts, and scenarios 6 and 7 used
post-pandemic traffic volume counts multiplied by 1.05. This is premised on traffic
growth rate of 5%.
Optimized signal timing and offset data for the 6 intersections were derived using the
VISTRO software. These are shown on Table 4.4.
As for the presence of dedicated bicycle and motorcycle lanes, several scenarios have
no exclusive bicycle and motorcycle lanes—meaning bikes share the road with other
motorized vehicles. Meanwhile, different scenarios have exclusive bicycle lanes that
pass along the main road, while one scenario has an exclusive bicycle lane that passes
along the service road.
Table 4.3: Scenarios Tested and their Conditions
Source: JPT
Appendix D- 11
Table 4.4: Optimized Adjustments for Intersection Signals
Source: JPT
Table 4.5: Revised Offsets
Source: JPT
(7) Assessment
Table 4.6 and 4.7 present the results of the computer simulation. It shows the KPIs per
scenario. Comparing scenarios 1 (without bicycle lane) and 2 (with bicycle lane), a 10-
second increase in average travel time was observed for other vehicles. As for
scenarios 3 (without bicycle lane) and 4 (with bicycle lane), a 15-second increase in the
average travel time was observed when bicycle lanes were implemented. Meanwhile,
scenarios 5A (without bicycle lane) and 5 (with bicycle lane) show a 20-second increase
in the average travel time when bicycle lanes are implemented. Comparing scenarios
6 and 7, which both have dedicated bicycle lanes, the KPIs of scenario 7 were more
favorable, which may be due to the bicycle lanes passing along the service road
(scenario 7).
Appendix D- 12
Table 4.6: KPI Results for Scenarios 1 to 4
* SC1 (without bicycle lane) and SC2 (with bicycle lane), 2020Traffic Volume (During Pandemic)
* SC3 (without bicycle lane) and SC4 (with bicycle lane), 2019Traffic Volume (Before Pandemic)
Source: JPT
Table 4.7: KPI Results for Scenarios 5 to 7
*SC5A (without bicycle lane) and SC5 (with bicycle lane), Post-Pandemic assumption
*SC6 (with bicycle lane) and SC7 (with bicycle lane + Service road), Post-Pandemic assumption *1.05
*Travel Speed in SC7cannot computed at same section because of utilization of service road.
Source: JPT
Key Findings and Recommendations
(a) The shared bicycle lane on main road increase average travel times for other other
road users - from 10% to 20% depending on the scenarios. It may seem
insignificant on per vehicle basis, but significant when passengers are considered.
Since the volume of passengers on cars, taxis and PUVs far exceed that on bicycle
lanes, the aggregate social benefit is likely to be negative.
(b) Usage of bicycle lane is also very uncertain, post pandemic. It could well decline
and revert to 2019 levels. Further study is needed to ascertain where the demand
for biking emanates from. Ortigas Avenue is characterized by gated villages of
wealthy households on both sides whose mobility preferences is towards cars. The
corridor is also known for the presence of 3 large schools/universities. Bike routes
that connect residences to the Greenhills shopping center, or to nearby universities,
are short journeys that are well-suited for bicyles. For this reason, there could be a
better bicycle route than along the curbside of Ortigas Avenue.
(c) Allocating one lane of the service road to bicycle is recommended for safety reason;
neither would it affect other users negatively. This is possible on the road segments
between Roosevelt and Connecticut (length ~688 m). The absence of a service
road west of Roosevelt (~735 m) provide two options: shared use of curb lane, or
shared use of sidewalks. With very few pedestrians on these sidewalks, latter option
is preferable for safety reason and it does not reduce road capacity. Latter option
was not tested, but the results should be favorable.
Appendix D- 13
(d) Bicycles are expected to cross one or several intersections, even with a revised
route. Accordingly, pavement markings and road signs should be installed, as
illustrated in Figure 4.13.
(e) Improvements of bus stops are also recommended, especially if the bicycle lanes
are made permanent. However, these are not discussed here.
(f) On sections of Ortigas Avenue without service road, the insertion of bicycle lanes
on the main carriageway cannot but be shared use of the lane. In which case, it
might as well be a co-use with motorcycles as illustrated in Figure 4.14. Shared use
of sidewalk by bikers would be a better option from a traffic management viewpoint,
as it could obviate costly adjustment of bus stops for public transport.
Source: MMDA and JPT

Figure 4.13: Proposed Layout and Markings at Intersection
Source: JPT
Figure 4.14: Co-shared Bike Lane
Appendix D- 14
JAPAN INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION AGENCY (JICA)
THE PROJECT FOR COMPREHENSIVE TRAFFIC

MANAGEMENT PLAN FOR METRO MANILA
TECHNICAL REPORT NO. 10

PILOT PROJECT 2
November 2022
ALMEC CORPORATION
ORIENTAL CONSULTANTS GLOBAL CO., LTD.
TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH INSTITUTE CO., LTD.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION TO STRENGTHENING OF THE TRAFFIC

MANAGEMENT CAPACITY OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT UNITS ............. 1-1
2 MODULE 2: IDENTIFICATION OF ROADS FOR TRAFFIC
MANAGEMENT ................................................................................................... 2-1
3 MODULE 3: DEFINITION AND IDENTIFICATION OF TRAFFIC
CONGESTION AND BOTTLENECKS ............................................................ 3-1
4 MODULE 4: TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES.................................................. 4-1
5 MODULE 5: INTERSECTION DESIGN & CONTROL ............................... 5-1
6 MODULE 6: CORRIDOR AND SUB-AREA TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT. 6-1
7 MODULE 7: TRAFFIC SIMULATION AS A TOOL IN TRAFFIC
MANAGEMENT ................................................................................................... 7-1
8 TRANSPORTATION IMPACT ASSESSMENT ............................................... 8-1
9 MODULE 9: ROAD SAFETY .......................................................................... 9-1
10 MODULE 10 TRANSPORTATION PLANNING CONCEPTS ..................... 10-1
11 MODULE 11: WRAP-UP SESSION................................................................. 11-1
APPENDICES
Appendix A: Introduction on Strengthening of the Traffic Management
Capacity of Local Government Units
Appendix B: Road Classification
Appendix C: Definition and Identification of Traffic Congestion and
Bottlenecks
Appendix D: Traffic Control Devices
Appendix E: Intersection Design and Control
Appendix F: Corridor and Sub-area Traffic Management
Appendix G: Microscopic Traffic Simulation
Appendix H: Traffic Impact Assessment
Appendix I: Key Areas Towards Improving Road Safety
Appendix J: Transportation Planning Concepts
Appendix K: Wrap-Up Session
i
TECHNICAL REPORT NO. 10: PILOT PROJECT 2
1 MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION ON STRENGTHENING OF THE

TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT CAPACITY OF LOCAL
GOVERNMENT UNITS
1.1 Introduction
This module covers the current traffic issues including traffic congestion; and basic
understanding of traffic engineering and management. By the end of the course,
participants should be able to have a common understanding of the situation, issues, and
solutions related to traffic management in Metro Manila, particularly traffic congestion,
based on data and scientific planning methodologies.
1) Objectives
(i) To enhance/improve the capacities of LGU on traffic management;
(ii) To identify and analyze LGU’s Demand-Supply gaps in traffic management; and
(iii) To help LGU develop a Road Map on traffic management.
2) Main Activities and Expected Outputs

The development of the materials for the training program on traffic management for LGUs
was based on surveys on issues and concerns of the different LGUs in Metro Manila as
well as the needs of each LGU to capacitate its staff in the different aspects of traffic
management. Outputs of the training program are consolidated teaching materials, video
recorded modules, draft traffic management manual for LGUs, etc.
Source: JPT
Figure 1.1: Traffic Management Training Activities and Expected Outputs
3) General Framework
Figure 1.2 shows the basic procedure in finding solutions to traffic problems. Baseline
information/data should be able to help assess the current overall traffic situation in an LGU,
for instance. Corridors and intersections vital to the road networkshall be identified for traffic
management improvements. Specific bottleneck locations are identified and analyzed.
Alternative solutions are considered and evaluated, after which the most feasible solution
is recommended. An implementation plan is prepared prior to actual implementation.
1- 1
Source: JPT
Figure 1.2: Basic Procedure in Finding Solutions to Traffic Problems
1.2 Metro Manila Transportation & Traffic Issues and Concerns

This section discusses the transportation and traffic issues and concerns Metro Manila is
facing. The discussion focuses on congestion and road safety although it is recognized that
there are other issues such as environmental and energy impacts and inadequate public
transportation.
1) Congestion
Metro Manila began facing congestion problem some 5 decades ago. Trips are
characterized by very low travel speed and very high idle time or delay. The annual
economic cost is enormous.
c3638
70
60
50
Velocity , kph.
40
o Idle: 33.33%
Ave. Speed: 14.60 kph.
30
20
o
10
0
1 101 201 301 401 501 601 701 801 901 1001 1101 1201
Time, sec.
Source: Sigua, R.G.
Figure 1.3: Driving Cycle for Metro Manila
In 2000, the economic loss was estimated at P101 billion annually (UP NCTS, 2000). A
recent JICA study estimated the economic loss as follows:
• PhP 2.4B/day based on JICA Study in 2014 (more than PhP 800 B a year)
• PhP 6.0B/day in 2030 if w/o intervention
Practically, almost all the roads in Metro Manila are experiencing congestion due to very
high traffic volume especially during peak periods.
1-2
Source: Roadmap for Transport Infrastructure Development for Metro Manila and Its Surrounding Areas (Region III and Region IV-A)
Figure 1.4: Road Traffic Volume and V/C Ratio, 2012
Causes of Congestion: Main causes of congestion may be attributed to the following:

(i) Economic development; increasing population; increasing number of vehicles
(ii) Lack of strong will to implement the projects and programs recommended by past
studies
(iii) Traffic management too dependent on human power
(iv) High dependence on low-capacity modes of transport such as the jeepneys and
tricycles. Over the last 50 years or so, only 3 lines of LRT totaling to approximately 50
kms.
Due to uncontrolled growth of vehicles, the road’s capacity simply could not cope up with
the sheer number of vehicles. There is also the growing concern on the rapid increase in
the number of motorcycles.
2) Road Crashes
The high number of incidents of crashes on the road is another major concern.
(i) Annual number of fatalities in 2016 stands at 11,300 deaths or 10.92 per 100,000
population, one of the highest within the ASEAN region
(ii) Economic cost estimated at 2.6% of the country’s GDP
(iii) Pedestrians and powered two wheelers consist of what may be considered as the most
vulnerable road users
(iv) Number of motorcycles is way below that of our neighboring countries in the ASEAN
but the number of fatalities involving motorcycles has become very alarming
Figure 1.5 shows the increasing number of road crash deaths and death rates based on
PSA statistics.
1-3
Source: Philippine Statistics Authority
Figure 1.5: Trends in Fatality Rates (per 100,000 population)
A summary of road crash data (2005–2016) for Metro Manila based on the MMARAS
database of MMDA is provided below:
(a) Breakdown of road crash victims, Metro Manila
(i) 12 years (2005 – 2016)
(ii) 957,348 records of road crashes from MMDA
(iii) Average annual # of fatalities:400
The table shows pedestrians with the highest number of fatalities. Riders of motorcycles
are included in the driver group.
Table 1.1: Breakdown of Road Crash Victims, Metro Manila (2005-2016)
Source: MMARAS
(b) Mode Interaction: Pedestrians and MC riders continue to be the most vulnerable road
users in Metro Manila.
Table 1.2: Mode of Interaction od Road Crashes in Metro Manila (2005-2016)
Source: MMARAS
(c) Road Crash Locations: As far as road crash locations are concerned, there is a high
number of incidents at midblock locations rather than at intersections or junctions.
1-4
Table 1.3: Road Crash Locations IN Metro Manila (2005-2016)
Site No. of Road Crashes No. of Deaths

Mid-Block 269,003 (28%) 1,682 (35%)
Junction 95,883 (10%) 367 (8%)
Total (sample) 364,886 (38%) 2,049 (43%)
Source: MMARAS
Considering that largely, pedestrians and motorcycle riders are the casualties, the
possible factors which need further analysis could be the following:
(i) Lack of pedestrian facilities
(ii) Uncontrolled lane splitting behavior of motorcycles
(iii) Swerving maneuvers of vehicles.
Surprisingly, majority of road crashes and fatalities occurring at locations (other than
midblock) were recorded at intersections controlled by traffic signals.
Table 1.4: Road Crash Locations Junction Control (2005-2016)
Rank Junction Control Number of Number of

Crashes Fatalities
1 Traffic Lights 43,599 130
2 Other 5,722 64
3 Give Way sign or marking 5,270 26
4 Other (Flyover/Bridge Marking) 432 12
5 Stop sign 45 2
6 School Zone 315 1
7 Other (entrance/exit of an establishment) 46 0
8 Other (Tunnel/Underpass Marking) 95 0
Source: MMARAS
This could be indicative of the following:

• Low compliance (beating red lights; ignoring signals)
• Improper signal setting; inadequate clearance intervals, for instance.
Pedestrian fatal road crashes occurred mostly along very wide roads such as
Commonwealth Avenue and EDSA.
1-5
Source: MMARAS, Luo, C.Y.
Figure 1.6: Pedestrian vs Car Fatal Road Crashes
Fatal road crashes of pedestrians hit by trucks happened mostly along designated truck
routes such as R10, C3, Bonifacio ave., etc.
Figure 1.7: Pedestrian vs Trucks, Fatal Road Crashes
Motorcycle alone or self-road crash leading to fatal incident happened along major roads
in Metro Manila. More than 90% of the incidents happened at nighttime.
1-6
Figure 1.8: Motorcycle Alone (self-road crash) Fatal
Fatal road crashes involving motorcycles and trucks happened mostly along designated
truck routes.
Source:MMARAS, Luo, C.Y.
Figure 1.9: Motorcycle vs Trucks Fatal
Fatal road crashes involving motorcycles and cars happened mostly along major roads in
Metro Manila.
Figure 1.10: Motorcycle vs Car Fatal
1-7
1.3 Understanding the Problem

Our road system is comprised of 3 major elements, namely the road or environment, the
vehicle, and the road user composed of the driver, pedestrians, cyclists, etc.
Source:Sigua, R.G.
Figure 1.21: Major Elements of a Road System
The road and vehicle may be subjected to change and improvement but are generally
inflexible especially if we consider a very short period, say, a day. Unlike them, driver or
human behavior changes quite fast. Major portion of existing regulations therefore are
aimed at the driver.
1) Prerequisite to Good Traffic/Transportation System
Ideally, a good transportation/traffic system can only be realized if the following desirable
features are present:
(i) Adequate road infrastructure exists.

(ii) Discipline exists
• Priority is defined – humans before vehicles
• ‘Safety First’ - should be instilled to all road users, pedestrians, enforcers
(iii) Traffic laws and regulations are strictly enforced.
(iv) Public transport system is efficient.
2) Specific/Main Causes of Congestion (MMDA+LGUs)
The figure shows the specific causes of congestion based on questionnaire surveys
administered to MMDA and Metro Manila LGUs.
1-8
Source: The Project for Comprehensive Traffic Management Plan for Metro Manila, JICA/MMDA
Figure 1.32: Motorcycle vs Car Fatal
The major causes cited by both MMDA and LGUs are saturated demand, mixed traffic with
pedestrians, and inappropriate boarding/ alighting practices of PUVs at intersections.
Around 280 bottleneck locations were initially identified by MMDA and the 17 LGUs.
Source: The Project for Comprehensive Traffic Management Plan for Metro Manila, JICA/MMDA
Figure 1.43: Candidate Traffic Bottlenecks in Metro Manila
The bottleneck locations are broken down as follows:
1-9
Table 1.5: Traffic Bottleneck Locations in Metro Manila
Source: : The Project for Comprehensive Traffic Management Plan for Metro Manila, JICA/MMDA
3) Government Bodies in the Philippines Involved in Transportation and Traffic

Activities
The Table 1.6 below shows the different government bodies in the Philippines which are
involved in transportation and traffic activities. MMDA is responsible for traffic management
on national roads in Metro Manila while the Local government Units (LGUs) handle traffic
management on local roads.
Table 1.6: Government Bodies in the Philippines Involved in Transportation and Traffic
Activities
4) Traffic Management at the LGU Level
The table below shows the existence of traffic management unit/office in each LGU. Since
national roads pass through cities and town in Metro Manila, MMDA enforcers are also
deployed to the LGUs. The table also provides information on each LGU on the existence
of policy requiring TIA for new developments.
1- 10
Table 1.7: Traffic Management Unit/Office in Metro Manila
5) Major Causes of Traffic Congestion on Local Roads
Based on the responses of the LGUs, the lack of capacity is the main cause of congestion
along local roads. Furthermore, the lack of capacity was attributed to:
(i) Reduction of lanes caused by pedestrians jaywalking at locations other than

pedestrian crossings
(ii) Reduction of lanes caused by passengers boarding/ alighting from PUJs around the
markets etc.
(iii) Reduction of lanes caused by street vendors occupying the road
(iv) Occurrence of traffic conflict caused by vehicles not respecting the traffic rules
(v) Reduction of lanes caused by on-street parking
(vi) Occurrence of gridlock at intersections due to a lack of traffic signals or traffic signals
that are not in operation
(vii) Inadequate traffic control by traffic enforcer without coordination between the different
intersections
6) Institutional issues and challenges
Based on the Institutional Analysis of Traffic Management Agencies in Metro Manila, Final
Report, February 7, 2020, several institutional issues and challenges have to be resolved
both in the inter-agency and intra-agency levels:
1- 11
(a) Issues at inter-agency Level

(i) Autonomy and pre-eminence of LGUs
(ii) Wide variation in LGU traffic engineering and management capacity
(iii) Weak consultation and coordination mechanisms among transport agencies
(iv) Politicization of transportation crisis
(b) Issues at Intra-agency Level (within MMDA)

(i) Lack of institutional continuity
(ii) Shortage of qualified and sufficient manpower
(iii) Limited budget and dependence on external sources of revenue
(iv) Outsized emphasis on enforcement
(v) Poor enforcement due to limited police powers, manual approach, and rampant
corruption
(vi) Poorly designed success metrics and weak performance monitoring
1.4 Addressing Congestion

Once traffic demand exceeds the capacity being supplied by the road system, congestion
occurs.
Figure 1.54: Traffic Demand versus Traffic Supply
In addressing congestion, either supplied is increased or demand is decreased, or both.

The table provides some of the options to achieve this.
Table 1.8: Options in Addressing Congestion
Source: Sigua, R.G.
1) Lowering the Demand
This may be achieved through vehicle reduction schemes such as UVVRP or color-coding
scheme. However, such vehicle reduction schemes are temporary solutions and are
therefore not sustainable.
The government must look at how to improve our public transportation system. Only then
can we expect modal switch from car users. The promotion of active transport through
1- 12
better pedestrian and bicycle facilities can help reduce dependency on cars.
2) Increasing Capacity
Increasing the supply/capacity is a very costly undertaking. As stated by an EST Champion,

Mr. Enrique Peñalosa: “Widening roads to address congestion is like buying larger clothes
to address obesity.” It is a vicious cycle. Through traffic management, the operation of the
road network can be optimized by reducing or eliminating bottlenecks.
Traffic management is a term used to embody the activities undertaken by an agency to

improve roadway system safety and efficiency for both providers and consumers of
transportation services. The Figure 1.15 below shows the key objectives of traffic
management, desirable outcomes, and strategies.
Source: Sigua, R.G.
Figure 1.65: Key Objectives of Traffic Management
3) Strengthening LGU Capacity on Traffic Management
The strengthening of LGU capacity on traffic management will require improving 3 key
areas as shown in Figure 1.16 below.
Source: Sigua, R.G.
Figure 1.76: Three Key Areas in Strengthening LGU Traffic Management Capacity
It must be recognized that traffic management is a regular, daily part of the responsibility of
the LGU. The scope and complexity of traffic management activities vary depending on the
economic activities of the LGU. Such activities may include the following tasks at various
levels.
(i) Traffic operation and control
(ii) Traffic studies
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(iii) Geometric design

(iv) Traffic planning
(v) Road safety
An LGU may consider the creation of a Traffic Engineering and Management Office or
upgrade an existing Traffic Management Office to perform the above-mentioned functions.
The following figures show the extent of activities within each task.
Source: Sigua, R.G.
Figure 1.87: General Coverage of Traffic Operation and Control
Source: Sigua, R.G.
Figure 1.98: General Coverage of Traffic Studies
1- 14
Source:Sigua, R.G.
Figure 1.109: General coverage of geometric design
Source: Sigua, R.G.
Figure 1.20: Major tasks in road safety
Source: Sigua, R.G.
Figure 1.21: General coverage of traffic planning
4) Strategy to Mitigate Traffic Congestion
An ‘avoid, manage, and mitigate’ strategy may be adopted to address traffic congestion.
Avoid strategy should be able to give the most benefits as the negative effects are avoided
or reduced at the early stage. If the negative effects are already existing, the manage
strategy should be able to reduce the impact through traffic management which would only
require non-physical changes to traffic operations. If effects cannot be entirely avoided or
managed, civil works may be required to mitigate the said effects. The table shows an
example of how the strategy may be adopted.
1- 15
Source: Sigua, R.G.
Figure 1.22: Strategies to Mitigate Congestion
Table 1.9: Example on How the Strategies to Mitigate Congestion May be Adopted
Source: Sigua, R.G.
1.5 Studying Bottlenecks: Technical Approach

This section discusses the technical approaches in dealing with bottlenecks
1) Intersection
If a problematic intersection can be totally isolated from the other intersections within the
road network, then the study may simply focus on that intersection. The technical approach
is shown below.
1- 16
Source: JPT
Figure 1.23: Technical Approach in Studying Traffic Bottlenecks
The process is applied to Samson Road – New Abbey Road Intersection in Caloocan City:
(a) Identification of Issues: The issues are as follows: (i) jeepneys and buses were observed
to stop less than 30 meters from the intersection on both sides and from both directions
along Samson Road, resulting in blockage of turning movements and reduction in capacity;
(ii) because the signal control was not operational, there were no clear phase pattern or
sequence to manage the flow from different approaches; (iii) given a heavy flow of vehicles
on the eastbound and westbound direction, conflicts between turning vehicles generated
delay; (iv) the STI gate is less than 20 m from the intersection. Even with small ingress and
egress trips during peak hours, additional delay occurred when going in or out of the
establishment; and (v) pedestrians from all directions crossed all the legs of the intersection,
causing delay because motorists were forced to give way to them.
(b) Data Collection: A 14-hour traffic count and travel time and delay survey were conducted
on 26 February 2020. Peak hour volumes are shown in the table. Most of the vehicles in
the distribution were motorcycles (MCs), as shown in the pie chart in Figure 1.24.
1- 17
Source: Caloocan CPT based on MMDA data.
Figure 1.24: 14- Hour Total Vehicle Distribution Volume
Table 1.10: Peak Hour Vehicle Volume in Samson Road – New Abbey Road Intersection
in Caloocan City
Source: Caloocan CPT based on MMDA data.
(c) Analysis of Intersection Capacity: The Samson Road–New Abbey Road intersection
has signal control equipment installed which were not operational during the case study.
Instead, traffic enforcers managed the traffic flow during the day. The unsignalized
intersection was assessed as having an “F” level of service (LOS).
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(d) Formulation of Alternative Solutions: Based on the identified issues at the intersection
and the possible solutions considered to improve the situation, several scenarios are
formulated.
Table 1.21: Formulated Traffic Management (TM) Scenarios
Problem Improvement Impact
1. Jeepneys stop before Place public transport Delays caused by public transport vehicles such as
and after the intersection (PT) stops after the jeepneys and buses stopping before and after the
that cause delays. intersection. intersection previously are reduced.
Pedestrians would have to walk much further if their
destinations are far from the stops.
2. Bus stop is located The reduced PT stop length may need to be
before the intersection. compensated, unless otherwise, proven
unnecessary by analysis.
3. Movement conflicts in the Reroute left-turning Delays at the intersection will be reduced because
intersection causes vehicle to reduce of restricted left turn movements.
delay. conflicts. Delays at the roads where vehicles are rerouted will
increase. Whether the rerouting has significant
unfavorable impacts to the roads in question has
yet to be determined because of the lack of data.
A portion of New Abbey Rd will be one-way.
4. There are too many Place median barriers Pedestrians will be prohibited to cross from the
pedestrians crossing at at the west approach south to the north via the west leg to reduce delay.
different places in the to prohibit pedestrians When combined with placing PT stops after the
intersection causing from crossing. intersection, the pedestrians unloaded at the west
conflict leg would have to circle around the intersection.
Place a footbridge in Pedestrians will be safer since they will not be
the area. exposed to vehicle hazards.
The existing sidewalk with little space (around 1.2
m-width) will be occupied by the footbridge.
Installing the footbridge may require land
acquisition (and thus be costly) because of
insufficient space at the sidewalk.
5. The intersection Signalize the The delays will be minimized.
experiences heavy intersection. Foot traffic will be more orderly.
delays due to large
vehicle volumes and
uncontrolled foot traffic.
Scenario Description
1 Do nothing
PT stops after the intersection +
2 Traffic signal
3 Traffic signal + Rerouting
4 Rerouting + Median
5 Traffic signal + Rerouting +
Median
6 Traffic signal + Rerouting +
Median + Footbridge
(e) Micro Simulation of TM Scenarios: Microcomputer traffic simulation provides the tool to
analyze the different scenarios.
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Scenario 2: PT Stops after the Intersection + Traffic

Scenario 1: Do Nothing
Signal
Scenario 3: PT Stops after the Intersection + Traffic Signal Scenario 4: PT Stops after the Intersection +
+ Rerouting Rerouting + Median
Footbridge
placed
here
Scenario 5: PT Stops after the Intersection + Traffic Signal Scenario 6: PT Stops after the Intersection + Traffic
+ Rerouting + Median Signal + Rerouting + Median + Footbridge
Source: JPT based on CPT meetings agreements.
Figure 1.25: Micro Simulation of TM Scenarios
(f) Economic Evaluation: The cost of improvement required and the benefits provided by
each scenario (time savings, road crash savings, etc. ) are estimated for the benefit – cost
analysis.
Table 1.31: Estimated Cost of Improvement of Each TM Scenarios
Scenario
Item
1 2 3 4 5 6
1. Total Direct Cost (PHP) - 2,960,715.39 2,981,619.39 1,055,709.63 3,184,839.39 6,341,982.25
2.Indirect Cost (25% - 740,178.85 745,404.85 263,927.41 3,184,839.39 1,585,495.56
Mark-up) (PHP)
3.Total VAT (PHP) - 444,107.31 447,242.91 158,356.44 477,725.91 951,297.34
4. Total Estimated Cost - 4,145,001.54 4,174,267.14 1,477,993.48 4,458,775.14 8,878,775.14
(PHP)
1-20
Table 1.42: Estimation of Benefit–Cost Ratio
2) Corridor
When more than 1 intersection along an arterial or corridor need to be considered for the
study, a corridor analysis will be necessary. The general procedure is shown below.
Source: JPT
Figure 1.26: General Procedure for Corridor Analysis
The corridor of Ortigas Avenue is considered as a case study. Based on initial field
observations, the causes of traffic congestion along the corridor may be attributed to the
following:
(i) Traffic Bottleneck Intersections due to some geometry issues
(ii) Vague lane configuration on Santolan Road northbound (NB):
(iii) Inadequate signal timing and signal coordination
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(a) Data Collection: Traffic volume data for each intersection were gathered. Travel speed
data were based on Waze data.
Table 1.53: Traffic Volume Data of the Study Area – Ortigas Avenue
Volume Volume
Time of Day
(vehicle/hour) (PCU/hour)
0600 - 0700 23,194 19,670
0700 - 0800 29,209 24,331
0800 - 0900 33,072 27,745
0900 - 1000 31,451 26,523
1000 - 1100 30,391 26,413
1100 - 1200 27,987 24,918
1200 - 1300 27,539 24,738
1300 - 1400 26,965 24,345
1400 - 1500 28,804 25,321
1500 - 1600 29,254 25,633
1600 - 1700 30,043 25,983
1700 - 1800 29,543 25,549
1800 - 1900 28,550 24,656
1900 - 2000 26,583 23,004
Total 402,585 348,829
1%
0% Car
60% PUJ
UV Express
32% Taxi
PUB
Truck
Trailer
0% Motorcycle
1% Tricycle
1% 4% Bicycle
0% 1%
AM Peak Hour
Club Filipino
Connecticut
Roosevelt
Santolan
Madison
Wilson
Time
8:00 32.82 27.43 17.46 16.91 16.54 17.38 17.38 17.06 15.63 15.57 15.57 15.16 17.25 34.16 33.27 33.17 33.84 20.26 20.00
8:20 31.91 26.74 17.11 16.53 16.25 16.96 16.96 16.69 14.72 14.63 14.63 14.36 16.25 35.31 33.89 33.72 34.26 18.02 17.69
8:40 34.15 30.78 19.04 18.37 18.15 18.68 18.68 18.25 16.18 16.09 16.10 15.60 17.80 34.43 32.72 32.54 33.19 15.11 14.79
PM Peak Hour
Club Filipino
Connecticut
Roosevelt
Santolan
Madison
Wilson
Time
16:00 29.54 26.48 20.85 20.32 19.63 21.62 21.62 21.11 15.69 15.43 15.43 14.68 17.08 34.22 33.86 33.83 34.39 29.32 29.18
16:20 30.36 26.00 19.59 19.08 18.16 19.98 19.97 19.42 14.83 14.63 14.63 14.05 16.10 32.97 31.80 31.77 32.44 25.89 25.77
16:40 35.19 32.90 23.11 22.34 21.66 22.71 22.71 21.84 16.15 15.90 15.91 15.22 17.56 32.88 31.32 31.18 31.74 25.05 24.94
Source:JPT and Counterpart Team
Figure 1.27: Peak Hour Vehicular Volume at the Study Area – Ortigas Avenue
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(b) Individual Analysis of Intersection Capacity: All intersections along the corridor are
analyzed individually and degrees of congestion are determined.
(c) Formulation of Alternative Solutions: The following are considered as possible

solutions:
1.Geometric Improvement
2.Review/Modification of
Lane Configuration at
intersection approaches
3.Optimization of Signal Phase A Phase B

Phasing and Revision of
Offset Timing
Phase C Phase D
(d) Micro Simulation of TM Scenarios: Traffic simulations are performed for various
alternative solutions based on geometric improvements and traffic signal control options.
1-23
Table 1.14: Micro Simulation of TM Scenarios

Scenario
Alternative Solution
1A 1B 2A 2B 3A 3B 4A 4B
Geometric Improvements
2 lanes for left turn at Club Filipino (modified triangle) + Shared lane (thru
A and left turn) at innermost lane at Santolan NB ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
2 lanes for left turn at Club Filipino (modified triangle) + Left turn only at
B innermost lane at Santolan NB ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Traffic Signal Control Option
1 Adjusted Signal Timing (130 secs) using existing offset ✓ ✓
2 Adjusted Signal Timing (130secs) using revised offset ✓ ✓
3 Adjusted Signal Timing (135 secs) using existing offset ✓ ✓
4 Adjusted Signal Timing (135 secs) using revised offset ✓ ✓
Source: JPT and Counterpart Team
The following key performance indicators (KPIs) were utilized and estimated for each
scenario.
Table 1.65: Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) used for each TM Scenarios
KPI Description
Average travel time The average travel time of all vehicles passing from Santolan to Connecticut and vice
(sec) versa.
The difference between the theoretical free flow travel time and the simulated travel
Average delay (sec)
time of all vehicles passing from Santolan to Connecticut and viceversa.
Average travel The distance between Santolan and Connecticut (1.43 km) over the average travel
time ofvehicles passing throughthe eastbound andwestbound directions starting and
speed (kph) ending in Santolan and Connecticut.
Average queue
length at approach The average queue length from all the eastbound and westbound approaches.
(m)
Vehicle volume(veh) Used in computing for the weighted average of travel time, delay, and travel speed.
Source: JPT
(e) Economic Evaluation: The cost of improvement and benefits were estimated for the
benefit – cost analysis.
1-24
Table 1.76: Cost Estimation
Table 1.87: Benefit - Cost Estimation
1-25
2 MODULE 2: IDENTIFICATION OF ROADS FOR TRAFFIC

MANAGEMENT
2.1 Principles of Road Classification
2.1.1 Mobility vs Accessibility

Roadways serve two primary travel needs:
• access to/egress from specific locations; and

• travel mobility.
While these two functions lie at opposite ends of the continuum of roadway function as suggested
by the line function in Figure 2.1, most roads provide some combination of each. Note that the line
function does not need to be a straight line.
The roadway mobility function provides few opportunities for entry and exit and therefore low travel
friction from vehicle access/egress while the roadway accessibility function provides many
opportunities for entry and exit, which creates potentially higher friction from vehicle access/egress.
Figure 2.1: Mobility and Accessibility line function
2.1.2 Broad classifications

Figure 2.2 shows road classifications used by selected countries. These may be summarized as
follows:
a. US (FHWA): Arterials, collectors, local
b. Australia (ACT): Arterial roads, major collector roads, minor collector roads, access
roads
c. Japan: National expressway, national highway, prefectural road, municipal road
d. Philippines: Expressway, National primary, national, secondary, national tertiary,
provincial, municipal and city, barangay.
2- 1
Figure 2.2: Road Classifications Used by Selected Countries
Table 2.1 shows some characteristics of roads based on US (FHWA) classification.
Table 2.1: Characteristics of roads based on functional classification
Figure 2.3 provides an illustrative example of a road network showing the role of the different road
classes. In general:
Arterials are those roadways that provide a high level of mobility

Locals are those that provide a high level of accessibility
Collectors are those that provide a more balanced blend of mobility and access. Collectors
“collect” traffic from Local Roads and connect traffic to Arterial roadways
2-2
Source: CDM Smith, FHWA
Figure 2.3: Typical road network in urban areas
These classifications may beakinto the human body’s bloodvessels and that of the tree’sstructure.
Source: FHWA
Road Classifications
The current road classifications may be grouped into two broad categories namely: functional and
jurisdictional as shown in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2: Categories of road classification
Source: Sigua, R.G.
The use of “Local” roadway in the context of functional classification is separate from the use of the
term in a jurisdictional context. While it is true that roadways functionally classified as “Local” are
often under the jurisdiction of a “local” entity, Local Roads are not always under local jurisdiction.
2-3
Other roadway classifications, including Arterials, may also be under the jurisdiction of a local entity.
2.2 Importance of Functional Classification
Functional classification is the process by which streets and highways are grouped into classes, or
systems according to the character of traffic service that they are intended to provide.
Roads or highways are functionally classified in order to help plan appropriate design components
for each type of facility. A well-designed roadway system has a mix of roadway types. Each roadway
type is designated based on its need or priority for access or mobility.
Roads with high mobility, such as freeways, have high speeds and limited access. Roads with high
accessibility have lower speeds and very few restrictions on access.
This also clarifies the responsibility of appropriate authorities as regards traffic management.
Hierarchy of the road network

Hierarchy of the road network should show all roads playing different roles in the proper circulation
of traffic flow around the city. This can also help identify appropriate regulations, such as on – street
parking. An example is shown in Table 2.3.
Table 2.3: Road inventory of roads and indicative regulation on on – street parking
Source: Sigua, R.G.
2.3 Current Road Classification
Functional classification system

The functional classification system groups roadways into a logical series of decisions based upon
the character of travel service they provide. Figure 2.4 shows the functional classification based on
FHWA of US.
Source: FHWA and CDM Smith
Figure 2.4: Functional classification (US FHWA)
2-4
Road classification in the Philippines based on DPWH is essentially jurisdictional as shown in

Figure 2.5.
(Source: DPWH DO 133s2018), Sigua, R.G.

Figure 2.5: Philippine Road Classification
The following section describes each road classification:

a. National roads
i.) Primary Roads - A contiguous length of significant road sections extending linearly without any
breaks or forks that connect major cities (at least around 100,000 population) comprising the main
trunk line or the backbone of the National Road System.
ii.) Secondary Roads
- Directly connect cities to national primary roads, except in metropolitan areas
- Directly connect major ports and major ferry terminals to national primary roads
- Directly connect major airports to national primary roads
- Directly connect tourist service centers to national primary roads
- Directly connect cities (not included in the category of major cities)
- Directly connect provincial capitals within the same region
- Directly connect major national government infrastructure to national primary roads or
other national secondary roads
iii.) Applicable only for Primary and Secondary Roads
- Bypass/Diversion Roads - Roads that divert through traffic away from the City/Municipality
Business Center.
- Roads that would connect or fill the gap between adjoining national roads (protruding) to
form a continuous national road network.
iv.) Tertiary Roads
- Other existing roads under the DPWH which perform local function.
b. Local roads
i.) Provincial Roads
- Connect cities and municipalities without traversing National Roads.
- Connect National Roads to barangays through rural areas.
- Connect to major provincial government infrastructure.
ii.) Municipal and City Roads
- Roads within the poblacion.
- Roads that connect to provincial and national roads.
- Roads that provide inter-barangay connections to major municipal and city infrastructure
without traversing provincial roads.
iii.) Barangay Roads
- Other public roads (officially turned over) within the barangay and not covered in the above
definitions.
c. Other roads
i.) Expressways
2-5
- Highways with limited access, normally with interchanges; may include facilities for levying
tolls for passage in an open or closed system.
2.4 Philippine Road Network
The current Philippine road network is shown in Table 2.4.
Table 2.4-a: Philippine road network condition (DPWH)
Source: DPWH Strategic Infrastructure Programs and Policies, Feb 2019

https://iro.ph/article_doc/eaaa3b67_Philippine%20Economic%20Briefing%20(Osaka,Japan)%20%20DPWH%20Presentation.pdf)
Table 2.4-b: Philippine road network (Local)

Local Roads Classification Length (km) %
Provincial roads 31,688 17.3%
City roads 15,377 8.4%
Municipal and barangay roads 136,425 74.4%
Total 183,490 100.0%
Source: DILG (2017)
2.5 The need for functional road classification
There are several issues concerning the existing road classification at LGU Level:
• Unclear hierarchy.
• The road types are not continuous as they differ as soon as they cross city boundaries
(Figure 6)
• Although the LGUs are adjacent to each other, the road types in each LGU may be different,
resulting in an imbalance
• This difference in road types indicates that roadside usage, road use, and road facilities
change before and after the boundary, making it difficult to implement extensive and
efficient traffic management measures
• And since the continuity of traffic capacity is not ensured, this requires different operational
methods such as on-street parking, street vendors, quality of surface pavement, number of
lanes, pedestrian facilities, etc., and reduced travel speed due to different grades of traffic
facilities.
2-6
Source:JPT
Figure 2.6: Discontinuity of road classification at LGU Level
Functional classification can help disperse traffic flow which is too concentrated on primary roads.
Primary roads alone are not sufficient to handle traffic demand, and that the improvement of tertiary
roads and other roads with lower standards will allow for sufficient traffic dispersion. (Figure 2.7)
Source:JICA Project Team
Figure 2.7: Traffic dispersion on the road network
2-7
2.6 Assigning Functional Road classification to existing roads
In many instances, assigning a functional classification to a roadway is straightforward, especially

for Arterials and Locals. However, there is flexibility when deciding between adjacent classifications
(Figure 2.8) and assigning may not be an easy task but challenging.
Source: FHWA
Figure 2.8: Assigning functional classification
2.7 Mapping of roads
The following figures show mapping of roads in regional and local levels. There is no standard color
being used in the designation of the different road classes in the local level.
Source:DPWHAtlas
Figure 2.9-a: Road network of Region XIII
2-8
Source:DPWH Atlas
Figure 2.9-b: Road network of NCR Region
Source:Local maps
Figure 2.9-c: Road network (Local level)
An example of a color coding scheme for roadways by functional classification is shown in Figure
2.10.
a. FHWA
b. DPWH
Figure 2.10: Color coding scheme
2-9
2.8 Proposed Functional Road classification to existing roads for traffic

management
Based on the issues and status of Metro Manila as well as available data, the following definitions
of road standards are proposed, focusing on road functions (Table 2.5).
Expressway is the road type set by the DPWH;
Class A refers mainly to radial and ring roads;
Class B refers to roads intersecting Class A and connecting to major facilities;
Class C refers to roads intersecting Class B and connecting residential subdivisions and barangays
in a city; and
Class D refers to roads used daily, roads to and from barangays and residential subdivisions, and
pedestrian roads.
Table 2.5: Proposed functional classification
Source: JICA Project Team
2- 10
No. of
Class of Intersection Intersection
1 Class Ax Class A 114
2 Class Ax Class B 174
3 Class Ax Class C 206
4 Class B x Class B 91
Others 221
Total 806
Source: JICA Project Team
Figure 2.11: Metro Manila Roads including Potential Traffic Bottleneck
2.9 Does the function of the road change?

The function of a road may change due to several factors. The following questions may be useful
in deciding the right time to change the road’s functional classification:
• Have new significant roadways been constructed that may warrant Arterial or Collector
status?
• Has any previously non-divided roadway been reconstructed as a divided facility?
• Has any new major development (such as an airport, regional shopping center major
medical facility) been built in a location that has caused traffic patterns to change?
• Has there been significant overall growth that may have caused some roadways to serve
more access or mobility needs than they have previously?
• Have any Arterial or Collector roadways been extended or realigned in such away to
attract more through trip movements?
• Has a particular roadway experienced a significant growth in daily traffic volumes?
DPWH DO 133 s2018 provides a set of criteria and guidelines for the evaluation of roads for
conversion from local to national and viceversa relative to Executive Order (EO) No. 124, series of
1987, Section 5(i). The evaluation sheet shown below is used for road classification conversion
application.
2- 11
Source: DPWH DO 133s2018
Figure 2.12 : Evaluation sheet for road classification conversion application
2- 12
3 MODULE 3: DEFINITION AND IDENTIFICATION OF TRAFFIC

CONGESTION AND BOTTLENECKS
3.1 Understanding Traffic Flow
3.1.1 Traffic Flow

Traffic flow is usually classified either as uninterrupted or as interrupted flow. Flow occurring at long
sections of road where vehicles are not required by any cause external to the traffic stream is called
uninterrupted flow. On the other hand, flow occurring at intersections or driveways where vehicles
are required to stop by any cause outside the traffic stream such as traffic signs (‘STOP’ or ‘YIELD’),
traffic signal lights, etc., is called interrupted flow.
3.1.2 Main Traffic Flow Variables

Uninterrupted flow can be described by any of the following traffic variables:
1. Flow rate or volume -the number of vehicles passing a point during a specified period of
time. (q)
2. Speed - rate of motion in distance per unit time (u)
3. Density or concentration - the number of vehicles within a given length of road at an instant
point in time. (k)
Flow rate or volume

Flow rate is defined as the number of vehicles passing a point during a specified period of time. It
is often referred to as volume when measured over an hour or a day.
Speed
Speed is defined as rate of motion in distance per unit time. When describing traffic stream, two
types of speed are used, namely: time mean speed and space mean speed.
1) Time mean speed
Also called spot speed, time mean speed is simply the arithmetic mean of the speeds of vehicles
passing a point within a given interval of time.
3- 1
Example:
u1 = 30 kph.
u2 = 40 kph.
u3 = 50 kph.
2) Space mean speed

Space mean speed is used to describe the rate of movement of a traffic stream within a given
section of road at an instant of time. It is the speed based on the average travel time of vehicles in
the stream within the section. It is also called the harmonic mean speed.
Based on average travel time
Or
Example:
u1 = 30 kph.
u2 = 40 kph.
u3 = 50 kph.
Density or concentration
Density is defined as the number of vehicles in a given length of road at an instant point in time.
3-2
1
2
3
If there are 100 vehicles in 1 km., k = 100veh/km.
3.1.3 Other Traffic Flow Variables

There are other variables used to describe traffic flow. These variables, however, are simply
variants of the three variables described previously.
Headway - time interval between passage of consecutive vehicles at a specified point on the road
Spacing - distance between 2 vehicles measured from the front bumper of a vehicle to another
Time Occupancy – percentage of time a detector is occupied by vehicles.
Source: Sigua, R.G.

Figure 3.1: Time occupancy estimation
Passenger Car Unit (PCU)

A way of normalizing traffic flow as if all are cars (assuming car is the dominant vehicle type) is
through the use of PCU. PCU value depends on the amount of space and length of time a particular
vehicle occupies a point or section of the road.
In simple terms:
Source: Sigua, R.G.

Figure 3.2: Time occupancy estimation
3-3
Example:
During morning peak hour, the average headway of UP-Katipunan jeepneys is estimated at 5
minutes. If the passenger demand during the same period is 240, determine whether there is a
need to increase the number of jeepney units (or shorten the headway) for this route. Assume that
passenger demand is evenly distributed within that period and the average load/occupancy is 14
passengers per jeepney (Note: this assumption may not necessarily be true due to fluctuation of
passenger demand and variability of passenger occupancy).
The number of jeepneys per hour is:
there is a need to increase the number of jeepneys
Example
During heavy traffic congestion, it was observed that the average bumper to bumper spacing of
vehicles of stopped vehicles in the innermost lane of EDSA is 6.5meters. Determine the jam density.
The jam density is:
vehicles/km.
Example:
Determine the volume in pcu per hour for the given traffic data.
3.2 Observed Relationships

A relationship exists among the three most important traffic variables, namely, flow rate, space
mean speed, and density. A dimensional analysis of the units will show that flow rate (veh/hr.) is
simply the product of density (veh/km.) and space mean speed (km/hr.), or:
3.2.1 Fundamental Relationships

It is oftentimes useful to determine the relation between any two variables. Surveys at the South
Luzon Expressway were conducted. Scattered plots of the data are shown in the figure.
3-4
Source: Sigua, R.G.
Figure 3.3: Volume – Speed – Density Relations3.2.2 Relationship of Flow, Speed, and
Density
Assuming a linear relationship between density and speed, i.e., as density increases, speed
decreases, as shown in the figure, the relationships between flow rate and density, and flow rate
and density will be a 2nd degree curve (parabola). Uncongested and congested regions, as well as
the highest value of flow rate (capacity) are indicated in the figures.
Source: Sigua, R.G.
Figure 3.4: Relationships of flow variables showing capacity and congested regions
3.3 Capacity and Level of Service
Capacity is defined as the maximum hourly rate at which vehicles can reasonably be expected to
traverse a point or uniform section of a lane or roadway during a given time period under prevailing
roadway, traffic and control conditions.
On the other hand, Level of Service (LOS) is a qualitative description of how a certain facility is
performing.
The Philippine Highway Planning Manual provides a guide on basic capacity for various road types
in the tables below.
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Table 3.1: Basic Capacities for Highways and Urban Streets
Source: Philippine Highway Planning Manual, 1982
3.3.1 Volume-Capacity Ratio and LOS
The LOS concept uses qualitative measures that characterize operational conditions within a traffic
stream and perception of these conditions by motorists and passengers.
Six levels of service (LOS) are defined for each type of facility and they are given letter designations,
from Ato F, with A representing the best operating conditions and F the worst. Each level of service
represents a range of operating conditions and is defined by quantitative factors known as
measures of effectiveness. In the PHPM method, LOS are defined based on the computed volume
and capacity ratio and the space mean speed of the traffic flow. The volume referred to is the hourly
demand volume. This method was similar to the HCM method of 1965. The latest HCM now
considers density as the main variable in determining LOS. Nevertheless, both methods give the
same description of each level of service as shown in the table.
Source: Ministry of Public Works and Highway, 1982
Figure 3.5 Level of Service
3-6
Table 3.2 Detailed Description of LOS
Source: Transportation Research Board, 2000
Example
Section of a 4-lane divided city road.
For the heavy direction:
• Peak hour factor: 8%; Directional Distribution: 60%
• Assumed pcu values:
Car 1.0
Van 1.4
Bus or Truck 2.2
Daily Volume:
Determine the LOS of the city road.
Solution:
Conversion from Vehicle per Day/Hr to PCU per Day/Hr
Peak hour volume in pcu/hr/direction = Veh/day * pcu equiv * peak hour factor * dir distribution
Capacity = 2*1,800 = 3,600 pcu/hr.
volume.capacity ratio = 2,418.72  3,600 = 0.67
3-7
LOS is C
3.4 Congestion and Bottlenecks
3.4.1 Congestion
Precise definition of congestion is still vague. A survey of technical people by FHWA on how
congestion is defined and measured gave varying responses.
How is congestion defined? (n = 567) How is congestion measured? (n = 682)

Source: Federal Highway Administration (FHWA)
Figure 3.6: Defining and measuring Congestion
Traffic congestion means there are more vehicles or people trying to use a given transportation
facility during a specific period of time (i.e., “demand”) than the facility can handle (i.e., “capacity”
or supply).
However, traffic demand fluctuates significantly across seasons, days of the week, and time of day.
Similarly, capacity changes dynamically based on the degree of weather (e.g., ponding, heavy rain,
etc.), degree of work zone interference, degree of traffic incident severity, and other nonrecurring
events. Congestion should be considered in two dimensions: spatial and temporal, including where
(i.e., location, such as an intersection, roadway segment, or transit route) and when (i.e., time of
day or year)
Type of Congestion
Depends on whether the capacity or the demand factor is out of balance, congestion may be
classified as follows:
• Recurrent/Recurring Congestion -occurs when demand increases beyond the available
capacity (during AM and PM peak periods).
• Non-Recurrent/Non-recurring Congestion -results from a decrease in capacity, while the

demand remains the same.
3-8
Causes of congestion
A better understanding of the sources of congestion can help transportation professionals identify
areas of improvement and design solutions better suited toward local issues.
Congestion is the result of the following seven root causes, often interacting with one another.
1. Physical Bottlenecks ("Capacity") – Capacity is the maximum amount of traffic capable of
being handled by a given highway section. Capacity is determined by a number of factors: the
number and width of lanes and shoulders; merge areas at interchanges; and roadway alignment
(grades and curves).
2. Traffic Incidents – Events that disrupt the normal flow of traffic, usually by physical impedance
in the travel lanes. Events such as vehicular crashes, breakdowns, and debris in travel lanes are
the most common form of incidents.
3. Work Zones – Construction activities on the roadway that result in physical changes to the
highway environment. These changes may include a reduction in the number or width of travel
lanes, lane "shifts," lane diversions, reduction or elimination of shoulders, and even temporary
roadway closures.
4. Weather – Environmental conditions can lead to changes in driver behavior and ability that affect
traffic flow.
5. Traffic Control Devices – Intermittent disruption of traffic flow by control devices such as railroad
grade crossings and sub-optimally timed signals also contribute to congestion and travel time
variability.
6. Special Events – A special case of demand fluctuations whereby traffic flow in the vicinity of the
event is radically different from "typical" patterns. Special events occasionally cause "surges" in
traffic demand that overwhelm the system during short periods of peak demand.
7. Fluctuations in Normal Traffic – Day-to-day variability in demand leads to some days with
higher traffic volumes than others. Varying demand volumes superimposed on a system with fixed
capacity also results in variable (i.e., unreliable) travel times.
3.4.2 Bottleneck
According to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, a bottleneck as: (1) a narrow route or (2) a point of
traffic congestion. However, a road does not necessarily have to narrow for a bottleneck to exist
(e.g., bottlenecks caused by a weaving condition, sun glare, rubbernecking, or a vertical climb or
sag). A layman’s understanding of a bottleneck might be too many cars trying to use a highway at
the same time.
Source: Oguchi, T.
Figure 3.7: Bottleneck analogy
3-9
Broad Categories of Bottlenecks

• Recurring (i.e., predictable and routine, as exemplified by that which occurs during
commute peak hours); Recurring locations may have the opportunity to be corrected by
redesign;
• Nonrecurring (i.e., due to random events like incidents, weather, special events, and work
zones). Nonrecurring locations have less design-influenced solutions and more event-
response opportunities to improve the condition.
Disruptions leading to bottlenecks
Bottlenecks may be caused by a physical disruption such as:

• reduced number of lanes
• a change in grade
Recurring bottlenecks
• on-ramp or off-ramp with a short merge lane.
• Others
Such bottlenecks recur predictably at the same time of day and same day of week. May be
corrected by redesigning or by introducing geometric improvements
Or disruptions due to the following events:
• collisions or highway repairs that block one or more lanes
• special events like concerts or ball games that create
Non-recurring
bottlenecks
demand surges; or parades that severely affect traffic flow
• adverse weather that reduces capacity.
Non-recurring bottlenecks may be corrected through event response or incident management

system
The term “traffic bottleneck” infers a localized congestion problem, not a systemic congestion
problem. A physical bottleneck cause (e.g., a lane drop or other operationally deficient design on
the roadway) only manifests itself when traffic demand overwhelms the available roadway capacity.
Otherwise, the design operates safely/ok.
Congestion and Bottleneck
A bottleneck may cause congestion, but congestion is not always the result of a bottleneck.
Bottlenecks comprise a significant portion of the total congestion causes. Bottlenecks, as the name
implies, denote an area of significant breakdown in flow
3.5 Shockwave Concept
Stalled vehicles, road crashes, parades, or any other temporal activities will cause abnormal traffic
flow and will reduce the capacity of the roadway. These activities lead to long queue extending to
several kilometers that can only be dissipated even long after the obstruction is removed.
Analysis of this type of problem is done using shockwave theory. Shockwave is simply the motion
or propagation of a change in density and flow. Consider two flow regions A and B as shown in the
figure. Region A has prevailing flow described by speed u1 and density k1 while flow in Region B
has speed u2 and density k2.
3- 10
uw
A: k1 , u1
B: k2 , u2
x, distance
Source: Gerlough, D., Huber, M.
Figure 3.8: Two flows with different properties
The general equation for the speed of the shock wave uw is given as follows
On a q-k curve, the equation is represented by the slope of the line connecting points 1 and 2 as
shown.
(q2, k2)
2
uw
q2-q1
1 k2-k1
(q1, k1)
k
Source: Sigua, R.G.
Figure 3.9: Representation of shockwave in q-k diagram
3- 11
What if the 2 lanes are blocked totally?
3- 12
4 MODULE 4: TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES
4.1 Road Signs and Pavement Markings
The objective of this module is for the trainees to be familiar with the Philippines and
international standard road signs and pavement markings.
The Road Traffic Signs are used to communicate to the road users through shape,
color, symbols, and texts about the regulations, roads and information. These signs
convey as much information as possible in a very easy to understand package. At night,
the information on a road sign must be bright enough to be read
Traffic signs may be classified according to their functionality.
4.1.1 Regulatory Signs – inform of traffic laws and regulations, when it is

disregarded, will constitute an offense. The types of Regulatory signs are
A. Priority Signs (R1) – used to regulate priority of movement

B. Direction Signs (R2) – Indicate the only direction(s) allowed
C. Prohibitive or Restrictive Signs (R3) – indicate regulation which is prohibitive or

restrictive
D. Speed Signs (R4) – indicate the allowed minimum and maximum speed
E. Parking Signs (R5) – tells where to or not to park.
F. Miscellaneous Signs (R6) – other prohibition signs and restriction signs
4- 1
4.1.1.1 Priority Signs:

STOP Sign
- Shape: Octagon (this shape is

exclusively for stop sign)
- Background Color: Red
- Border Color: White
- Legend Color: white
- to ensure caution before entering an
intersection and where a complete
stop is necessary.
4-2
Give Way or Yield or Magbigay Daan

Sign
- Shape: Inverted Triangle (this shape

is exclusive for Give Way sign)
- Background Color: White
- Border Color: Red
- Legend Color: black
- Can be incorporated on rectangular
plate with texts.
- The text inside the triangle should be

“GIVE WAY”
- assigns right-of-way to traffic on

certain approaches to intersections
4.1.1.2 Direction Sign

- Shape: Circle
- Background Color: Blue
- Border Color: None
- Legend Color: White
- Can be incorporated on rectangular plate with texts
- Indicate the only direction(s) allowed
Some of the Direction signs are shown below:
4-3
4.1.1.3 Prohibitive or restrictive signs

Unless specified these signs shall be:
- Shape: Circular
- Border Color: Red with oblique bar
- Can be incorporated on rectangular plate with texts
- used on specified section of the road to indicate regulations which are restrictive
in nature.
Some of these signs are shown below:
4-4
4-5
4.1.1.4 Speed Signs:
(SPEED SIGNS: (MAXIMUM SPEED

LIMIT)
- Shape: Circular
- Border Color: Red
- Legend Color: black numerals
- The numbers indicate the
maximum speed limit
(MINIMUM SPEED LIMIT)
- Shape: Circular
- Background Color: Blue
- Border Color: white
- Legend Color: white numerals and
legend
- Indicate the minimum speed limit
- Used exclusively on suitable sections
of expressways only
4-6
SPEED DE-RESTRICTION
- Shape: Circular
- Background Color: White or Blue
- Border Color: white
- Legend Color: white numerals
- The distinct feature is the black
oblique bar across the numbers
- This indicates the end of the speed

restriction
4-7
Source: A. Mappala (Photo taken in Taiwan)
Figure 4.1 Example of Speed Signs
4-8
4.1.1.5 PARKING SIGNS:

No Parking Signs
- Shape: Circular
- Border Color: red with oblique bar
- Legend Color: black letter P
- Can be incorporated on rectangular plate
with texts
- Indicates where partial or total parking is

prohibited
4-9
No Waiting, No Loading and Unloading.
No Stopping Anytime
- Shape: rectangular
- Border Color: red
- Legend Color: red, black
- Can include the times of restriction
4- 10
NO PARKING SIGNS: PUV Stop Area
- Shape: rectangular
- Border Color: red
- Legend Color: black letter
- Exclusively used for loading and
unloading of passengers and goods
- The NO PARKING symbol is used
with this sign where total parking is
prohibited
Figure 4.2 Example of No Parking Signs
4.1.1.6 MISCELLANEOUS SIGNS:

Prohibition on use of audible warning devices, Load and dimension restriction
- Shape: Circular
- Border Color: red

4- 11
Figure 4.3 Example of Miscellaneous Signs
Pedestrian crossing, School children crossing
- Shape: Circular
- Background Color: Fluorescent Yellow Green
- Placed at the stop lines on the approaches to a marked crossing
Figure 4.4 Examples of Pedestrian Crossing, School Children Crossing Signs
Bike lane
- Shape: Circular
4- 12
- Background Color: Fluorescent Yellow Green
- Border Color: red

- Placed on roadway dedicated to bike lane for bicycle used only to protect
cyclists
- Requires cyclists to use the Bike Lane only
Figure 4.5 Example of Bike Lane Sign
Some signs that are used for cyclists
Figure 4.6 Examples of Signs used for Cyclists
4- 13
Other regulatory signs are
Figure 4.6: Other Regulatory Signs
4- 14
4.1.2 Warning Signs - Warns about possible danger or unusual conditions ahead and
alert you on what to expect. Drivers are to take extra vigilance for safety.
Warning signs are generally

- Triangular in shape (equilateral) with the apex pointing upwards
- Red border
- Black symbol and/or text
- White background, though yellow is used as background for roadwork signs
Other exceptions to the standard triangular shape include
- the signs pertaining to non-motorized transport such as Pedestrian type signs and
Wheelchair crossing signs which are a pentagon shape, and
- the rail level crossing which is in the form of a cross buck.
The types of Warning signs are

A. Alignment (W1) - warn of road curve ahead
B. Intersection & Junction (W2) - used where sight distance on the approach to an
intersection or junction is less than the safe stopping distance or where drivers
may have difficulty in appreciating the presence or configuration of an intersection
ahead.
C. Advance warning of TCD (W3) – giving advance warning of Traffic control devices
like traffic signal, stop signs or give way sign
D. Road width (W4) - warn of sudden change of road width either narrowing or
widening of carriageways.
E. Road obstacle (W5) - warn of unexpected road features such as change in road
pavement surface and infrastructure, hazard due to weather conditions and
environment.
F. Pedestrian, bicycle & school (W6) – warn of pedestrian crossing or bike lane
ahead
G. Railway level crossing (W7) - warning of the presence of the level crossing ahead
H. Auxiliary (W8) - Auxiliary or supplementary signs installed below a warning sign

with which it is associated.
I. Other warning signs (W9) – warns of vertical clearance, accident prone area,
merging traffic ahead, lane ends – merge left, or weighbridge ahead
The different types of warning signs are expounded on the next section.
A. Alignment (W1) - warn of road curve ahead
4- 15
B. Intersection & Junction (W2) - used where sight distance on the approach to
an intersection or junction is less than the safe stopping distance or where
drivers may have difficulty in appreciating the presence or configuration of an
intersection ahead.
C. Advance warning of TCD (W3) - Advance warning of Traffic control devices like
traffic signal, stop signs or give way sign
4- 16
D. Road width (W4) - warn of sudden change of road width either narrowing or widening
of carriageways.
E. Road obstacle (W5) – warn of unexpected road features such as change in

road pavement surface and infrastructure, hazard due to weather conditions
and environment.
F. Pedestrian, bicycle & school (W6) – these signs that pertain to non-motorized
transport are the exception to the common shape and color of a warning sign.
These signs are pentagon in shape when there is a symbol of a pedestrian.
4- 17
Rectangular shape is used for those of texts. The background is fluorescent

yellow green. These signs
The old signs of this type that are being replaced are
G. Railway level crossing (W7) - warning of the presence of the level crossing
ahead. May be used in combination with STOP or GIVE WAY signs, signals
or gates
4- 18
H. Auxiliary (W8) - Auxiliary or supplementary signs – installed below a warning

sign with which it is associated. The general shape is rectangle with black
legend on white background.
I. Other warning signs (W9) - Other Warning Signs that are another exception to
the common shape and color of a warning sign. Commonly rectangular with
black legend and border. These signs indicate the
• Vertical clearance
• Slow down accident prone area
• Slow down merging traffic ahead
• Lane ends – merge left
• Slow down weighbridge ahead
4- 19
Some signs of this type are shown below:
Warning signs are primarily for protection of driver not familiar with the highway. Location
and installation must be undertaken with care. These signs are installed at a certain
distance from the hazard.
• Urban areas: 30-100 m ahead
• Rural areas: 75-225 m ahead
4.1.3 Guide Signs or Informative Signs - inform & advise on directions, distances,
routes, location of services and points of interest. The types of these signs are
A. Advance Direction Signs (G1) - placed in advance of an intersection to indicate

destinations along each route.
B. Intersection Direction Signs (G2) - Supplement the Advance Direction Signs and
installed within or near the intersection
C. Reassurance Direction Signs (G3) - Reassure who are travelling toward their
intended designation and to indicate the distance to the desired destination
D. Finger Board Direction Signs (G4) - Provide directions to towns, scenic
attractions, geographical interests, and to other local facilities such as post offices,
railway stations
E. Street Name Signs (G5) - Gives information of the names of roads and streets.
F. Town Name and Geographical Feature Signs (G6) - Conveys general information
of interest such as geographical locations
G. Service Signs (G7) - Informs location of service facilities
H. Route Markers (G8) - are installed to identify and show the general direction of
arterial roads and national highways that have significance as ‘through’ routes
I. Tourist and Tourist Destination Signs (G9) - Denote places of public, scenic,
historic or cultural interest
The different types of Guide Signs or Informative Signs are expounded on the next section.
A. Advance Direction Signs (G1) - Placed in advance of an intersection to indicate
destinations along each route.
4-20
- Shape: Rectangular with long axis

horizontal M on u m ent o
- Background color: green
- Border color: White M a n ila
- Legend color: white
P at eros
B. Intersection Direction Signs (G2) – Supplement the Advance Direction Signs.

Located within or near the intersection

horizontal B at a ngas
Background color: green
Border color: White
Legend color: white
C. Reassurance Direction Signs (G3) – Reassure who are travelling toward their
intended designation and to indicate the distance to the desired destination
- Shape: Rectangular with long

axis horizontal A n g e les 7 0
Background color: green
Border color: White
B a g u io 15 6
Legend color: white
D. Finger Board Direction Signs (G4) - Provide directions to towns, scenic

attractions, geographical interests, and to other local facilities such as post offices,
railway stations

L EGA S P I C ITY 16
horizontal with one side pointed to
indicate the direction
- Background color: usually white
Border color: none
Legend color: black
E. Street Name Signs (G5) - Gives information of the names of roads and streets.
May contain house number range for 1 block
4-21

horizontal
- Color: white legend on
blue or green background.
Other combinations may be used
except red as background
BON IFA CIO DR

1 - 350
F. Town Name and Geographical Feature Signs (G6) - Conveys general information
of interest such as geographical locations. Erected at the boundary or entrance
to a town or the location of interest

horizontal M O U N TA I N
- Background Color: white
P R OV I N C E
- Border color: none
- Legend color: black
G. Service Signs (G7) - Informs location of service facilities like

- Gasoline station
- Parking area
- Accommodation, hotel, motel
- Information center
- Restaurants, cafes
- Directions of airport
- Telephone
- Rest rooms
4-22
- Shape: usual is rectangular with long

axis horizontal.
- Background Color: blue
- Border color: White
Some of the other service signs are shown below
H. Route Markers (G8) – are installed to identify and show the general direction of
arterial roads and national highways that have significance as ‘through’ routes.
May be incorporated in the advance warning signs at places where reassurance is
desirable. An example is the Asian Highway, a network of highway routes of
international importance within Asia. Philippines is AH 26. AH26 route is the
Pan-Philippine Highway or the Maharlika Highway, stretching from Laoag City,
Ilocos Norte, to Zamboanga City
4-23
- Shape: Shield
- Background color: white
- Border color: black
- Legend: black numeral
The route marker in a rectangular plate
I. Tourist and Tourist Destination Signs (G9) - Denote places of public, scenic,
historic or cultural interest

horizontal FORT SA NTIA GO
- Background Color: blue or brown
- Border color: White
4-24
Source: A. Mappala
Figure 4.7 Example of Tourist and Tourist Destination Signs
4.1.4 Special Instruction Signs – instruct to follow a direction or to obey a course of

action. Normally not regulatory signs but are used in conjunction with
regulatory or warning signs to form a standard treatment, and to support the
operation of traffic rules
- Shape: Rectangular
- Color:
o Black legends on white
background
o White legends on red
background
o red legends on white
background
4-25
4.1.5 Roadwork Signs - warn or advise of temporary hazardous conditions.
- Advance Signs
- Position Signs
- Road Condition Signs
- Traffic Diversion Signs
- Vehicle Mounted Signs
Shape is rectangular with

- Black legends on yellow background or
- Black legend on orange background (when legends or text relate to personnel

working)
4-26
One-Way Hazard Markers

- To delineate an abrupt narrowing of
pavement, for example, at a lane drop;
- At exposed ends of raised median
islands where traffic is required to pass
to one side
- On central island of a roundabout
facing entering traffic; and
- To delineate the curve approach just

prior to entering an intersection
4-27
Two-way hazard markers

Where it is necessary to delineate an
exposed obstruction on a traffic island nose
at which traffic may pass to either side
• Wide column of an overpass
structure
• Median island separating the
carriageway
• Opposite stem of a T-junction as a

target
Width Marker
Are used at approaches to road bridges:
• Where clearance to bridge curb
from the edge of the running lane is
less than the shoulder or curb width
of the approach road;
• Where there are non-frangible
vertical obstructions less than 600
mm clear behind the bridge curb;
and,
• Where any bridge less than 2m
wider than the approach pavement
or running portion of the
carriageway
Obstruction Marker
• Delineate vertical clearance above
the road where height restrictions
exist
• To highlight road closures, either

mid-block or at the end of a road
(eg cul-de sac, service road
4-28
4.1.6 Pavement Markings are essential for the guidance and control of vehicles and
pedestrians (& other road users).
They are used to guide traffic or give advance warning, or impose restrictions based on some traffic
regulation
These markings maybe in the form of lines, symbols, messages, or numerals that are applied upon,
attached to, or set upon the pavement. Sometimes used to supplement other devices like road
signs or traffic signals
Raised Pavement Markers

• small devices which are fixed to the concrete pavement surface to stimulate, or
supplement painted pavement markings
• generally, not obscured at night under wet conditions and the reflective types are more
brilliant than reflectorized paint markings
• Better used in hilly areas where fog and rain are frequently the causes of traffic accidents;
and, In winding roads and accident-prone areas
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Pavement Markings are classified into the following groups:

A. Pavement and Curb Markings can be used as
1. Longitudinal Lines
2. Transverse Lines
3. Other Lines
4. Other Markings
5. Messages and Symbols
B. Object Markings
Objects within or adjacent to the roadway
C. Reflectorized Markings
Raised pavement marker (RPM), hazard markers, delineators
The Longitudinal Lines may further be subdivided into

• Center Line - Separate opposite traffic movements of an undivided roadway
• Lane Line - Separate adjacent lanes of traffic moving in the same direction
• Barrier Lines – to indicate whether overtaking or passing is permitted, prohibited or

discouraged
• Edge Line - Delineate the edge of the traveled way to distinguish it from the shoulder area
or curb
• Continuity Line - Indicate that portion of a carriageway assigned to through traffic
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• Transition lines - To guide traffic safely past obstructions on roadways such as islands,
median strips, bridge piers
Source: A. Mappala
Figure 4.8 Example of Edge Line and Center Line
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Source: A. Mappala
Figure 4.9 Example of Lane Line
Source: A. Mappala
Figure 4.10: Example of Barrier Line
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Source: A. Mappala
Figure 4.11 Example of Continuity Line
Transition lines are used to guide traffic safely past obstructions on roadways (islands, median
strips, bridge piers) or indicate changes in the width of the traveled portion of the roadway and an
increase or reduction in traffic lanes. Lane, edge, separation or continuity lines may be used as
transition lines whichever is appropriate. Minimum transition length depends with the prevailing
speed of the road
Source: A. Mappala
Figure 4.12 Example of Transition Line
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Other pavement markings that are seen in the country, specifically in Metro Manila are those to
delineate the Motorcycle lane, PUV/Bus lanes and the Bike lane
Source:www.Philstar.comdownloaded on November 15, 2016
Figure 4.13 Example of Motorcycle Lane and PUV/Bus Yellow Lane
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Source: A. Mappala
Figure 4.14 Example of Bike Lane
The following section shows what are the transverse lines.

Stop Line, Give Way Line, Holding lines and Pedestrian Crossings are some of the transverse lines
and are shown in the following pictures.
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Pedestrian Crossing Markings
Zebra crossing which

is used in
unsignalized
intersection. But
nowadays, the zebra
crossing design is
also used in
signalized
intersection for its
higher visibility
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Crosswalks used in
signalized
intersection.
Other Markings
Railroad Crossing Exit Ramp
Red painted curbs or solid longitudinal lines adjacent to the curb indicate where “No Waiting –
Standing Zones”. While a yellow painted curbs or solid longitudinal lines adjacent to the curb
indicate “No Parking Zones”. These zones are supplemented with signs.
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Source: DPWH Manual
Figure 4.15 Typical Layout of No Parking Zone
Source: DPWH Manual
Figure 4.16 Typical Layout of No Loading/Unloading Zone
Messages and Symbols painted on the pavement are limited to three (3) words or less, used to
supplement other traffic control devices and usually white in color. Some of the common
messages are
- Stop,
- keep clear,
- school,
- ped xing,
- railroad x’ing;
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- signal ahead,
- no right (left) turn;
- Bus & puj lane
Source: DPWH Manual
Figure 4.17: Typical Layout of Pedestrian Crossing Ahead Pavement Markings
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Source: A. Mappala
Figure 4.18 Example of Bicycle Lane Pavement Marking
Some of the common symbols used are

- Give way symbol
- Pavement arrows
- Numerals
- Bikes
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Source: DPWH Manual

Figure 4.19: Typical Layout of Give Way Pavement Markings
Source: DPWH Manual
Figure 4.20: Example of Turn Lines
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Figure 4.21: Example of anArrow Pavement Markings
Variable Message Signs provide advanced warning to drivers of emergencies and incidents. Also
used to warn drivers of events that may cause delays in the future such as road works and major
events. It can display a wide range of warnings, messages, and other traffic information.
Figure 4.22: Example of Variable Message Sign
Object markings are alternating black and yellow painted markings on curbs, bridge supports and
others to delineate obstructions on or adjacent the roadway. The stripes are vertical when in the
driving line or 45 degrees down towards the side the traffic passes. Hazard markers may be used
in conjunction with these markings
Physical obstruction in or near roadway that constitute hazard to traffic
- Bridge supports
- Monuments
- Traffic islands
- Posts of narrow bridges
- Underpass piers and abutment
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– Poles, tress, rocks
Rumble Strips or Jiggle Bars (the term used by MMDA) are raised or grooved patterns on the road.
It alert inattentive drivers to potential danger by causing a tactile vibration and audible rumbling,
transmitted through the wheels into the car body. The objectives of the rumble strips are to
1. Warn/alert drivers of upcoming roadway condition such as intersections, sharp horizontal
curves, narrow bridge approaches, toll plazas/gates, and tunnels.
2. Use as complementary/enhancement to advance warning signs such as the Stop Ahead

or the various Curve signs.
3. Use to prevent/lessen the effect of drowsiness during long drive, inattention and highway
hypnosis.
Rumble strips placement can be as
. Transverse rumble strips – placed transversely or perpendicular to the direction of traffic.
. Longitudinal rumble strips- delineate the edge of a road where driver fatigue is known to
cause crashes
. Centreline rumble strips and flexi-posts. Longitudinal rumble strips can also be used in the
centre of the road
Source:A.Mappala
Figure 4.23: Example of a Rumble Strips
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Source: http://toolkit.irap.org/default.asp?page=treatment&id=30
Figure 4.24: Example of Shoulder Rumble Strips
Traffic Signals are used to control of traffic is done by separating in time conflicting movements.
Conflicts at intersections are minimized by giving right-of-way to particular movements. Critical
conflicts such as crossing and merging are practically eliminated with only a maximum of 2
diverging movements allowed at any given time given the phasing of traffic flows.
Traffic Signals can be portable and mobile like the picture shown below.
• Portable traffic signals mounted on small trailers. Usually powered by solar energy. They
can be moved into position quickly and started with minimum effort.
• used on short term works, or other works not exceeding a period of about one week.
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Source: A. Mappala
Figure 4.25: Examples of Portable Signal Light
Hierarchy of Authority in an intersection

1. No Physical Control (RA 4136 Right of Way Rule prevails)
2. Traffic Signs
3. Signalization
4. Police Officer
There is another module that will discuss more on Traffic Signals.
References:
Road Signs and Pavement Marking of DPWH, 2009 and 2012
Road Safety Design Manual of DPWH, 2012
1968 Vienna Convention of the United Nations on Road Traffic and Road Signs
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4.2 Traffic Control Devices
Learning Objectives
a. To identify the role of traffic control devices currently introduced in Metro Manila
b. To be familiar with the Philippines and international standard road signs and pavement
markings; and
c. To demonstrate the effectiveness of traffic control devices on road crash reduction.
4.2.1 Role of Traffic Control Devices
Learning Objective
a. To identify the role of traffic control devices currently introduced in Metro Manila
4.2.1.1 Traffic Management
Traffic management comprises of activities undertaken by a highway transportation agency to

improve roadway system safety, efficiency and effectiveness for both providers and consumers of
transportation services.
The following are the types of traffic management:

a. utilizes traditional traffic engineering tools or simple devices to regulate and control traffic;
and,
b. relies on advanced technology through the use of Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS).
4.2.1.2 Traffic Regulations
Traffic regulations cover all aspects of control of:

a. Vehicle – registration, ownership, roadworthiness, accessories, size, weight
b. Driver – age, ability to operate specific types of vehicles, financial responsibility
Traffic regulations should be:

a. rational – social, economic and human problems must be considered
b. developed progressively – must be planned over a long period of time
Regulations alone are not enough – must be used in conjunction with traffic control devices,
highway planning and design, and administrative policies
4.2.2 Elements of the Road System
4.2.2.1 Road and Vehicle
Road system elements include road, vehicle and driver. Roads and vehicles are subject to constant
change and improvement. Given a period of time, they may be considered inflexible. For vehicles,
controls exist: vehicle registration, motor vehicle inspection system (MVIS) for roadworthiness and
emissions.
4.2.2.2 Driver
Major portion of existing regulations are therefore aimed at the driver. Worldwide, licensing has
become the most effective way to control the number of drivers on the road. Licensing should be
used to influence drivers to become familiar with rules and regulations of the road (including traffic
control devices).
4.2.2.3 Traffic Control Devices
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Traffic control devices are means by which the road user is advised as to detailed requirements or
conditions affecting road use at specific places and times so that proper action may be taken and
accident or delay avoided.
There are three distinct functional groups of traffic control devices:

a. Regulatory devices – These have the authority of law and impose precise requirements upon
the actions of the road user.
b. Warning devices – These are used to inform road users of potentially hazardous roadway
conditions or unusual traffic movements that are not readily apparent to passing traffic.
c. Guiding devices – These are employed simply to inform the road user of route, destination, and
other pertinent information.
To be effective, every traffic control device must be able to meet the following requirements (FHWA
1988):
a. It should compel attention.

b. It should convey a simple clear meaning at a glance.
c. It should allow adequate time for easy response.
d. It should command the respect of the road users for whom it is intended.
Every traffic control must meet all these requirements in logical sequence. The effectiveness of a
sign or marking normally depends on its size, color contrast, shape (simple, regular shapes),
relative position, and maintenance to compel attention. To convey a clear meaning, the shape, color,
and message must be well understood. The message should be kept as short as practicable
because not more than three familiar words can be conveyed at a glance. After capturing the clear
meaning of the device, it should provide adequate time for response, simpler message like STOP
and YIELD requires only a second, while multiple choice (as in destination or guide sign) may
require three to four seconds. Finally, all of these requirements – the design features of size, and
brightness, position allowing time for response, properly maintained control device-should
command the respect of road users. Thus, shabby, ill-kept signs must be discarded and replaced.
4.2.3 Traffic Signs
Traffic signs are employed more frequently than any other devices to regulate, warn, or guide road
users. Traffic markings normally consist of lines, patterns, words, symbols, reflectors, etc. They
may be considered as specialized types of traffic signs in which the message is in contrast with the
color and brightness of the pavement or other background. Figure 4.26 shows the examples of
traffic signs.
Source: (Sigua, 2008)

Figure 4.26: Examples of Traffic Signs
Philippine traffic signs conform to the 1968 Vienna Conventions of the United Nations on Road
Traffic and Road Signs, which the country officially adopted on June 6, 1973.
Traffic signs are necessary to give information as to routes, directions, destinations, etc. Their
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function becomes more relevant when used to warn road users of hazards and regulate any
prohibitive action at specific places and/or at specified times.
To ensure uniformity, traffic signs shall be installed only by a duly authorized public body or official
for the purpose of guiding, regulating, and warning traffic. In case of temporary construction work,
however, special permission is given to contractors or utility companies to install signs to protect
the public provided that such signs conform to the set standards.
Traffic signs are normally of fixed/permanent type although some variable signs have been
employed and have become useful in locations where traffic and environment conditions often
change.
Traffic signs are classified depending on their intended uses:

a) Informative: the signs are intended to guide users while there are traveling;
b) Regulatory: the signs are intended to inform users of special obligations, restrictions, or
prohibitions with which they must comply; and,
c) Warning: these signs are intended to warn users of a danger on the road and to inform them
of its nature.
4.2.3.1 Elements of Design
Uniformity in design includes shape, color, dimension, symbols, wording, lettering, and illumination
or reflectorization.
4.2.3.1.1 Shape
Shapes of signs are standardized as follows:
a) Equilateral triangular shape with one side horizontal shall be used for danger warning signs
(Figure 4.27).

Figure 4.27: Example of Traffic Sign with an Equilateral Triangle Shape (Danger Warning)
b) Round shape shall be used for regulating traffic (Figure 4.28).
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Figure 4.28: Example of Traffic Sign with a Round Shape (Regulating)
c) Rectangular shape shall be used for informative signs (Figure 4.29).

Figure 4.29: Example of Traffic Sign with a Rectangular Shape (Informative)
d) Octagonal shape shall be used for STOP signs only (Figure 4.30).

Figure 4.30. Example of Traffic Sign with Octagonal Shape (STOP)
e) Inverted equilateral triangle shall be used for YIELD signs only (Figure 4.31).
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Figure 4.31: Example of Traffic Sign with an Inverted Equilateral Triangle Shape
(YIELD)
4.2.3.1.2 Color
a) Danger warning signs shall have a yellow or white background with black symbols and red
border (Figure 4.32).

Figure 4.32: Example of a Danger Warning Sign
b) Prohibitory signs and restrictive signs shall have a white background with black symbols
and red border (Figure 4.33).

Figure 4:33: Example of a Prohibitory Sign
c) Mandatory signs with the exception of STOP and YIELD signs shall have a blue background
and white symbols (Figure 4.34).
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Figure 4:34: Example of Mandatory Signs
d) STOP signs shall have a red background and white symbols ( Figure 4. 35) .

Figure 4.35: Example of a Stop Sign
e) YIELD signs shall have a yellow background and red border (Figure 4.36).

Figure 4:36: Example of a yield sign
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f) Informative signs shall have a white or light-colored symbol on a dark-colored (blue or black)
background or a blue or dark-colored symbol on a white or light-colored background (Figure
4.37).

Figures 4.37: Example of Informative Signs
4.2.3.1.3 Size
The minimum dimensions of signs depend upon the intended applications. Larger sizes are
necessary at wider roadways and on high-speed highways. According to Section 2.5 of the DPWH
Highway Safety Design Standards Part 2: Road Signs and Pavement Markings Manual, regulatory
signs are of four sizes based on the speed of the facility as follows:
a. A for urban low-speed roads

b. B for rural roads with speed limits between 60 kph and 70 kph
c. C for high-speed rural highways
d. D for expressways
In the case of a STOP or YIELD sign, for example, table below should be followed:
Table 4.1: Recommended Dimensions for STOP and YIELD Signs

Size Dimension (mm)
A 600 x 600
B 750 x 750
C 900 x 900
Source: (DPWH Road Signs and Pavement Markings, 2011)
The reader is advised to refer to the DPWH manual for the dimensions of various traffic signs and
for other details – letter, symbol border, bar sizes, etc.
4.2.3.1.4 Illumination and Reflectorization
Signs are intended to convey messages during both daytime and nighttime. During hours of
darkness, this can be achieved through illumination or by using reflective materials for signs.
4.2.3.1.5 Placement and Height of Signs
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In general, signs shall be mounted approximately at right angles to the direction and, facing the
traffic they intend to serve. Mounting signs at exactly right angle must be avoided especially on
roads following the east and west directions as the sun's brightness reflecting on the signs will be
too glaring for the drivers. However, there may be no standard location for traffic signs. Each
location must be carefully studied so as to achieve the most advantageous position. Signs are
generally placed on the right side of the roadway. On wider roads, overhead signs are often
necessary. On roads with medians, signs may be placed on both sides. Signs may also be placed
on channelized islands.
a. Lateral placement
On uncurbed roads in the rural areas, the sign should be at least 60 cm clear of the
outer edge of the road shoulder, the line of guideposts, or face of guardrails. The clearance
should not be less than 2 m nor more than 5 m from the edge of the traveled way, except for
large guide signs on expressways where ample clearance may be required. In urban areas,
signs should be located away from the face of the curb not less than 30 cm but not more than
1 m. If curb is mountable or semi-mountable, the minimum clearance should be 50 cm. On
uncurbed roads, the distance given for rural areas shall be used.
b. Height
In rural areas, the height of the sign should normally be between 1 m and 1.5 m
above the nearest edge of the traveled way. For intersection direction signs, the height
should be increased to 2 m. Final height is dictated by visibility factor as the sign should be
mounted clear of vegetation and it must be clearly visible under headlight illumination at
night.
On curbed roads such as in urban areas, the signs should be mounted at a
minimum of 2 m above the top of the curb to prevent obstructions to pedestrians.
4.2.4 Pavement Markings
4.2.4.1 Functions and Limitations of Pavement Markings
A system of clear and effective pavement markings is essential for the guidance and control of
vehicles and pedestrians. They take the form of lines, symbols, messages, or numerals, and may
be set into the surface of, applied upon, or attached to the pavement. In some cases, pavement
markings are used as a supplement to other traffic control devices, such as traffic signals and road
signs. In other instances, they may simply guide traffic or give advance warning, or they may impose
restrictions supported by traffic regulations. Pavement markings have some definite limitations:
a. They are subject to traffic wear and require proper maintenance.

b. They may not be clearly visible if the road is wet or dusty
(e.g., near shoulder edge or median).
c. They may be obscured by traffic.
d. Their effect on skid resistance requires careful choice of materials.
e. They cannot be applied on unsealed roads.
Despite these limitations, they have the advantage under favorable conditions of conveying
warning message or information to drivers without diverting their attention from the road.
4.2.4.2 Legal Authority
Markings shall only be applied and/or removed by the Department of Public Works and Highways
(DPWH) or an authority to which these powers are delegated.
All line-marking plans must be approved by the DPWH before installation.
4.2.4.3 Standardization
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As is the case with all other traffic control devices, it is imperative that markings be uniform so that
they may be recognized and understood instantly by all drivers. Manuals are available from the
DPWH, and on request, it will furnish traffic authorities, road markers, material suppliers/
manufacturers, and similarly interested agencies, detailed drawings of the standard designs and
locations.
4.2.4.4 Types of Markings
Markings are classified into the following groups:

• pavement and curb markings
• object markings
• reflector markings
4.2.4.5 Pavement and Curb Markings
a. Longitudinal lines are those laid in the direction of travel. These include Center Line, Lane
Line, Double Yellow Line, "No- Passing" Zone Markings, Pavement Edge Line, Continuity
Lines, and Transition Line.
b. Transverse lines are those laid across the direction of travel. These include Stop Line, Yield
(Give Way) Lines, and Pedestrian Crossing Markings.
c. Other lines, which include Turn Lines, Parking Bays, Painted Median Islands, and Bus &
PUJ Lane Lines.
d. Other markings, which include Approach Markings to Islands, and Obstructions, Chevron
Markings, Diagonal Markings, Markings on Exit and Entrance Ramps, Curb Markings for
Parking Restrictions, Approach to Railroad Crossing, Messages, and Symbols and
Pavement Arrows.
4.2.4.6 Object Markings
a. Object within the roadway

b. Object adjacent to the roadway (Figure 4.38)

Figures 4.38: Object Markings
4.2.4.7 Reflector Markings
a. Retro-reflector raised pavement markers

b. Hazard markers
c. Delineator
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4.2.4.8 Materials
Road markings should be of nonskid materials and should not protrude more than 6 mm above the
level of the carriageway. Raised pavement markings should not protrude more than 15 mm above
the level of the carriageway. The following are the commonly used materials for road markings:
paint, thermoplastic materials, precut sheeting and raised pavement markers.
4.2.4.8.1 Paint
Paint with or without glass beads embedded or premixed can be applied either by hand or with line
marking machines. For proper reflectorization at night, the amount of glass beads used should be
no less than 0.45 kg and no more than 0.50 kg per liter of mixed paint.
4.2.4.8.2 Thermoplastic Materials
Use of thermoplastic materials with or without reflective properties is recommended at locations

subject to extreme traffic wear. The average service life of thermoplastic materials has been
experienced to be equivalent to eight times that of beaded traffic paints.
4.2.4.8.3 Precut Sheeting
Precut materials both with or without reflective properties are used. It is usually in adhesive tape
form, with aggregate, pigment, and plastic rubber combined on one side and adhesive on the other
side.
4.2.5 Raised Pavement Markers
These are studs of plastic, ceramic, aluminum, cast iron, etc. that are embedded into the
carriageway or attached to the road surface with adhesive. They may be reflective or nonreflective.
4.2.5.1 Color
The color of pavement markings shall be white, except for the alternative uses of yellow in the
following cases:
a. Double yellow "no-passing" lines

b. Unbroken portion of "no-parking" lines
c. Curb markings for prohibition of parking
d. On islands in line of traffic
e. Bus and PUJ lanes
Black may be used in combination with white or yellow in hazard markers to warn drivers at
locations where the protruding objects – such as bridge piers, traffic islands, or other permanent
objects- on or near the roadway. However, the use of black does not establish it as a standard color
for pavement marking.
4.2.5.2 Types of Lines
Depending on the direction that lines are marked on the pavement, lines may be longitudinal,
transverse, or oblique. And depending on the use and meaning of such lines, they are either broken
or solid lines. Figure 4.39 shows examples of lines.
A broken lineshall consist of line segments of equal lengths separated by uniform gaps. The speed
of vehicles on the section of road or in the area in question should be taken into account in
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determining the lengths of the strokes and of the gaps between them.
A solid unbroken line is used where crossing of the line is either discouraged or prohibited. It is
generally used to replace or supplement a broken line where required, e.g., barrier lines, center
lines, etc. Solid lines may be either yellow or white, depending whether crossing the line is legally
prohibited or not.
Source: (Daily Civil, 2016)

Figure 4.39: Types of Lines
4.2.5.3 Width of Lines
The width of solid or broken lines varies from 100 mm to 300 mm, depending on the usage of the
specified line. Transverse lines are usually wider because of the angle at which the driver sees
markings on the carriageway.
4.2.6 Messages
Messages when used should be limited to as few words as possible, never more than three. They
shall only be used to supplement other traffic control devices. The distance between words is
variable, depending on the message and location at which it is based (usually twice the length of
the word if achievable).
The first word of the message is to be nearest the motorist on rural roads. In urban low-speed areas,
the order is optional.
Messages are white in color. Letters or numerals used on roads in urban areas shall measure at
least 2.5 m; on high-speed highways, they may need to be at least 5 m.
Messages generally in use are STOP, KEEP CLEAR, SCHOOL, PED XING, RAILROAD XING,
SIGNAL AHEAD, NO RIGHT (LEFT) TURN, BUS LANE, and PUJ LANE.
4.2.7 Symbols
a. Give way (yield) symbol
The symbol used to supplement the give way sign consists of an isosceles triangle
having two equal sides of 3.1 m and a base of 1 m. Outline width is 450 mm at the base
and 150 mm for the sides. The distance of the symbol from the holding line is between 5 m
and 25 m, depending on the location and vehicle speeds on that road.
b. Pavement arrows
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Pavement arrows are used for lane use control. White in color, they are generally 5
m in length on urban roads and 7.5m on high-speed roads.
For half-turn movements, the stems of the straight arrows can be bent to suit the
particular direction of movement.
The first set of arrows should be placed at a distance of 15m from the stop bar, and
the subsequent sets should be placed at 45 m apart.
c. Numerals
The only numerals that should be used are those associated with speed limits at
location to supplement speed limit signs, which are continuously disregarded by drivers.
4.3 Traffic Signals
Using traffic signals, control of traffic is done by separating in time conflicting movements,
i.e., conflicts at intersections are minimized by giving right-of-way to particular movements. Critical
conflicts such as crossing and merging are practically eliminated with only a maximum of two
diverging movements allowed at any given time given the phasing of traffic flows. They separate in
time conflicting movements.
4.3.1 Advantages of Traffic Signal Control
• May provide for the orderly movement of traffic by assigning right-of-way to conflicting
movements of traffic
• May increase the traffic-handling capacity of an intersection by permitting conflicting
streams of traffic to share the same intersection
• May reduce the frequency of certain types of accidents especially right-angle collisions
• May provide for continuous movement and progression of traffic through coordination with
surrounding traffic signals
• May interrupt heavy traffic to allow both vehicular and pedestrian traffic to cross
4.3.2 Disadvantages of Traffic Signal Control
• May increase delay – both overall intersection delay and/or specific movement delay
especially during off peak hours
• May encourage the use of alternate and/or less adequate routes by drivers wishing to avoid
the signal
• May encourage increased volumes of traffic on the minor street by drivers wishing to use
the signal
• May cause an increase in frequency of certain types of accidents especially rear-end
collisions
• May encourage disobedience of the signal indication
• May result to total, widespread confusion and difficulties when the installation break down
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References
Daily Civil. (2016, October). Road Marking- Types & Purpose/ Pavement Marking Types.
Retrieved April 22, 2022, from Daily Civil: https://dailycivil.com/types-of-road-marking/
Department of Public Works and Highways. (2008). Accident Blackspot Investigation
Handbook.
Department of Public Works and Highways. (2011). Road Signs and Pavement Markings
Manual.
Sigua, R. G. (2008). Fundamentals of Traffic Engineering. Quezon City: University of the
Phlippines Press.
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4.3.3 Impact of Traffic Control
Learning Objective
a. To demonstrate the effectiveness of traffic control devices on road crash reduction
Impact of Traffic Control
Table 4.2 shows the treatment types for traffic control devices, sight distance, intersection/geometry
and the corresponding road crash reduction factor and treatment life according to the DPWH
Accident Blackspot Investigation Handbook (DPWH, 2008). Signal installation, geometric
improvements, channelization, auxiliary left turn lane, road realignment and rotunda are the most
effective measures to reduce road crashes. They are followed by pedestrian operated signals,
signages and pavement markings.
Table 4.2. Treatment Types for Traffic Signals, Signs, Markings, Sight
Distance and Intersection/ Geometry and the Corresponding Road Crash
Reduction Factor and Treatment Life
Source: (DPWH Accident Blackspot Investigation Handbook, 2008)
4.3.3.1 Pedestrian Operated Signals
Pedestrian operated signals are traffic signals that are activated in response to a pedestrian
pressing a button. Pedestrian operated signals are most commonly found at mid-blockpedestrian
crossings.
Source:http://lgam.wikidot.com/pedestrian-operated-signals
4.2.1.2 Centerlines
Centerlines can be used to discourage overtaking or accidental ‘drifting' from the lane.
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4.2.1.3 Edge Lines
Edge lines are used to outline and separate the outside edge of the pavement from the shoulder
Edge lines help drivers judge the alignment of the road ahead and can reduce run-off-road crashes.
Line marking is also effective at reducing shoulder damage, and therefore in reducing maintenance
costs.
Source:https://toolkit.irap.org/default.asp?page=treatment&id=5&hl=edge%20lines
4.2.1.4 Rumble Strips
Longitudinal rumble strips (also referred to as raised profile edge lines or audio-tactile edge lines)
can be used to delineate the edge of a road where driver fatigue is known to cause crashes. As
well as providing visual delineation, longitudinal rumble strips can also be heard and felt by drivers
and riders. When a tire runs over the rumble strips a noise and vibration is produced. This tells a
sleepy or distracted driver that their vehicle is starting to leave the road.
Source: https://toolkit.irap.org/default.asp?page=treatment&id=30
4.1.5 Auxiliary Turn Lanes
Auxiliary turn lanes - either for left turns or right turns - provide physical separation between turning
traffic that is slowing or stopped and adjacent through traffic at approaches to intersections.
4.2.1.6 T-intersection
An offset T-intersection is an at-grade road intersection where a conventional four leg intersection
is split into two three-leg T-intersections to reduce the number of conflicts and improve traffic flow
(Federal Highway Administration, 2010).
Table 4.3 shows the treatment types for cross section and median and the corresponding road
crash reduction factor and treatment life according to the DPWH Accident Blackspot Investigation
Handbook (DPWH, 2008).
Table 4.3 shows the treatment types for cross section and roadside and the corresponding road
crash reduction factor and treatment life according to the DPWH Accident Blackspot Investigation
Handbook. Median strip, pedestrian island, construct sidewalk, curb extension, curb construction
or widen shoulders to separate vehicles and pedestrians are the more effective measures to reduce
road crashes with crash reduction factor of 35% to 40%. They are followed by passing lane, road
safety barriers such as guard rails and street lighting.
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Table 4.3: Treatment Type for Cross Section and Roadside
Source: (DPWH Accident Blackspot Investigation Handbook, 2008)
4.2.1.7 Median Strip
The median strip or central reservation is the reserved area that separates opposing lanes of traffic
on divided roadways, such as divided highways, dual carriageways, freeways, and motorways. The
term also applies to divided roadways other than highways, such as some major streets in urban
or suburban areas.
4.2.1.8 Indented Parking
Indented parking – Provision of a parking bay located immediately adjacent to a through traffic lane,
but protected from through traffic by virtue of the kerband channel alignment adjacent to the parking
bay(s) being offset in the direction of the property boundary.
4.2.2 Safe Roads and Roadsides
This set of interventions comes from the reference: Turner, B., Job, S. and Mitra, S. (2021). Guide
for Road Safety Interventions: Evidence of What Works and What Does Not Work.
Interventions that reduce crash severity outcomes generally are the most beneficial,
producing up to 80 percent reductions in fatal and serious injury. These include roadside and central
barrier systems on high speed roads, infrastructure that supports lower speed environments
(especially for vulnerable road users and roundabouts at intersections (lower impact speed and
angle of impact).
Interventions that reduce exposure to risk are also highly beneficial. These interventions
include access control/management, separating vulnerable road users from other road users (that
is, by providing a well-designed foot path which is kept clear of obstructions, commerce, and
parking, and thus ensuring that the footpath is usable by pedestrians) and designs that prevent
cross-traffic turning movements (banning left turn in, or left turn out movements at intersections.
Interventions can also reduce the likelihood of a crash occurring in the first place. This class
of intervention has more varied results. Examples include signs and line-marking (lower safety
benefits), traffic signals (moderate benefits), and infrastructure that supports speed reduction.
Table 4.4 shows the descriptions and potential effectiveness of interventions of integrated
public transport, roadside barrier systems and central barrier systems.
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Table 4.4: Potential Effectiveness of Interventions

(Integrated Public Transport, Roadside Barrier Systems, Central Barrier Systems)
Source: (Turner, Job, & Mitra, 2021)
4.2.2.1 Integrated Public Transport
This can have the effect of moving road users from modes of travel that can be higher risk (such
as motorcycles and informal public transport services such as mini-buses and shared taxis to safer
mass transit options.
4.2.2.2 Roadside and Central Barrier Systems
4.2.2.2.1 Barriers
Barriers are used to shield errant vehicles from hazards. They can be used along the median
(central barriers) to prohibit movement of traffic across the median or on the roadsides to shield
vehicles from roadside hazards. They are designed to redirect an impacting vehicle and in some
cases to dissipate crash forces in a controlled manner thus reducing the severity of crashes
involving out-of-control vehicles.
4.2.2.2.2 Medians
Medians provide a degree of segregation between vehicles moving in opposite directions and are
effective at reducing head-on collision, particularly in high-speed environments. They can be
constructed (raised medians) through provision of curbing, or can be provided through wide
centerline markings and often in association with audio-tactile line marking.
They can also be used in urban areas, including to help pedestrians stagger their crossing
movement (especially when used in association with formal crossings). Care needs to be taken
when painted medians are installed that they are not used by vehicles as passing or additional
lanes. This behavior can be discouraged through use of flexible posts or intermittent traffic islands.
Table 4.5 shows the descriptions and potential effectiveness of interventions of medians,
infrastructure to support appropriate speed for road users and roundabouts.
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(Medians, Infrastructure to Support Appropriate Speed for Road Users and
Roundabouts)
4.2.2.2.3 Roundabouts
Well-designed roundabouts are able to deliver considerable road safety benefits, with reductions in
fatalities and serious injury of between 70 percent and 80 percent. The reason for this success is
that roundabouts:
• Reduce the number of conflict points within an intersection compared with other intersection
types
• Reduce the entry speed of vehicles as well as speeds through the roundabout, because
vehicles are forced to take a meandering path rather than traveling straight through the
intersection
• Reduce the impact angle (and therefore the impact force and severity) if a collision does occur,
effectively converting more severe crossing conflicts to merging and diverging conflicts.
Table 4.6 shows the descriptions and potential effectiveness of interventions of grade
separation at intersections, reducing risk exposure at intersections and pedestrian footpaths.

(Grade Separation at Intersections, Reducing Risk Exposure at Intersections and
Pedestrian Footpaths)
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4.2.3 Reducing Risk Exposure at Intersections
This can include full closure of intersections, although there is a requirement that good quality
alternative options be available for this strategy to be effective. Full closure can virtually eliminate
severe crash risk (noting that some risk will remain through traffic displacement). In addition, partial
closure of intersections can also be highly effective. This might include providing a median through
an intersection to eliminate cross-traffic turning movements (such as,when driving on the right hand
side of the road, prohibiting left turns into and out of side roads). There is typically a need to provide
alternative high quality turning facilities. Banning turning movements has resulted in substantial
road safety benefits, with reductions of between 30 and 45 percent of injuries having been noted.
4.2.4 Pedestrian Footpaths
Pedestrian footpaths are an area adjacent to the roadway for use by pedestrians. In urban areas
they are typically raised, separating pedestrians from motorized traffic with curbing. To be effective,
footpaths must be of adequate width, well maintained, and free from obstructions, including parked
vehicles, signs, traders, and so forth.
Footpaths are included as standard infrastructure in many countries as it is accepted wisdom that
they produce improvements for pedestrian. The evidence indicates benefits of up to 60 percent
reductions for pedestrians from the installation of footpaths.
Table 4.7 shows the descriptions and potential effectiveness of interventions of pedestrian
crossing, separated bicycle facilities and separated motorcycle facilities.
Table 4.7:Potential Effectiveness of Interventions

(Pedestrian Crossing, Separated Bicycle Facilities, Separated Motorcycle Facilities)
4.2.5 Pedestrian Crossings
Crossing types include low-cost measures such as marked priority crossings (“zebra crossings”),
signal-controlled crossings, raised crossings (an area of elevated pavement surface, preferably
with pedestrian priority), or pedestrian under- or over-passes.
Marked priority crossings (“zebra crossings”) often have limited impact in low- and medium-income
countries and may even increase risk if not installed at appropriate locations and with adequate
features (for instance, higher speed environments with multiple lanes in situations where there is
poor sight distance, or where compliance is poor). Similarly, under- and over-passes, especially in
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urban settings that dramatically increase the distance and effort of pedestrians to cross a road, or
that result in personal security issues, may provide little benefit.
Other facilities to assist pedestrians when crossing include road narrowing, refuge islands, and
slow speed environments. Improving visibility including through better sight distance and lighting
can also have benefits.
4.2.6 Separated Bicycle Facilities
Bicyclists are vulnerable road users and so it is important to provide adequate facilities so that they
can use roads safely.
Facilities include off-road paths, on-road lanes (preferably separated from both passing vehicles
and parked vehicles), and dedicated facilities at intersections (signalized crossings, protected
intersections, areas of high contrast road surfacing, off-road bypass facilities, and bicycle storage
boxes).
Reductions of around 15 percent in cyclist injuries have been noted from the use of cycle lanes
adjacent to traffic while higher benefits have been seen with more comprehensive interventions,
such as bicycle boulevards.
Table 4.8 shows the descriptions and potential effectiveness of interventions of other intersection
improvements, signs and line markings, audio-tactile line marking and improving surfacing on poor
quality roads without additional infrastructure improvement.
Table 4.8. Potential Effectiveness of Interventions

(Other Intersection Improvements, Signs and Line Markings, Audio-Tactile Line Marking,
Improving Surfacing on Poor Quality Roads Without Additional Infrastructure Improvement)
4.2.7 Other Intersection Improvements
These includes low cost (and typically lower benefit) interventions such as warning signs and
introduction of priority signs (Give Way/Yield and Stop signs), through to more substantive
infrastructure improvement with higher costs, but also typically higher benefits (these include
improved facilities such as turning lanes and channelization, and improved intersection visibility).
One of the more commonly-used interventions is traffic signals. When well designed (including
provision of fully controlled turns) and when used in moderate speed environments (including
provision of speed-reducing features to reduce speeds to survival impact levels of 50 km/h or less),
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these can produce quite reasonable benefits.
4.2.8 Improving Surfacing on Poor Quality Roads without Additional Infrastructure
Improvement
Road surface improvements can lead to substantially higher traffic speeds, and if other measures
are not taken to improve safety for vulnerable road users (for example, provision of footpaths, traffic
calming) or for motorists (including improvements at intersections and curves, roadside
management, improved sight distance, and so forth) crashes are likely to increase.
Table 4.9 shows the descriptions and potential effectiveness of interventions of traffic calming
including humps, chicanes, and raised intersections.

(Traffic Calming including Humps, Chicanes and Raised Intersections)
4.2.9 Traffic Calming Including Humps, Chicanes
Humps and platforms refer to raised sections of pavement, with various forms of speed humps
and platforms available for different road types and speed environments. Chicanes provide
another mechanism for slowing vehicles through horizontal deflection (or movement) of
vehicles. These interventions can be used at high risk locations (such as areas where
pedestrians and other vulnerable road users need to cross) or as part of an integrated area-
wide traffic calming scheme.
4.2.10 Raised Intersections
Raised intersections (also known as raised junctions or plateaus) are raised sections of pavement
with ramps designed to reduce speeds to required levels (typically 50 km/h in the absence of
vulnerable road users, and lower where they are present). The whole intersection can be raised or
alternatively, raised sections can be placed in advance of the intersection (sometimes referred to
as raised stop bars).
Table 4.10 shows the descriptions and potential effectiveness of interventions of raised crossings,
gateway treatments and lower speed limits.
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(Raised Crossings, Gateway Treatments and Lower Speed Limits)
4.2.11 Raised Crossings
Raised pedestrian crossings are flat-top speed humps that also provide priority to pedestrians
rather than motorists. They typically consist of a raised platform with a marked pedestrian crossing
on top. A central refuge and narrowing may also be provided, particularly on wider roads. Additional
humps may be used in advance of the crossing to further reduce vehicle speeds. The raised
crossing slows vehicles and also increases the visibility of pedestrians due to the increased height.
4.2.12 Gateway Treatments
Gateway treatments (also called entry treatments or thresholds) are used to mark the transition
points between a higher speed environment to a lower speed environment. They are particularly
useful when approaching a town or village. Speed reductions are achieved through the use of
speed signs (these may be larger than normal) and road narrowing (either through constructed
islands or through painted markings). In some cases, raised pavements are used, or colored or
textured pavements used instead.
Table 4.11 shows the descriptions and potential effectiveness of interventions of speed
zones and speed cameras.
(Speed Zones and Speed Cameras)
4-67
References
Department of Public Works and Highways. (2008). Accident Blackspot Investigation Handbook.
Turner, B., Job, S., & Mitra, S. (2021). Guide for Road Safety Interventions: Evidence of What
Works and What Doew Not Work. Washington, DC, USA: World Bank.
iRAP (2022) The Road Safety Toolkit, https://toolkit.irap.org/
Knowledge Bases Australia ( ). Local Government & Municipal (LGAM)
Knowledge Base, http://lgam.wikidot.com/pedestrian-operated-signals
Federal Highway Administration (2010). Chapter 6.3.4. Alternative Intersections/
Interchanges: Informational Report (AIIR). Federal Highway Administration. FHWA-HRT-
09-060
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5 MODULE 5: INTERSECTION DESIGN & CONTROL

5.1 Typology of intersections; Intersection design and control principles
5.1.1 Introduction
Intersection plays an important role in any network system. It is the point where traffic flow
converges and where direction of travel changes.
Main objectives in the design and control of intersections
• Minimize the potential for and severity of conflicts among all road users;
• Provide adequate capacity; and
• Assure the convenience and ease of drivers, pedestrians, cyclists, etc. in making the
necessary maneuvers/actions.
Typology of intersection
The types of intersection may be categorized into three, namely as to:
a. Shape /Configuration
This refers to the configuration of the intersection and would depend largely on the number
of legs. Carefully planned and properly designed road networks often lead to intersections
with simpler shape having lesser number of legs. Some of the most commonly observed
intersection configurations are the following:
i) 3-leg:’T’ or ‘Y’
ii) 4-leg: normal crossing, oblique, or skewed
iii) multi-leg: with more than 4 legs
iv) Rotary, roundabout, traffic circle
b. Structure
Most of the intersections are either designed as at-grade intersection or grade separation such as
flyovers or interchanges. Almost all intersections are initially designed at-grade and are planned to
be grade-separated in the future to cope up with high traffic volume. The type of grade separation
depends largely on the extent of improvement it would provide in terms of easing up congestion or
reducing traffic accidents.
5- 1
i) At-grade intersection
D
‘ STOP’
50
45
30
60
A 380
B 70
70
380
60
45 30
50
‘STOP’
Hourly traffic volume in vph
ii) Grade-separation such as flyovers or interchanges
c. Operation
Rules and regulations applied to a given intersection depend largely on the type of control which is
in operation at that intersection. The main objective is to simplify traffic flow. This is often achieved
by reducing the number of conflicts of vehicles.
An intersection operates as unchannelized or channelized; and unsignalized or signalized.

Channelization often leads to simplified movements of vehicles as it leads drivers to one conflict at
a time. On the other hand, signalization greatly reduces crossing conflicts at the intersection area.
5.1.2 Intersection Design, Control & Analysis
Intersections are normally designed with a specific/corresponding type of control in mind. This
would depend on the amount of traffic volume expected to use the intersection, turning movements
allowed, and other considerations. Analysis, be it on capacity, safety or economic cost, will depend
on the combination of the geometric design of the intersection and control to be adopted.
Source: Sigua, R.G.
Figure 5.1: intersection design, control, and analysis interaction
5.1.3 Hierarchy of Control of Intersections
Depending on the traffic volume using the intersection and the severity of conflicts, intersection
control may fall under any of the following categories:
5-2
a) Unsignalized
- ‘right of way’ rule
- ‘STOP’ or ‘YIELD’ sign (Priority)
- U-turn scheme
- roundabout
b) Signalized
c) Flyover/Grade Separation
Unsignalized Intersection
When two minor roads intersect, traffic may be assumed to arrive at any approach of the
intersection in random fashion. In this case, signals may not be necessary, but some form of
control must be employed to ensure safety. The simplest form of control is to have no control
at all. At least, there are no visible reminders such as signs or markings posted in the vicinity
of the intersection. There is actually a rule for minor intersections where there is no clearly
defined priority. The so-called ‘right of way rule’ governs. This rule states that when two vehicles
arrive at the same time at the intersection, the vehicle on the right has the priority. This rule
must be understood by all drivers, and it does not depend on the size of the vehicle! There is
no such thing as ‘right of weight’.
In the case of intersections where priority is clearly defined, a major road crossing a minor road
for instance, the traffic on the minor road has to depend on available gaps at the major road
to be able to cross or turn. For this kind of intersections, reasonable controls for unsignalized
intersections may be done through the use of traffic signs such as ‘YIELD’ or ‘STOP’ sign. The
use of ‘YIELD’ sign is to establish or strengthen legal superiority of one traffic flow over another
where most traffic on all legs is able to proceed through without a full stop. With the use of
‘STOP’ sign, 2-way stop control or 4-way stop control may be implemented. In a 2-way stop
control, the major approaches without ‘STOP’ signs have complete priority over the minor
approaches with ‘STOP’ signs. In the 4-way stop control, all approaches have equal priority.
Studies indicate that 4-way stop control works to the best advantage of traffic when flows on
the two cross streets are approximately equal. In a simulation study of 4-way stop control by
Wright, it has been found out that the percentages of right, left, and through movements had
little effect on delays and queue lengths. This may be due to the fact that 4-way stop control
offers flexibility, i.e., the driver is given the opportunity to use his own judgment in deciding
what movements are possible at a given instant.
Roundabout or Rotary
This is another form of unsignalized intersection that works best when the number of turning
vehicles is almost equal to the number of through vehicles. In a roundabout , all the vehicles move
counterclockwise in one-way fashion. Movement is characterized by merging at very small angles,
weaving, and diverging when leaving the intersection. When traffic signals’ cost proved to be costly,
roundabout is a good alternative.
U-Turn Slots
U-turn scheme has been implemented at several intersections within Metro Manila for several years
now. Operation at U-turnslots is very similar to that of a roundabout except that it favors a particular
road which is assumed to be the major road.
Signalized Intersection
The control of traffic intersections by traffic signals is done by separation in time, i.e., conflicts
5-3
between opposing or merging streams are prevented by giving the right of way to a given
direction.
Grade-Separation
Grade-separation eliminates the problematic crossing conflicts of the different movements of

vehicles. Flyover/overpass, underpass, or full-blown interchanges are some of the examples
of grade-separation. Interchanges provide the safest and most efficient method of control but
definitely the costliest, and sometimes unaesthetic.
5.1.4 Principles of safe/good design and/or control of intersections
There are several principles that must be adopted so as to ensure safe and efficient operation and
control of intersections, namely:
• Minimize the number of conflicts
• Minimize the speed of vehicles at potential collision points; Minimize relative speed of
conflicting movements
• Minimize the area of conflict
• Separate movements and points of conflict
• Control movements to reduce the possibility of conflict; give preference to major
movement/s
Minimize number of conflicts
As much as possible, the maximum number of legs should be 4. The following figures illustrate 3 –
leg and 4 – leg intersections showing potential conflicts among vehicles, pedestrians, and cyclists.
3-leg
4-leg
Source: Sigua, R.G.
Figure 5.2: potential conflicts among vehicles, cyclists and pedestrians.
The table shows the number of vehicular conflicts, classified into diverging, merging, and crossing.
Diverging conflict is much less problematic compared to merging and crossing.
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Table 5.1: No. of Intersection Conflicts

Intersection Type
Type of conflict
3-Leg 4-Leg
Diverging 3 8
Merging 3 8
Crossing 3 16
Total 9 32
Source: Sigua, R.G.
The figure shows the exponential increase in the number of conflicts if intersections are designed
with more than 4 legs.
200
180
160
No. of Conflicts
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
2 3 4 5 6 7
No. of Legs
Source: Sigua, R.G.

Figure 5.3: Number of legs and number of conflicts
Consider, a 4-leg intersection with all movements allowed. The figure shows the conflict diagrams
for the different types of intersections discussed previously.
Unsignalized Intersection Signalized Intersection
P- 1 P-2
P-3 P-4
Roundabout/Rotary U-Turn Slots
Source: Sigua, R.G.
Figure 5.4: Number of Vehicular Conflicts by Intersection Control
5-5
Staggered intersection, as shown in the figure, should be avoided as it complicates the movements
and conflicts of road users utilizing the intersection.
If 5-leg cannot be avoided, use the fifth as a minor leg only for exit.
Minimize relative speed of vehicles

This principle is aimed at reducing the impact of speeds of vehicles approaching the intersection.
Main consideration is the angle of conflict of vehicles. Very high relative speed, i.e., vectorial speed
of convergence of vehicles in a conflict maneuver, should be avoided.
Relative speed is measured based on cosine law:
C 2 = A2 + B2 − 2ABCOSθ
For instance: if two conflicting vehicles at a right-angle intersection have approach speeds of
A=60kph and B=60kph., the calculated relative speed is C=85kph.
As a rule, 2 roads should preferably intersect at right angle or must be at least 60o.
When modifying alignment, major highway should not be bent (and the intersection must beat right
angle).
5.1.5 Channelization
Channelization or use of traffic islands or pavement markings to direct the traffic into predetermined
paths improves the geometry of the intersection. Channelization can be very effective in achieving
the following objectives:
• Separate conflicting movements
• Reduce areas of conflict
• Cause opposing traffic streams to intersect at right angles
5-6
• Improve and define the alignment of major movements

• Control the speed of traffic entering an intersection by changing alignment
• Control speed of traffic by restricting width
• Provide refuge or median to shelter a turning or crossing vehicle
• Provide protection for pedestrians
• Prohibit certain turns
• Provide locations for traffic signal poles or traffic signs
The following show some illustrations on how these objectives can be achieved:
a.Reduction of area of conflict through the introduction of median separators
b.Crossing at or near right angle
c.Refuge for crossing and turning vehicles
d.Refuge for crossing pedestrians
e. Merge traffic stream at small angles
5-7
f.Speed of traffic stream may be controlled by bending
f.Speed of traffic stream may be controlled by funneling
g.Conflict movements are separated; drivers are exposed to one conflict at a time
h.Blockage of prohibited turns
i.Installation of essential traffic control devices (traffic signals and signs)
5-8
Illustrative examples
Example 1: Consider the T - junction where left turn movements are allowed as shown. Very high
relative speeds are created due to the almost head – on conflicts.
The figure below shows an existing junction which exhibits the same issues mentioned above.
Improving the intersection using channelization and the introduction of traffic signal control will be
able to eliminate dangerous maneuvers.
Example 2: The following figures illustrate how to improve an intersection with large conflict areas
through channelization and use of pavement markings.
5-9
Considering the travel paths of the different movements, appropriate sizes of the median separator
are determined. Moreover, the area of conflict has been considerably reduced.
5.1.6 Roundabouts
Roundabouts are considered safer compared to other types of intersections since the relative
speeds of conflicting vehicles are much lower, thereby preventing serious crashes. Comparing
roundabouts and signalized intersections, the following must be considered:
• Conflicts can arise from both legal and illegal maneuvers.
• Many of the most serious crashes are caused by failure to observe traffic control devices.
• Even though traffic control devices (signals) can significantly reduce many conflicts, they
cannot eliminate them entirely due to violations of those devices.
5- 10
Signalization
Figure 5.5: Traffic signal control and roundabout
5.2 Traffic Signal Control
5.2.1 Introduction
The control of traffic intersections by traffic signals is done by separation in time, i.e., conflicts
between opposing or merging streams are prevented by giving the right of way to a given direction.
This separation in time is termed as signal phasing. And it can be seen that the more the number
of conflicts there is, the more the number of phasing is needed. However, in some cases as in a
major street- minor street intersection, or in approaches where left turning volume is relatively low,
a separate phasing for the minor flow may not be necessary. The number of phases employed at
any intersection must be kept to a minimum compatible with safety because with every phase
added, there is a corresponding additional loss of green time which eventually leads to increased
intersection delay.
5.2.2 Types of Signals
There are many types of traffic signals being used to control traffic flow. Depending on the distance
and influence of one or more signals over the other, the intersections may be classified as isolated,
coordinated, or area controlled.
a. Isolated
A particular intersection may be considered isolated if arrivals of vehicles at its approach are
random. Consider the traffic flow at the two signalized intersections A and B as shown in the figure.
Supposing queue formed in A proceeds towards intersection B. If this queue has dispersed and
vehicles arrive at random at B, then B may be considered as an isolated intersection. Naturally, this
will happen only when distance between the two intersections is far or when traffic volume is
relatively low. In highly built-up areas such as the city or town centers, it is unlikely to have this kind
of intersection.
A B
5- 11
Pre – time or Fixed time
Pre-time or fixed time signals work best when there is not much fluctuation in traffic flow. The
pre-time signal controller may be of a single or multi-program type of controller. The single-
program controller makes use of one set of signal parameters to control traffic flow throughout
the day or during the period when the signal is in operation. On the other hand, the multi-
program type makes use of several sets of parameters. This offers greater flexibility and may
be able to cope with the fluctuating demand within the day. Nowadays, a controller with five
or more programs is not uncommon.
single program multiple programs
Figure 5.6: Programming pre-time signal control
Traffic actuated
For isolated intersections where randomness of arrivals is expected, traffic-actuated signals is

very effective. In case of a priority road, a semi-actuated type of signal control is appropriate.
In this system, detectors are located only on the approaches of the minor road. With this set
up, continuous green time may be given to the major road traffic flow. Right of way is given to
the minor road only when demand is detected. In case of two roads where there is no clear
priority given to any direction, fully actuated type of control is sometimes utilized. In this scheme,
all approaches are provided with detectors.
When the interval of time between vehicles crossing the detector becomes greater than the
last unit extension period, the right of way is transferred to the other directions. When there is
heavy volume of traffic in a particular direction, successive demand for extension period may
happen and this will lead to continuous green indication. Hence, a preset maximum green
period is necessary to limit the length of the green period. It can be expected that when traffic
demand is heavy in all approaches, green period may always reach the maximum green period
resulting to an almost fixed-time operation.
Semi-actuated Fully actuated
Figure 5.7: Types of traffic – actuated signals
b. Coordinated:
Where randomness can no longer be ensured and there is a need for continuous movement over
an arterial, coordination or synchronization of the timing of the signals in series is required. It is also
possible that within an arterial, subgroups consisting of several intersections may be developed.
Each subgroup is treated independently from another subgroups.
5- 12
Figure 5.8: Subgrouping of intersections for efficient control
c. Area traffic control

In urban centers, links (road sections) and nodes (intersections) often form a network.
Optimization techniques have been developed to cope with such network. Nowadays,
sophisticated software run by powerful computers are used. Examples of these are the SCATS ,
SCOOT, etc. In such advanced traffic signal control systems, the signal timings are free to
evolve in response to detected traffic volumes and queues.
Figure 5.9: road network in urban centers suited for area traffic control
5.2.3 Data Requirements
In planning for phase pattern, determination of appropriate timing of the signals, several data
are required:
a. Traffic volume – must include all types of vehicles (including nonmotorized- bicycles,
pedicabs, etc.); directional
b. Pedestrian flows – movement of pedestrians in all directions
c. PCU values – passenger car unit equivalent of the different types of vehicles
d. Saturation flow rates – maximum flow rate occurring at the stop line once traffic
initially in queue is given green time indication.
e. Physical characteristics of the road - no. of legs; width of approaches; no. of lanes;
gradient.
Consider the flow of a single queue of vehicles once signal indication turns to green as shown
in the figure. At the start of green, it can be observed that the lead vehicle will take a second
or two to react. It will be after two or three vehicles crossing the stop line when the traffic flow
will be at maximum rate. This brings about what is called starting loss. In the diagram, the
starting loss is estimated as the time from the actual start of green up to the point where the
line representing the maximum rate crosses the horizontal axis. The maximum flow rate
which corresponds to minimum headway is also known as the saturation flow rate. The value
of saturation flow rate depends on several factors – vehicle mix, condition of the pavement,
geometric characteristics of the road (width of the lane, gradient), direction of movement, etc.
5- 13
Figure 5.10: Saturation flow determination
5.2.4 Phase/Stage:
Phasing is a process by which right of way is given to movements in a logical manner with the
primary purpose of minimizing the number of conflicts. The number of conflicts at an
intersection depends largely on the geometry of the intersection and turning prohibition. It may
be observed that as the number of legs of the intersection increases, the number of conflicts
increases exponentially.
In planning for the appropriate phase pattern for a particular intersection, the major factors to
be considered are the traffic volume and any turning regulation/prohibition. Oftentimes, it is
the left turn movement which gives the problem at an intersection as it complicates and
increases the number of the required phases. Nevertheless, the basic principle is to minimize
the number of phases commensurate with safety.
Given the geometry of the intersection and a set of traffic volume, there are many possibilities of
developing phase patterns. The role of the traffic engineer is to find out the most appropriate one
to meet the requirements of meeting the traffic demand and providing safety to all road users,
including pedestrians, and cyclists.
3-leg 4-leg
Figure 5.11: Pedestrians and cyclists movements
Examples of Phasing diagrams :
2-Phase System 3-Phase System
Consider Leading Pedestrian Interval (LPI) to avoid conflict between right turning vehicles and
pedestrians
5- 14
Pedestrian Consideration
Aside from allowing pedestrians to move simultaneously with the vehicular traffic, the provision of
‘scramble’ phase can offer more level of safety to pedestrians. During this phase, vehicles in all
directions are required to stop to allow pedestrians to cross in all directions, including diagonally.
Figure 5.12: Scramble Phase
5.2.5 Lost Times
In the previous section, it has been said that the number of phases must be minimized
commensurate with safety. The major reason for this is that as the number of phases increases,
the amount of lost time also increases. The lost time is composed of the starting loss and the
all-red period as shown in the figure. It can be observed that for every phase, there is a
corresponding starting loss and all-red period.
The generally accepted value of starting loss is 2 seconds. The amount of all-red period
depends on the size of the intersection. Together with the yellow or amber period , they
compose the clearance interval or intergreen period. With the yellow or amber having a value
of 3 seconds, the all-red period must be long enough for the last vehicle crossing the road to
clear safely.
Intergreen = Yellow + All-Red
Figure 5.13: Lost times and intergreen period
5- 15
5.2.6 Cycle
A cycle is one complete indication of green, yellow and red. Its length is constant for a pre-time
or fixed time signals. It varies for traffic-actuated signals depending on traffic demand.
The fundamental relation between intersection delay and cycle length is shown.
Figure 5.14: Cycle and delay relation
Using either a long or short cycle will lead to long delay with very short cycle giving worse
results. The objective of signal timing is to minimize delay. There are other objective functions
– travel speed, fuel consumption, emissions, etc. but they are all related to delay. Improving
delay would lead to better speed, fuel savings and lesser emissions. The cycle corresponding
to least intersection delay is termed as the optimum cycle length. Webster’s formula is widely
used to estimate this cycle length. The equation is given by:
1.5L + 5
C =
opt
1− Y
Where: L – total lost time
Y – sum of critical y-values
5.2.7 Allocation of Green Times

After the cycle length is computed, the total green time must be allocated to the different
movements or phases. This is normally achieved by dividing it in proportion to the y-values. For
a particular phase i, for example, its green time is estimated as follows:
gi = (C − L)
5.2.8 Capacity of Movement or Approach
Given the amount of green time allocated to an approach or movement and its saturation flow
rate, the capacity of such approach or movement can be estimated as follows:
Capacity = s g
c
s – saturation flow rate
g – effective green
c – cycle length
5.2.9 Estimation of delay
The equation for the optimum cycle length was derived by minimizing the delay function
5- 16
obtained by Webster. Webster’s formula for delay consists of three terms. The first term is the
major component of the delay equation. It can be easily obtained by considering the area of
the triangle as shown in the figure. This is based on a D/D/1 queuing where both arrival (q) and
departure (s) patterns are assumed regular. The second term based on Allsop was obtained
by assuming an additional queue interposed between the arriving traffic and the signal. The
last term is a correction factor obtained from simulation.
Figure 5.15: Delay representation per cycle
Delay, D = area of triangle

qc2 (1−λ)2
D=
2 (1−λx)
Average Delay per Vehicle, d
d= = λ=
;
5.2.10 Timing Diagram
After all the signal parameters have been computed, it is better to produce the timing diagram
where all the numerical values are displayed. This is later applied to the signal controller. The
figure below shows a sample timing diagram for a two-phase signal system.
Figure 5.16: Timing diagram
5.2.11 Intersection Degree of Congestion, X
Although the Y-value gives the indication whether to continue with the computation or not, the
degree of congestion, X is often used as the measure of the performance of the intersection. For a
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given approach or movement, the degree of congestion of that approach or movement is the ratio
of the demand over capacity.
CY CY
X= =
g C−L
5.2.12 Pedestrian green time requirement
The following must be considered:
• Signal heads for pedestrians must be installed

• v = 1.1 meter/sec walking speed
• Green time: w/v + 5 to 10 seconds

where w – width of the carriageway, m.
5.2.13 Bicycle requirement
The following must be considered:
• It is advisable to install bicycle signal heads

• a minimum bicycle green time of 12 seconds and a maximum green time of 25 seconds.
• v = 15km/hr cruising speed (4.17 m/sec)
• Clearance interval of: 3 + w/v seconds ; w –calculated from the intersection entry (i.e.,
stop-line or crosswalk in the absence of a stop-line) to halfway across the last lane
carrying through traffic
• 0.80 to 0.997 sec headway
Illustrative example:
Consider the traffic volumes and saturation flow rates for the different movements at a 4-leg
intersection:
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Movement Approach Direction Volume, pcu/hr. Saturation flow rate, pcu/hr

1 North Through+Right 930 1800
2 South Through+Right 700 1800
3 East Through+Right 650 2000

4 West Through+Right 420 2000
Use yellow = 3sec and all – red = 2 sec.;

Starting loss = 2sec.
Phase pattern:
Phase Approach Volume, pcu/hr. SFR, y-value

pcu/hr
1 East 650 2000 0.325
West 420 2000 0.210
2 North 930 1800 0.517

South 700 1800 0.389
Estimation of Cycle Length:

Critical y-values:
Y – value = 0.325 + 0.517 = 0.842
Lost time, L:
L = 2×starting loss +2×all-red = 2×2 +2×2 = 8sec.
The optimum cycle length is:
1.5L + 5 1.5 8 + 5
Cop = = = 107.37
1− Y 1− 0.842
say 110 sec.
Allocation of Green Times

gi = (C − L)
Total usable or effective green, g:
g = C – L = 110 – 8 = 102 sec.
This effective green is allocated as follows:
For Phase 1:
y1 0.325
g1 = g= 102 = 39
Y 0.842
For Phase 2:
y2 0.517
g2 = g= 102 = 62.6
Y 0.842
Or
g2 = g − g1 = 102 − 39 = 63
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Check on pedestrian and cyclist requirements:

Pedestrians:
• w=12meters. (width of carriageway)
• Pedestrian walking speed = 1.1 m/s.
• Time to cross = 10.9 sec + 5 sec approx. 16 sec. OK
Cyclists:
• w=12m + 6m (from stop line) + 1.8m (length of bicycle) = 19.8m.
• Clearance interval = 3 + 19.8/4.17 = 4.57 sec.

• Green time for cyclists >= 12 + 4.57 = 16.57 sec. OK
5-20
6 MODULE 6: CORRIDOR AND SUB-AREA TRAFFIC

MANAGEMENT
6.1 Planning for Corridor Traffic Management
Corridor
A corridor is a broad geographic band connecting population and employment centers and served
by various transportation modes, within which passenger and freight travel, land use, topography,
environment, and other characteristics are evaluated for transportation purposes. (Source: Vermont
Corridor Management Handbook, Vermont agency of Transportation, 2005 )
The length of a corridor ranges from just hundred meters within the city to several kilometers going
beyond LGU boundaries.
Source: JPT
Figure 6.1 Corridor example
Sub-area
To control the traffic network effectively, and reduce complexity of traffic control, it is necessary to
divide the traffic network to some sub-areas which are the units of traffic coordination control. The
urban road network is so huge and complex that different traffic areas may be in different traffic
conditions at the same time.
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Source: JPT
Figure 6.2: Sub-area road network (a)
Source: JPT
Figure 6.3: Sub-area road network (b)
Intersection/Point
Area Segment along the corridor

Source: JPT
Figure 6.4 Segment along the Corridor Example
If the traffic guidance and control of the whole road network are unified, first, the signal data
calculation system will be too slow or even unable to complete the calculation due to the excessive
amount of data. Second, once one part of the control system fails, the whole system will break
down.
Planning for Traffic Management within Corridors
Transportation within corridors plays a key role in mobility but is more than just moving people and
goods. Transportation within corridors is a lifeline for communities, often linking neighborhoods,
businesses, and jobs. The city’s transportation needs can be most effectively addressed at the
corridor level rather than on a piecemeal basis.
Contexts for Corridor TSMO Planning

(Source: Vermont Corridor Management Handbook, Vermont Agency of Transportation, 2005 )
The Vermont Agency of Transportation provides a comprehensive discussion on corridor planning

termed as Transportation System Management and Operations (TSMO). The figure below shows
he context of TSMO.
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Source:Vermont Corridor Management Handbook, VermontAgency of Transportation, 2005
Figure 6.5 Transportation Systems Management and Operations
The contexts for corridor TSMO planning can be understood in the simple terms of:
• Why?
• Who?
• When?
• Where?
The WHY provides the primary motivation for considering TSMO strategies within the corridor.
• critical to mobility and economic activity throughout the corridor
• specific corridor is identified as an area requiring significant improvements or corrections
• result of growing concerns about congestion, safety, air quality, reliability, or other
recurring problems within a corridor
• high-crash locations along a corridor and identify geometric or capacity improvements
The WHO forTSMO planning for corridors establishes responsibility for planning and implementing
TSMO strategies within a corridor
• if the corridor of interest is within a single jurisdiction, responsibility may lie with a single
agency within the jurisdiction, but, even in this case, there are likely to be other agencies
and jurisdictions that are affected by decisions made with respect to the corridor of
interest, thus communication and coordination with these agencies and jurisdictions is
important to the success of the TSMO improvements in the corridor.
• The WHO in TSMO planning for corridors also reflects the capacity and experience of the
responsible agency or agencies
The WHERE of TSMO planning for corridors is critical both to identifying key entities responsible
for planning and implementing TSMO strategies and tactics and to determining who will benefit or
be otherwise affected by TSMO strategies and tactics considered for the corridor.
The WHEN of TSMO corridor planning considers both the point at which TSMO planning takes
place and the timeframe forTSMO strategies and tactics. TSMO corridor planning is most effective
when integrated into the planning process for a new facility or when an existing facility is expanded
or undergoing major renovation.
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6.2 Objectives of corridor traffic management
There are tradeoffs among different goals and objectives. Depending on what we want to achieve,
an objective tree can be developed as shown below:
Figure 6.6 Objective Tree for corridor-based transportation systems management and
operations
When planning for traffic management for a corridor, it is very important to develop our vision, goals,
objectives, and strategies.
6.3 Establishing a Vision and Goals for the Corridor
o The vision is a concise statement that paints a picture of the desired future for the
corridor – from both a land use and a transportation perspective
o The goals support the vision, and lay out desired long-range outcomes to be
achieved by the corridor plan
Corridors serve multiple functions. The vision and goals may acknowledge the need to balance
competing desires. For some small-scale corridor planning efforts, having a statement of vision and
goals will be sufficient to move ahead with defining strategies. For larger efforts, it may be helpful
to develop a set of more specific objectives and quantitative performance measures that back up
the vision and goals.
6.4 Impacts to Consider in Corridor Studies
It must be recognized that there are positive and negative impacts of any traffic management
changes we would want to introduce to the corridor. These are:
a) Mobility and Accessibility

• Travel time and delay for all roadway corridor users;
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• Access to jobs, services, other activities for transportation-disadvantaged; and

• Access for recreation and tourism uses.
b) Safety
• Bicycle and pedestrian safety.
• Motor vehicle safety
c) Economic Development
• Impacts on local property values and business sales;
• Local and citywide business attraction and expansion; and
• Local, citywide, and regional freight mobility.
d) Environment
• Loss of productive agricultural and forest land;
• Loss of important habitats (wetlands, forests, prime wildlife habitat, endangered species
habitat);
• Habitat connectivity and wildlife movement (land and water);
• Stream alteration and water quality; and
e) Quality of Life
• Noise and vibration;
• Air pollution;
• Aesthetic and visual impacts;
• Impacts on recreational areas and open space; and
• Historic and archeological resources.
f) Secondary and Cumulative Impacts

• Transportation-induced growth patterns and related secondary impacts; and
• Cumulative impacts of past, present, and future transportation, land use, and other actions.
6.5 Types of Corridor Management and Improvement Strategies
There are different strategies we can adopt depending on the level of improvements we want
to introduce to the corridor:
a) Minor Roadway and Operational Improvements

• Improved signage and markings;
• Signals and other intersection controls;
• PT stops
• bicycle signals; pedestrian signals;
• Off-road safety improvements (e.g., guardrails, vegetation clearance);
• Drainage systems and maintenance practices to reduce environmental impacts, improve
water quality, etc.;
• On-street parking restrictions;
• Designated truck routes;
• Intelligent transportation systems (ITS) strategies such as traveler information and incident
response; and
• Seasonal and special event controls (e.g., traffic officer).
b) Major Roadway Improvements

• Lane additions at intersections;
• Bicycle lanes
• Pedestrian sidewalk and other facilities
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• PT loading/unloading bays
• Roundabouts;
• Medians and channelization;
• Shoulder widening;
• Horizontal and vertical curve realignment;
• Climbing lanes;
• Passing lanes; and
• New general-purpose lanes.
c) Zoning and Land Use

• Land use and zoning provisions to encourage concentrated development;
• Designation of specific planning areas within town plans with guidelines for development,
resource protection, and access management;
• Designation of scenic view corridor;
• Site plan review requirements for developments along the corridor;
• Subdivision regulations that encourage pedestrian connectivity and internal street connections
to reduce traffic volumes on main roads;
• Provisions to allow for shared parking among adjacent uses;
• Growth management tools, such as development phasing and infrastructure concurrency
requirements;
• Overlay districts to protect critical resources; and
• Performance standards for new developments.
d) Access Management
• Driveway consolidation;
• Turn restrictions and medians;
• Intersection spacing; and
• Local street infrastructure.
e) New Facilities
• New/expanded interchanges;
• Bypasses; and
• Intermodal facilities.
f) Alternative Mode Improvements and Travel Demand Management

• Signs and markings (pedestrian crossings, bicycle lanes);
• Sidewalk improvements;
• Off-road bicycle/pedestrian paths;
• Transit service improvements;
• Travel demand management programs, such as rideshare programs
and employer transit subsidies;
• Rail capacity and service improvements; and
• Intermodal facility and access improvements (passenger, freight).
g) Modal Connectivity Improvements

• Park-and-ride lots;
• Bike racks on buses; and
• Shuttle services.
6.6 Performance measures
The success of traffic management improvements along the corridor may be gauged by adopting
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key indicators or performance measures. The table provides various performance measures
depending on the objective. Illustrative targets corresponding to its performance measure are also
indicated.
Table 6.1 Example of Performance Measures depending on the Given Objective
Considering pedestrian safety along the corridor for instance, goals, objectives, strategies
and performance measures are defined in the figure below.
Figure 6.7 Example of Objective Tree considering Safety along the Corridor
When travel time efficiency along the corridor is desired, the goals, objectives, performance
measures, and strategies are defined. Moreover, it is also important in traffic management planning
to identify data needs and their sources.
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Table 6.2 Example of Data Needs – Reduce Travel Time
Source: Vermont Corridor Management Handbook, Vermont Agency of Transportation, 2005
This table is intended for traffic management planning intended to improve bicycle and pedestrian
accessibility and efficiency within the corridor.
Table 6.3 Example of Data Needs – Improve Bicycle and Pedestrian Accessibility
6.7 Evaluating Transportation Systems Management and Operations Strategies
Numerous methods and tools are currently available to evaluate TSMO strategies as part of corridor
planning
• (1) travel demand models; They are useful for generating traffic origin-destination patterns
or volumes for input into simulation models
• (2) sketch-planning tools; intended to provide quick analysis using generally available
information and data. They are typically spreadsheets or simple databases that are based
on built-in assumptions of impacts and benefits for various strategies. provide a quick
order-of-magnitude estimate with minimal input data
• (3) analytical/deterministic tools; typically implement existing and accepted procedures
6-8
• (4) simulation models, Agencies use simulation tools to analyze operations of both traffic
and transit to conduct needs assessments, alternatives analysis, and environmental
impact studies. A key advantage of these tools is their ability to simulate conditions, such
as incidents, and analyze conditions under multiple scenarios.
At present, traffic simulation is widely used as a tool in evaluating different strategies or

scenarios.
6.8 Use of Road Space
There is always not enough space to accommodate all potential road users along a corridor. The
table shows the current allowed or tolerated use of road space within a typical LGU. Most of these
informal activities are not supposed to be happening on the road.
Table 6.4 Example of Road Space User
Source: Responses from training participants
Table 6.5 Informal Use of Road Space

Informal Use (indicated red in previous table)
mobile vendor carts, ambulant vendors, Kapihan,

ihawan/bbq
illegal terminals, jeepney terminals
illegal parking
barangay outpost, electrical posts, telecom box,
Water meter obstruction
utility installer,
construction (sand, gravel, etc.), Construction

workers barracks, debris, bulok na sasakyan
Burol sa kalye, outdoor mass, , tents, carinderia,
laundry area, car wash

basketball courts, children playing, , Zumba
Source: Responses from training participants
6-9
National Transport Policy, 2017
The National Transport Policy and its implementing rules and regulations clearly stated the giving
of priority to people mobility over vehicle mobility. And that public transport and shared transport
modes will have priority over private modes in the use of roads. Moreover, active transport or
nonmotorized transport such as walking and cycling have to be promoted through development of
open spaces, sidewalks, bike lanes, and other facilities. Public mass transportation in urban areas
shall be given priority over private motor vehicles in the use of road space.
The NTP also establishes the hierarchy of urban public transport services. High-capacity mode for
high demand corridors and low-capacity mode for low demand corridors.
Presently, there are many activities, practices and regulations which need to be discussed in
relation to traffic management. Some of these issues are related to:
• Vendors
• On-street parking
• Truck ban
• PUV/PUJ stops
• Dedicated lanes (PUV, bicycle, MC, truck,…)
• One-way traffic
a) Vendors
The city of Surakarta in Indonesia was able to solve the sensitive issue of illegal street vendors
through an empowerment program. The relocation of street vendors has been done with great
consideration of the local culture and humane methods.
Source: UCLG Committee on Social Inclusion, Participatory Democracy and Human Rights
Figure 6.8: Example of Empowerment Program – Relocation of Street Vendors
b) On-street parking along corridors

If off – street parking cannot be provided, proper on-street parking management along corridors is
necessary specially at commercial areas with high economic and parking activity.
If parking is not well served and properly managed, it can disrupt traffic flow and cause congestion.
The DILG MC #2019 – 121 was issued to recover or reclaim public roads which are being used for
6- 10
private end.
Source: DILG
Figure 6.9: DILG MC #2019 – 121 Recover or Reclaim Public Roads
The LGU of Quezon City has defined what illegal structures or road obstructions are, and therefore,
should be cleared.
Source: Quezon City Website

Figure 6.10: Information Campaign of LGU of Quezon City on Illegal Structures or
Road Obstructions
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c) Truck ban along corridors

Large trucks are often perceived as slow moving and occupy a large amount of road space,
thus hampering the smooth flow of traffic, especially during peak-periods.
Based on a study by Castro, Kuse, and Hyodo, ban-exempt smaller trucks are now used in
place of banned larger trucks in transporting freight from the ports. And the effect of the truck
ban has been to worsen congestion during peak hours due to the increase of small freight
vehicles.
Source: A STUDY ON THE IMPACT AND EFFECTIVENESS OF THE TRUCK BAN SCHEME IN METRO MANILA,
Castro, J, Kuse, H.Hyodo, T.,https://www2.kaiyodai.ac.jp/~hyodo/047.pdf
d) PUV loading/unloading along corridors

For Public utility Vehicles loading/unloading along corridors, some rules of thumb are being followed.
• Stops should be placed at a distance of at least 30 meters from an intersection.
• Stop sections for major stops should be at least 30 meters long.
However, the location of PUV stops have to be carefully studied. Locating stops after the
intersection may cause negative effects on the operation of the intersection such as:
• Blockage of right turn from other direction
• Blockage of path of through from other directions
• Long queue of jeepneys may result to double-stopping to avoid being caught in the
intersection
Jeepney/Bus Stop
After Intersection
Legend:
Jeepney/Bus
Car(Other Vehicles)
Source: Sigua, R., Uncontrolled Loading/Unloading of Public Utility Jeepneys
Figure 6.11.a: Locating stops after the intersection
Similarly, stops located before the intersection may cause the following effects:
• Blockage of through and right turn traffic
• Reduction of approach capacity by one lane almost 100% of the time
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Jeepney/Bus Stop
Before Intersection
Legend:
Jeepney/Bus
Car(OtherVehicles)
Figure 6.11.b: Locating stops before the intersection
Traffic simulation can help assess the pros and cons of these different scenarios.
e) Dedicated lanes along corridor

Following the guidelines of the NTP, sharing of road space gives priority to public transport and
highly considers provision of facilities for active transport, that is, for walking and cycling.
f) One- way conversion of corridor
One-way streets operate best in "pairs," separated by a block to no more than one-quarter mile
(400m.) (https://safety.fhwa.dot.gov/saferjourney1/library/countermeasures/13.htm)
When planning for one – way conversion of a corridor, there is a need to consider impacts on other
streets or on the road network as the problem may just be transferred somewhere. One –way roads
tend to create speeding problems. Redesign or traffic calming measures may be required to
address this.
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7 MODULE 7: TRAFFIC SIMULATION AS A TOOL IN TRAFFIC

MANAGEMENT
7.1 INTRODUCTION
7.1.1 General Approaches to Finding Solutions to Traffic Problems
Transportation planners, and traffic engineers and managers can usually apply any of the following
three general approaches or methods.
Analytical approach – writing mathematical expressions and procedures using such equations to
represent the traffic process and then manipulating them to determine parameters that may be
used arrive at a state or condition that manifests improvement in traffic flow.
Trial and error approach – involves a change in the real-world or actual traffic situation and applying
corrections or adjustments if the initial implementation turns out badly, until the acceptable
improvement in traffic condition is attained. It can also be called the heuristic approach.
Simulation – the imitation of the operation of a real-world process or system over time using a
software or computer application. Scenario analysis is performed after recreating the real-world
traffic network and flows to find the best or appropriate improvement schemes that shows the best
improvement in traffic condition.
There are pros and cons in choosing which approach to use. The analytical approach uses classical
mathematics to derive a solution. Being highly theoretical and based on established physical and
empirical laws, solutions are robust and can be generally applied in many situations, if not all.
Results are highly reproducible, meaning, repeating the same analytical experiment will yield the
same solution. It is also the least costly and least time-consuming. Its weakness is its lack of realism
because results are derived from a theoretical model of the situation that usually over-simplifies the
real-world traffic situation, which is usually complex. Trial and error approach offers the most
realistic assessment of the situation because traffic improvement schemes are implemented on the
ground, in the real-world. Real world experimentation also means very high cost in terms of time
and resources. It scores least in generality of results and reproducibility because the implemented
improvements are usually applied locally, and the solution in a road section or local road network
may not be the same for another. Simulation (analysis using traffic simulation software) offers a
good compromise or trade-off between the other two approaches. It helps the traffic manager arrive
at the best or most appropriate traffic improvement scheme after having tested as close to reality
as possible various candidate scenarios using the computer model, without implementing costly
real-world experimentation.
7.1.2 Levels of Analyses (Analytical Contexts) Related to Traffic Management
There are also different analytical contexts related to traffic management. Planning level may be a
short-, medium-, and/or long-term study to produce local transportation plans such as master plans,
congestion management plans, ITS strategic plans, and others. Design task seeks to produce
preliminary design or analysis to determine the best option for implementation. It includes, for
instance, the analysis of roadway features to operate at the desired level of service. However, it still
excludes the full design projects that require detailed geometric design, pavement design, etc. The
last type is the operations analysis or construction, which is similar with design projects but focused
on determining the best approach for optimizing or evaluating existing transportation or traffic
systems.
7.1.3 Traffic Analysis Tools
There are several tools designed to assist transportation professionals in evaluating the strategies
that best address transportation needs of their jurisdictions. Several tools are usually available for
7- 1
various purposes, such as to:

• Improve decision making
• Evaluate and prioritize planning and operational alternatives
• Improve design and evaluate time and costs
• Reduce disruption to traffic
• Present market strategies to stakeholders
• Operate and manage existing roadway capacity, and
• Monitor performance
7.1.4 Categories of Traffic Analysis Tools
Sketch-planning tools are used for project evaluation without in-depth engineering analysis. The
analytical procedures are relatively simple, making use of simplified analysis technique and highly
aggregated data. The outcome is usually good enough for budget preparation and project proposals.
Examples of such tools or programs are HDM4 and Highway Capacity Manual (or HCM) quick
estimate methods.
Now you may be familiar with CUBE, EMME, PTV Visum, and Strada. These are tools or computer
programs categorized as travel demand models. Embedded in such software are mathematical
models that predict future travel demand, origin-destination (or OD) patterns, mode choice, and
route choice. These are useful in town or city or even regional transportation planning. The analysis
leads to the determination of benefit and impacts of major highway or public transport system
improvements.
The third category of tools are Highway Capacity Manual (HCM) based analytical tools. These
are computational templates, spreadsheets, or software that implement procedures of (or similar
with) the US HCM Manual. They are used to evaluate the operation performance or level-of-service
of specific transportation facilities, for example intersections, highway arterials, public transport
terminals, and other facilities or components of the transport network. These tools predict capacity,
density, speed, delay, and queueing. Examples of these tools are SIDRA (used for intersection
design and evaluation), the HCS or Highway Capacity Software (used for capacity and level-of-
service analyses), and the DPWH Planning Manual.
Design & analysis of signalized intersections is always a major consideration in highway traffic
engineering, and there are traffic signal optimization tools to be used for such. These tools are
used to develop optimal signal-phasing and timing plans for isolated signal intersections, arterial
streets, and traffic signal networks. They include capacity calculation, cycle length determination,
split optimization, and coordination of intersections along an arterial or in a network of traffic signals.
7-2
Figure 7.1 Categories of Traffic Analysis Tools
The last category is the traffic simulation tool, and this is further divided into three sub-categories.
These are macroscopic, mesoscopic, and microscopic simulation tools. The similarity is that they
try to imitate or model traffic flowing through roads sections and junctions forming the road network
that is to be studied or analyzed. They differ, however in how traffic flow is conceptualized and
measured.
Macroscopic traffic simulation is based on the theory of traffic stream wherein traffic is described
by the fundamental formula Q = VK. Traffic stream in a road section is characterized by volume,
speed, and density (Q, V, and K, respectively), and these would change from road section to road
section, as traffic flows into the network, depending on factors and controls in the network. Thus,
simulation is done on a section-by-section traffic stream rather than individual vehicles. Because of
this macroscopic representation, they require lesser demand on computational processing
compared to microscopic simulation. Macroscopic models usually do not have the ability to analyze
transportation improvements in as much detail compared to microscopic models. TRANSYT-7F is
an example of a macroscopic traffic simulation program.
Mesoscopic traffic simulation models are sort of a hybrid of Macroscopic and Microscopic
models. The unit of traffic flow is individual vehicle, but their movement follows the approach of
macroscopic models and is governed by average speed on the travel link. Travel simulations take
place in an aggregate level and does not consider dynamic speed-volume relationships. They are
less accurate than microscopic tools, but superior as planning analysis tool. An example of a
mesoscopic traffic simulator is the DYNAMIT series.
Finally, the microscopic traffic model provides the most realistic imitation of traffic flow, and
fundamentally simulates movement of individual vehicles based on theories of car-following, and
lane-changing behavior. Vehicles enter the transportation network at random and their movement
are tracked and updated over a fixed time interval, say every second, or even a fraction of a second.
Upon entry, each vehicle is assigned a destination, a vehicle type, and a driver type. Examples of
microscopic traffic simulators are PTV VISSIM, CUBE DYNASIM, SUMO, and LOCALSIM.
The table below shows a cross-tabulation of the 3 analytical contexts, namely, planning, design,
and operations/construction, with the type of analytical tools or methodologies. As we can see,
traffic microscopic simulation is more appropriate for design and operations analysis. It is therefore
useful in our task of identifying appropriate road facility design and operations that would solve
traffic bottlenecks as part of traffic management.
Table 7.1 Analytical Tools/Methodologies
7-3
(Source, FWHA, 2004)
7.2. TRAFFIC MICROSCOPIC SIMULATION (OR TRAFFIC MICROSIMULATION)
7.2.1 Definition
Microsimulation is the (imitation, or replication,) or modeling of individual vehicle movements on a

second or sub-second basis for the purpose of assessing the traffic performance of highway and
street systems, transit, and pedestrians. A computer software or program is required to do this, and
there are several programs or software available that analysts can use.
7.2.2 Advantages and Guiding Principles
What are the advantages of using microsimulation as a tool in doing traffic studies? First,
real-world traffic problems are usually complex, and microsimulation allows modeling and analysis
of complex transportation system under congested conditions, which may not be possible using
other analytical techniques, where simplification is sometimes done. Secondly,
microsimulation allows “what if” scenarios, thus the analysis of alternatives could provide valuable
information on the performance of several potential improvements. And thirdly,
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by analyzing the proposed strategies using computer simulation first, traffic managers could do
away with costly trial-and-error implementation of traffic management schemes.
The analyst must be guided by some basic principles before embarking on a simulation activity.
The first principle is that the purpose, needs, and scope of work must be clearly identified. Is the
objective of the analysis to find solution to eliminate bottlenecks or is it to enhance safety? Is the
purpose to improve traffic signalization only, or is it to look for other intersection control strategies?
What is the extent of the study area or road network to be investigated? Which road users or vehicle
types must be considered?
The selection of the proper tool (or software) is essential. Make sure that the purpose, needs, and
scope of work are within the capabilities of the software chosen. For example, if the objective is to
find traffic management solutions to enhance pedestrian or bicycle traffic, the chosen software must
include among its features the simulation of pedestrian and bicycle facilities.
There seems to be a notion that the simulation will produce traffic data or will find solutions to traffic
problems on its own automatically by simply running the simulation and producing the traffic flow
animation. Input data is very important in simulation. If input traffic data is not adequate and good,
the result also will not be good nor reliable.
Many traffic simulation software developed in other countries normally considered the local traffic
conditions of the developer, say in the US, India, or elsewhere. This means that the default settings
or parameters used to describe some basic driving behaviors like car-following, lane-changing, and
driver aggression might be different on our local context. It is important to calibrate the simulation
model to local conditions.
The output of the simulation are values of traffic performance measures such as delay, queue length,
or volume-to-capacity ratio, for varying traffic scenarios. The analyst must understand that the
calculated values from a particular software may be different from calculated values using other
analytical techniques, like using the HCM. The analyst should be keen on how the values are
defined and calculated and thus can give proper inference when comparing the results.
7.2.3 Basic Steps or Tasks in Performing Traffic Simulation
Regardless of the software used, the chart below shows the basic steps or tasks in performing a
proper traffic simulation analysis.
The analyst start by defining the simulation problem and the project scope. After which we proceed
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to data collection which is a direct requirement to develop the base model. After successfully
creating the base model using the selected simulation software (for example VISSIM or
LOCALSIM), we need to perform calibration and validation of the base model. These tasks involve
tests that ensure the adequacy of the base model in replicating or matching the real-world traffic
condition. This is done by comparing the output of simulation runs using the base model and
comparing them with observed or actual performance measure data. Model parameters in the base
model are adjusted as part of the calibration and validation process until the validation/calibration
criteria are satisfied. After this process we can declare that we have a calibrated and validated base
model, and only then can we proceed to the most important step which is scenario or alternative
analysis. This basically is an experimentation of different strategies to solve the traffic problem and
comparing the quantifiable outcome after each run. It also necessitates modification of the base
model to reflect the proposed strategy so that a simulation run could be performed as if the
proposed improvement was implemented. After comparing the results, we can draw our conclusion
& recommendation and present the Final Report.
7.2.3.1 Project Scope and Problem Definition
In the first step, we define the purpose of our simulation project, identify the influence area, and
select which software to use. For large scale simulation project, it is wise to estimate required
manpower time and costs for proper project scheduling and programming. Take note that the
number of simulations and the duration of computer simulation runs can be significantly large if the
study area is large or involves several highways and intersections, and if there are many
improvement schemes to evaluate.
Let us take as illustration a small simulation project involving one major intersection along EDSA:
the EDSA-Quezon Avenue intersection. The purpose of this simulation exercise it to improve traffic
flow at the intersection by proposing several traffic signal adjustments to minimize the delays
experienced by road users. The scope of road network to be modeled is the intersection itself with
about 200 to 300m of the intersection legs or the approaches to the intersection. The intersection
is controlled by traffic signal and there are 12 traffic movements from all intersection approaches.
7.2.3.2 Data Collection
Data collection task involves gathering information that are necessary input to create the base
model using the simulation software. Traffic volume is he most fundamental traffic data that is
needed. A base map and supplementary road inventory survey of the study site is necessary to
correctly build the road network geometry of links and intersections for the computer base model.
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Additional traffic data must be collected depending on the identified measure of performance that
will be measured in the simulation runs. For example, if the performance of the alternative schemes
is to be evaluated using travel time or delay as measure of traffic performance, then a travel time
and delay survey must be performed and collected. Such data will be used for calibration and
validation.
To illustrate using our sample simulation project, the following figures show data and information
shown that were gathered in preparation for the base model development. The traffic signal phasing
pattern, the duration of green, red, and yellow times per phase of the traffic signal, and other
pertinent information about the intersection control. We note that traffic signal has a 4-phase pattern,
the observed existing cycle time is 220 seconds. The green times are longer along the approaches
along EDSA at 65 sec, and right turns area always allowed. Additionally, 2-sets of traffic data were
collected: the peak hour traffic volume count, and the peak hour travel times for each of the 12
traffic movements into the intersection.
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7.2.3.3 Base Model Development
With all pertinent traffic data and information on the study site gathered, we are now ready to
proceed to Base Model Development. For clarity, let us define what we mean by “model” in the
context of traffic simulation. A particular traffic “model” is described as a specific combination of
modeling software and analyst-developed input and parameters for a specific application. A single
“model” may be applied to the same study area for several time periods, and several existing and
future improvement alternatives. Base model development task is re-creating, or rendering the local
network of roads, vehicles, traffic demand, driver behaviors, mode choice and route choice in the
form of a computer model using a selected simulation software. The person that performs this task
must make sure that he or she implements quality assurance protocols by checking and re-
checking possible errors. This can be done by reviewing the parameter inputs, and the video of
traffic flow animation of several trial simulation runs. The developer could check errors by asking
questions like: Do the vehicles in the simulation seem to travel too fast, or too slow? Are there
unusual or erratic vehicle movements? Do vehicles stop or slow down at locations where they are
expected to? Does computer animation resemble local driving behaviors such as propensity for
lane changing or non-lane-based driving? Does the simulated traffic signal operate in the same
ways as in the real-world condition? or, Is the vehicle mix in the computer simulation the same as
the existing vehicle mix?
Below is a screenshot of the base model created for our sample simulation project. It shows the
computer imitation of a simple road network of the EDSA-Quezon Avenue intersection operating at
peak-hour traffic volume. It also resembles the current traffic signal phasing and timing design. The
LOCALSIM software was used in creating this base model.
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(Presented with animation in the lecture slide deck.)
7.2.3.4 Calibration and Validation
Calibration and Validation are necessary steps to make sure that the base model developed is
adequate for scenario analysis. These tasks are similar in that they seek to check if the simulation
output satisfactorily resembles the existing traffic network, flows, and general driving behaviors. But
there is a difference as we shall see in the definitions shown.
Calibration can be defined as the process where the analyst selects the model parameters that
cause the model to best reproduce field-measured local traffic operations conditions. Validation
can be defined as the process where the analyst checks the overall model-predicted traffic
performance for a street/road system against field measurements of traffic performance, such as
traffic volumes, travel times, average speeds, and average delays. Model validation is performed
based on field data not used in the calibration process. Validation is directly related to the calibration
process because adjustments in calibration are necessary to improve the model’s ability to replicate
field-measured traffic conditions.
Thus, during calibration and validation the analyst tries to adjust or tweak model parameters, as
needed, to replicate more accurately the real-world conditions. Examples of these parameters may
be values that affect car-following and lane-changing performance such as driver politeness factors,
or values related to average traffic flow characteristics such as maximum, minimum, and average
acceleration and speeds, or other parameters that may significantly affect traffic flow operation.
These set of parameters may vary, depending on the specific simulation software selected.
Especially for validation, the analyst needs to compare the simulated measures of performance (or
measures of effectiveness) with observed field data. Do simulated and observed volumes and
speeds match? Are congestion points or bottlenecks in the right places?
The ability of the base model to replicate field-measured traffic conditions can be measured using
goodness-of-fit indices. Thus, in calibration and validation, the analyst would also ask the question:
“Is the calculated value for the goodness-of-fit index within allowable range?”
For illustration, the validation process performed for our sample simulation project is discussed
below. The traffic data selected as measure of performance is the travel time. Travel time survey
was conducted with six trial runs in the field resulting in the tabulated average values of travel times
for all 12 movements entering the intersection. The numbers in the last column are the observed
values. The goodness-of fit index used is the Thiel’s Indicator (or capital U), and the formula to
compute this index is shown. We need the simulated travel time values (or x) and observed travel
time values (or y) to calculate the value of U. In the formula also, N is the total number of ordered
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pairs. If U is equal to or less than 0.2, we say that we have an acceptable (or satisfactorily accurate)
replication
In the table shown, the second column shows the simulated travel times for each of the 12
movements. These are the travel time values calculated by the software during computer simulation
runs. The third column on the other hand shows the observed travel times determined from the field
survey. The rest of the table are just additional columns to facilitate the computation of the Thiel’s
indicator, U, according to the equation for U. It turns out that the calculated U is 0.1788 which is
less than or equal to 0.20. Therefore, we say that the replication is acceptable. This mean that we
can now consider our base model validated, and we can further use the base model for scenario
analysis.
To visualize the accuracy level of the match, the graph on the right side of the figure above can be
drawn, and it is a plot of the simulated travel time values on the x-axis versus the observed travel
time values on the y-axis. A perfect match would show all data points perfectly aligned along the
diagonal line. In the case of our simulation analysis, we see that majority of the points are quite
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near the diagonal except for 2 data points.
Now that the base model had been satisfactorily calibrated and validated, the analyst can now
proceed to the next major task.
7.2.3.5 Scenario or Alternatives Analysis
Scenario analysis or alternatives analysis seeks to investigate “what if” situations and to see the
resulting effect on traffic flow conditions given these situations. In other words, it is virtual
experimentation of possible traffic improvement schemes. The alternative scenarios typically
consider (1) varying levels of traffic volume, such as the situation in the future when traffic volumes
are forecasted to increase, and/or (2) proposed improvement schemes. To perform scenario
analysis the base model is reconfigured to incorporate the scenario to be tested. Simulation of the
base case and the alternatives are performed, and the resulting values of selected measures of
effectiveness (MOE) or measures of performance are compared to see if there is significant
improvement between the base case and any of the alternative scenarios.
Below is a discussion that illustrates scenario analysis for our sample simulation project. The goal
is to experiment and test by computer simulation, which alternative solution will best alleviate traffic
congestion. The figure below shows the base case or the “do nothing” case. Here, traffic is
managed using a traffic signal, where we see that the “GO” indication is rotated following a specific
sequence: first for vehicles coming from the south, then east, then north, then west, and then the
cycle repeats. The total duration for this sequence is 4 minutes. We call this the cycle time. Vehicles
stopped by a red light must wait, and can form long queues, and this becomes the cause of
undesirable delay and congestion. In this base case, the level of delay is found to be undesirable.
The analyst wants to improve flow by trying to reduce average vehicle delay. A possible solution to
improve the flow (Scheme 1) is to change the sequence of allocating the “GO” indication. Since
there are many left turners from EDSA, an exclusive “GO” signal for the left turners is included.
However, for this scheme, the animation manifested no significant change in the flow; long lines of
waiting vehicles were still observed.
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Another alternative is to modify the cycle time (Scheme 2). Cycle time that is either very long or
very short can cause additional delay. Here, the cycle time is reduced from the original 4 minutes
to only 3 minutes while keeping the original sequence. Now a slight improvement was observed
through the animation; there are shorter queues waiting for “GO”, and lesser waiting times.
7.2.3.6 Final Report
After performing scenario analysis, the analyst can now report the conclusion and recommendation
as part of the Final Report. The final report includes technical documentation of all tasks performed
in the simulation project. The tasks in our flowchart can serve as our rough outline for the Final
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Report. Of course, the Final report should show summary result tables, and whenever possible, it
is advisable to use video clips of the traffic animation of the simulation in the presentation of the
final report.
Going back to our sample simulation project, the analyst observed improvements in the decreased
cycle time scenario (Scheme 2) when the animation of traffic was viewed. To objectively concretize
this conclusion, a result table showing a comparison of the simulated average travel time, and
average delay is presented as part of the Final Report. For this simple simulation project, the
analyst therefore recommend reducing the cycle time because it resulted in significant travel time
and delay reduction compared to the base or “do nothing” case.
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7.3 Traffic Simulation as a Tool in Traffic Management
(REVIEW) TASKS IN A TRAFFIC SIMULATION PROJECT
Below is a quick review of the traffic simulation tasks or steps learned in Part 1.
Figure 7.1 Traffic Simulation Process (Tasks)
The process starts with definition of the problem, scope, and objective. Then we collect traffic data
and all needed information about study area or road network. With the set of pertinent information
gathered, we then develop or build the base model using our selected traffic simulation software.
An iterative Calibration and Validation step follows, to make sure that the output of simulation runs
or executions of our base model adequately replicates or matches the actual situation on the field.
After successfully validating our base model, we proceed to the main evaluation task which is the
scenario analysis, hoping to find the best or optimum traffic management solution to solve the traffic
problem. The simulation project culminates with documentation of result and recommendation in
the final report.
7.3.1. BASE MODEL DEVELOPMENT
Let us take a closer look at base model development. This is the step where we build or create our
virtual road network and input all necessary information and parameters to establish or base case
or base scenario. It is assumed, of course, that we have already selected the traffic microsimulation
software that we will use in building the model.
7.3.1.1 Basic Components of a Traffic Simulation Model
What exactly is a base traffic model? It is always easier to build something if we know the
components. Regardless of the software used, we will need information and data on these basic
components to build the base model. Road sections are referred to as links, while intersections
orjunctions are referred to as nodes. The real-world road network is rendered in the computer as
a network of links and nodes. When configuring a link or road section using the simulation software,
attributes of the road section are needed, such as the number of lanes, the lane widths, and
curvature; for software that could render in 3-dimensions, vertical gradients may be needed as well.
Likewise, in configuring nodes or intersections, the intersection geometry is needed. Information on
the allowable movements into the intersection is also needed so that intersection conflicts could be
defined.
For vehicles and traffic demand, traffic volume or count, and vehicle type mix or composition is
needed. For traffic volume, peak-hour counts are usually used, but it is also possible to use non-
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peak hour counts or shorter duration counts such as 15-min counts, depending on the purpose of
the analysis and the capability of the software selected. The vehicle dimensions and attributes (like
maximum and minimum acceleration) may be needed if the software allows customization of
vehicle types.
Another basic component is related to user or driver behavior, specifically, those behaviors that
could be technically quantified as parameters because they can affect traffic flow. Some behavioral
parameters that may be needed are speed distribution, politeness or aggression factors that define
lane-changing and car-following behavior, gap acceptance which is necessary at unsignalized
intersections, and others. These parameters are usually the ones tweaked or adjusted in the
calibration and validation step to make simulated traffic flow and vehicle movements close to reality.
Without detailed information on these behavioral parameters, the analyst would normally resort to
using the default values embedded by software developers.
The next basic component is information on traffic controls. For intersections, controls could be
yield- or stop-controls, traffic signal, or roundabout. There may be other controls in place like turn
restriction or entry restrictions. For traffic controls in basic road sections, there could be one-way
streets, entry regulation, exclusive lanes, U-turn, road or lane closures, transit stops, parking
controls, and others. All these supplementary information are needed to create the computer replica
or model of the global and local traffic flows observed in the actual road network. When we say
global, we refer to the entire road network, whereas when we say local, we pertain to specific road
sections and intersections.
The last in our list of basic components is the specification of measures of effectiveness to be
used for performance evaluation. This component is not a tangible part of the traffic model, but it
affects how the analyst shall configure the software to be able to provide the required statistical
output of simulation runs. These output statistics are essential for calibration and validation (where
we compare simulation output and field-observed traffic data) and also would be very important
much later when performing scenario analysis as away of evaluating the performance of candidate
traffic improvement alternatives. Later in the lecture, we shall see the typical measures of
effectiveness (MOEs) used in simulation studies. (Measures of effectiveness or MOEs are also
called measures of performance or performance measures. These phrases can be used
interchangeably in this lecture.)
7.3.1.2 Selection of Software for the Simulation Project
All the information, data, and parameter values from each basic component, put together, defines
the traffic simulation model for a particular study site; and all this information will eventually be used
in creating the base model using the selected traffic simulation software.
There are a number of commercially available traffic microsimulation software packages that could
be selected and some are even open-source. The analyst needs to make sure that the purpose,
needs, and scope of work, and even the size of the road network to be modeled can be handled by
the features provided by the selected software. It will also be an advantage to choose a software
that can explicitly replicate the local driving behavior in the study area, because it helps simplify
and minimize the calibration task.
The simulation shown here is a sample base model for the EDSA-Quezon avenue intersection
operating during peak-hour and controlled by a traffic signal. This was sample simulation project
described in Part 1.
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Figure 7.2 Select Tool to use to create base model
This model is created using LOCALSIM, a locally developed traffic microsimulation model funded
by the DOST. This is the default software for the illustrations and examples in this course.
LOCALSIM explicitly models Filipino driving behavior, and provides animation display of the
simulated traffic flow. Other features of LOCALSIM are:
• Conflict area management – to simulate conflicting traffic streams, especially at
intersections
• Traffic control systems – which facilitate the modeling of basic traffic flow regulations like
transit stops, exclusive lanes, intersection control, speed control zone, etc.
• Customizable Traffic demand – which allows flexibility in setting simulation time intervals
(for example 15-minute periods, or hourly, or several hours), and allows variation of traffic
volume input per interval
• Traffic routing options – which allows either static routing or the more flexible dynamic
routing which is may be helpful in situations where drivers are expected to make detours to
reach their destinations, and finally
• Capability to calculate and report several measures of performance or measures for
evaluation of scenarios.
7.3.1.3 Performance Measures or Measures of Effectiveness (MOE)
Typical evaluation parameters and measures of effectiveness can be produced as output by any
traffic simulation software. The list includes basic measures for evaluation of overall or global
network performance, namely: vehicle kilometers travelled, vehicle hours travelled, mean or
average system speed, and overall system delay. Once the simulation run is completed, these
values will be calculated by the software for all vehicles that travelled along the entire road network
during the simulation period (e.g. 1 hour) and shall be reported at the end of the run.
Other usual measures of performance as shown on the list below can be calculated and reported
for specific road sections and intersections for local-level or link specific performance evaluation.
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Figure 7.3: Common evaluation parameters or Measures of Effectiveness (MOEs)
In traffic flow analysis, measures of performance may vary depending on the transport facility being
evaluated. To illustrate, in the analysis of intersections the usual measures are shown in the table
below. For unsignalized intersections, we can evaluate the traffic performance by measuring the
reserved capacity or queue length; and for signalized intersections, it is common to use delay,
degree of congestion, or queue length.
Given this illustration, the modeler-analyst needs to check the available features of the selected
software, particularly, what measures of performance are being calculated and reported, so that
proper analysis and evaluation could be performed.
7.3.1.4 Performance Measures in LOCALSIM
The default software for the discussions in this course is LOCALSIM. After each simulation run of
a traffic scenario in LOCALSIM the following information can be reported: (1) global summary
showing overall simulation duration, average speed, and travel time,
Link-specific travel time and travel speed (2) road section LOS or level-of-service using volume-to-
capacity ratio, (3) summary of traffic signal cycles and timing for all signals in the network
Also, using the “survey zone” feature of LOCALSIM, the analyst can further customize the output
to include calculated speed, volume, density, cumulative vehicle count, and stop light delay at
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desired locations anywhere in the road network. This is very useful if the analyst wants to know the
traffic condition at specific points of interest.
The set of available measures of performance that are reported can vary from software to software.
So, it is important for the modeler to know and study the documentation and features of the
candidate or selected simulation software to be used.
7.2. CALIBRATION AND VALIDATION
Calibration is the process where the analyst selects the model parameters that cause the model to
best reproduce field-measured local traffic conditions. Validation is the process where the analyst
checks the overall model-predicted traffic performance for a road system against field
measurements of traffic performance, such as traffic volumes, travel times, average speeds, and
average delays. Model validation is performed based on field data not used in the calibration
process.
Recall that the calibration and validation tasks follow right after base model development. If a
modeler had successfully created a base model, such as the one shown, simulation using the base
model might seem to be working well, but we are not yet sure if the simulation result really replicates
the real-world base case road traffic conditions, or if the calculated performance measures such as
delay, speed, or queue lengths would match the observed or actual field-collected data. In other
words, the base model shown is not going to be ready for alternatives analysis unless calibration
and validation had been performed.
Figure 7.4 Base Model for EDSA – QAve Intersection
So, the calibration/validation task boils down to the comparison of simulation output with observed
field data. After running some pilot runs of the base model, we ask questions like: “do simulated
volumes, speeds or travel times match the field-observed values? We can do a visual validation
using the animation and ask: “are congestion points or bottlenecks in the right places? Lastly we
can ask, “are calculated values of goodness-of-fit indices within the allowable target range?
There are several ways to perform these calibration and validation tests.
7.3.2.1 Scatter Plot
One of the simplest methods, aside from visually checking the animation output, is the use of a
scatter plot. The simulated and observed values of some performance measure are tabulated and
a scatter plot is produced to visualize the match.
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As shown below, the table on the right shows the simulated and observed average travel times in
seconds for all the 12 movements entering the intersection during the peak hour in the base model
created. “Simulated value” means the value calculated and reported by the computer software after
the simulation run of the peak hour; and “observed value” means measurement observed on the
field obtained from a field traffic survey during the traffic hour under investigation (usual, peak
hours).
Figure 7.5 Calibration and Validation Process
The graph in the middle shows the scatter plot, where the table values are plotted in an x-y
rectangular graph with simulated values on x-axis and observed values on the y-axis. For visual
validation, we check if the points are close to the diagonal line or the diagonal line of perfect
calibration. If all points lie on the diagonal line, it means that all simulated values perfectly matched
the observed values. However, allowing for some errors, we want our points to be at least very
close to the diagonal line. In the graph shown, we see that the points are quite close enough to the
diagonal line, but we also see a couple of data point quite far. This means that for those 2
movements, the simulated travel times are quite far off from the field-observed travel times.
One advantage of the scatter plot is that it helps to immediately spot problematic data points.
The scatter plot provides a simple test but can be subjective because visual validation can be
subjective. Thus, it would be better to supplement this test using some quantitative goodness-of-fit
index to ascertain if the degree of match is satisfactory.
7.3.2.2 Percent Error (PE)
The percent error or PE is a very common and simple index to quantify the degree of discrepancy.
In the formula shown, we simply get the difference between simulated and observed values, then
divide the difference by the observed value and express the quotient in percent.
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PE(Percent Error)
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= %
Wisconsin
DOT freeway
model calibration
criteria
Copyright Reserved (UP-NCTSFI 2021)
17
Figure 7.5 Percent Error
Values calculated by goodness offit indices are compared with established calibration range targets
or criteria. The table shown on the right part of the figure above is an example of the prescribed
calibration criteria for freeways in the US.
In the table we see a couple of instances where the percent error is used as a criterion to determine
calibration acceptance. Referring to the 3rd line of the table, to test calibration acceptance for
individual link flows, we see that the percent error of simulated versus observed hourly traffic
volume should be within 15%. At the bottom of the table, we can see the calibration target for travel
times: the simulated versus observed travel time should be within 15% error for calibration
acceptance.
Looking at the rightmost column of the table, we additionally see that there is calibration acceptance
of the base model if more than 85% of the cases register percent errors within 15%. For example,
if there are 100 road sections in the study area, the percent error should be within 15% for at least
85 of those road sections.
7.3.2.3 GEH Index
The GEH index orGEH statistic is used only for checking simulated versus observed traffic volumes.
Thus, it is not to be used for other performance measures like speed, travel time, delay, and others.
The GEH value is calculated using the formula shown on the figure below and is easy to calculate;
with m representing simulated values, and c representing observed values. For calibration criteria,
the model is accepted and deemed validated if the calculated GEH for the link and intersection
traffic volumes is less than or equal to 5 for at least 75% of the measurements.
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Source: Traffic Simulation Case for Guidelines by Joint Centre of European Commission, 2014, p.95
Figure 7.6 Example Calculated GEH of link and Intersection Traffic Volume
For an example of validation test of traffic volumes in a simulation model using GEH, imagine a
base simulation model of a small road network with a total of 8 entry and exit road sections. In the
table shown below, the field-observed volumes can be seen on the 6th column. Three simulation
trial runs using the base model are performed using the observed volumes as input values. The
output volumes after the simulation runs were recorded and shown in the 2nd , 3rd and 4th columns.
The 5th column shows the average volumes for the 3 trials and are taken as the simulated values
for the GEH calculation. Applying the formula for GEH and recalling that m stands for simulated
value and c stands for observed value, we can calculate the GEH for each of the road sections.
These values are in the 7th column of the table. Recall that the calibration criteria states that the
model is accepted and deemed validated if the calculated GEH of the link and intersection traffic
volume is less than or equal to 5 for at least 75% of the measurements.
Applying this criteria and looking at the last column, we see that some road sections passed and
some failed, and only 3 out of 8 (or only 37.5%) of the measurements passed. Thus, the overall
assessment is that the calibration failed, or was NOT GOOD.
Figure 7.7 Example Validation of Traffic Volumes using GEH
7.3.2.4 Theil’s Indicator, U
Another index that we can use is the Theil’s indicator or U, and it is calculated using the formula
shown. In the given equation x stands for simulated values, and y stands for observed values. The
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Theil’s indicator, unlike the GEH which is used only in testing traffic volumes, can be used to check
values of other performance measures like speed, travel time, delay, and other.
For calibration target, the model is accepted if the calculated Theil’s indicator for all movements is
less than or equal to 0.2
Figure 7.8 Calibration Target using Theil’s Indicator
For a quick example refer to the figure below. A table similar with the earlier example shows
simulated and observed traffic volume for a base model network having 8 road links. The 2nd column
shows the xor simulated traffic volumes and the 3rd column shows they or observed traffic volumes.
The rest of the table are just additional columns to facilitate the computation of the Thiel’s indicator,
U. The calculated U is 0.3588 which is greater than 0.2 and does not satisfy the criterion for passing,
and thus, the base model calibration fails.
The Theil’s indicator is a global index; and it means that it tests the performance of the entire system.
Observe that in the example, only one value for U was calculated for the entire base model.
Figure 7.9 Example Validation of Travel Time using Theil’s Indicator
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7.3.2.5 Standard Statistical t-test
Other than the earlier indices discussed, the analyst could also use the standard statistical t-test of
difference between means, which requires the calculation of the t-statistic. This slide is just
presented here for completeness of information on other options we can use to test if simulated
values match the observed values. You are encouraged to refer to statistical books and resources
to review or learn how this standard statistical test is performed.
Figure 7.10 T-Statistic Formula
The goodness-of-fit indices presented and corresponding criteria are used for calibration and
validation. Take note that calibration and validation can be performed at the global level, meaning
for the entire system or whole network, and /or at the local level of for specific links or intersection
only, recall that the Thiel’s indicator is a global indicator while the GEH can be used as both global
and local index.
7.3.3 SCENARIO OR ALTERNATIVES ANALYSIS
Scenario or alternatives analysis is the process wherein we perform virtual experiments using
computer simulation to see and evaluate the performance of candidate traffic management
improvement schemes. The number of scenarios can vary depending on the type and purpose of
project projects. The following are some examples of scenarios analyzed for two illustrative case
studies.
7.3.3.1 Illustrative Case Study 1
The first example is a simulation project of the Macarthur Highway/Roxas Ave/1st Street junction in
Clark City. The two junctions situated near each other form a bottleneck and poses perennial traffic
congestion problem in the area. The aim of the simulation project is to recommend geometric
improvement for the small road network to reduce conflicts and eliminate bottlenecks.
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Figure 7.11 Sample 1 Case Study
There are 3 intersection design scenarios prepared for simulation: Case 1 is the “do nothing” or the
base case, Case 2 is geometric transformation into a (circular) roundabout, and Case 3 is a second
geometric option to modify the network into a use a “square” roundabout. Three models for each
case were created and the simulations were performed using VISSIM.
Figure 7.12 Intersection Design Scenarios
Below is the result of scenario analysis. Observe that there were several measures of performance
chosen, six in all, based on the reportable measures in VISSIM. The performance measures used
were, namely: average delay time per vehicle, average number of stops per vehicle, average speed,
average stopped delay per vehicle, total delay, and total travel time.
Based on the tabulated results, the square roundabout showed the best performance values across
all measurements, i.e., this improvement scheme showed the least delay and least number of stops
and highest speed.
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Figure 7.13 Scenario Analysis Results
It was not described how many runs were performed for each alternative, but for a proper scenario
analysis, several runs must be made so that we can report as output the average value of
performance measures for each run. We also observe that the confidence interval was not included,
but it is advisable to do so. (The topicon number of repetitions and confidence intervals is discussed
in the last part of this lecture.)
7.3.3.2 Illustrative Case Study 2
The second case study is a traffic simulation project for a small road network in Zamboanga City
consisting of three adjacent intersections along a main highway near the old airport and a big
shopping mall at the city center. For reference, please take a look at the intersection numbering.
Intersection 1 is on the leftmost and it is controlled by a traffic signal, followed by intersection 3,
and then intersection 2 going eastward; these 2 intersections are unsignalized. The objective of the
simulation project is to recommend possible improvement schemes to reduce the congestion levels
in that local road network.
The simulation software used was LOCALSIM and in these slides, each scenario is compared with
the base case on the left. There were three candidate improvement scenarios tested, thus a total
of four scenarios, including the base case or “do nothing” case had to be created using the software.
Figure 7.14 Sample Case Study 2
The first scenario is atraffic control strategy, and that is to implement no left turns at all intersections.
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(The scenario figures presented below have corresponding animation videos in the lecture slide
deck.)
Figure 7.14 Sample Case 2 - Scenarios
For the entire simulation project, the performance measure used was only average travel time.
Below is the summary of results for the NO LEFT TURN scheme.
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Figure 7.15 Summary of results for the No Left Turn Scheme
The second improvement scenario is a geometric improvement to widen the east-west arterial
spanning the three intersections from 4 to 6 lanes.
Figure 7.16 Sample Case Study 2 – Second Improvement Scenario
Below is the result of analysis for ROAD WIDENNG.
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Figure 7.17 Summary of results for the Road Widening
The third and last scenario requires modifications in the road network to provide a roundabout
movement at the intersections.
For Intersections 1 and 3, the roundabout is not a conventional roundabout, but the improvement
scheme calls for the construction of a road section, to enable a counter-clockwise one-way
roundabout movement that combines the two adjacent intersections. The screenshot on the right
is a hypothetical road network that included the new road section on the north/top side that needs
to be constructed for this improvement scenario.
Figure 7.18 Sample Case Study 2 – Modification in the Road Network Scenario
The rightmost intersection, Intersection 2, is designed as a typical roundabout.
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Figure 7.19 Sample Case Study 2 – Modification in the Road Network Scenario – Typical
Roundabout
Below is the result of analysis for the roundabout scenarios.
Figure 7.20 Summary of results for the Rounabout
Some additional pointers we learn from this example:

1. Sometimes we do not need several performance measures, just a single appropriate
performance measure may be sufficient; of course, this also depends on the objective of
the analysis and the type of road facilities involved
2. Aside from building the base model, we observe that there is a need to build additional
models for each scenario, especially when the improvement schemes call for geometric
improvements or modifications in the road network.
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7.3.4 INITIALIZATION, STATISTICAL REPORTING OF SIMULATION OUTPUT, AND

NUMBER OF REPETITIONS
7.3.4.1 Exclusion of Initialization Period
When running a simulation, you may notice with the help of animation, that the virtual road network
is empty at the start of simulation, and it takes some time to populate the network with running
vehicles.
The graph below clearly shows that there is a start-up time or warm-up period before the inputted
traffic flow is achieved in the simulation. Since there are less than the expected number of vehicles
flowing during the start-up period, the calculated network performance measures could be affected,
and thus affect the accuracy of results. Note that most performance measures are also directly
related to the volume of vehicles inside the road network.
The modeler-analyst must be aware of this initialization period, and if the simulation software used
does not already include a feature that deals with this, then adjustments must be made to exclude
the initialization period. Some rules of thumb to help address this are as follows:
• Allow a warm-up period of 15 to 20 minutes.

• Alternatively, you can choose a warmup period that is equal to at least twice the estimated
travel time at free-flow conditions to traverse the length of the network. For example, if a
freeway being modeled is 8.1 km (5 mi) long, it takes roughly 5 min to traverse its length at
the free-flow speed, so the warmup period is set at 10 min.
• Simulation period in the model runs should incorporate this warm-up period. To implement
a 15 to 20 min warm-up period for example, you can set the simulation period of 75 to 80
mins to simulate a peak 1-hour period; but performance measures shall be collated only
during the final 60 min.
7.3.4.2 Experimentation and Output Analysis
The scenario analysis performed in a simulation project is basically a series of experimentations,

and each experiment is expected to generate numerical output. These numerical values are
calculated sums, averages, and/or variances of the performance measures; for example, average
speed, total delay, variance of speeds, total vehicle-kilometer, etc. therefore
We also must understand that traffic flows are stochastic or has a random nature, thus simulation
of traffic produces performance measures that contain random variation. This simply means that
every time we run a simulation, even with the same model input, a different result is reported,
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because of the random nature. Each replication or simulation run results in a different value.
Therefore the output values of performance measures reported in final reports or results table must
be the averages of values from several trial runs or replications.
This highlights the importance of proper analysis of output In order to report sound statistical
inferences or conclusions.
7.3.4.3 Statistical Confidence for Reporting Simulation Output
Since random variation is inherent in simulation, the analyst cannot be certain that the performance
measure reported is going to be exactly equal to a particular numerical value. To properly report
the results, we must apply the concept of statistical confidence and confidence intervals.
Confidence interval is the numerical range that has a probability of including the true value of the
performance measure. In statistical jargon, this probability is expressed as 1 – “alpha”. Thus, we
say that (1 – alpha)% is the level of confidence for the interval.
For example say that the level of confidence is 95%, then (1 – alpha)% is 95% or 0.95.
Correspondingly, since (1 – alpha)% is 0.95, therefore alpha is equal to 0.05. Also “alpha”/2
equals .025, and (1 – alpha/2) equals 0.975. These number may be confusing but they will be useful
references when reading statistical tables as we shall see in an example later on.
The figure below illustrates confidence interval and level of confidence or probability of including
the true value within the interval. The curve is the probability curve and the total area under the
curve is equal to 1. In the illustration, the interval with x-bar (or average value) at the center is the
confidence interval with 95% level of confidence because the area bounded by the ends of that
interval and the probability curve equals 0.95 or 95%.
To determine the upper and lower bound of the interval, we use the equation shown at the bottom
of the figure. (Where x-bar is average value of X which is at the midpoint of the interval, t is the t-
statistic with subscript “alpha/2”,s is standard deviation, n is the number of X values to be averaged,
and “alpha/2” is a subscript that refers to the confidence. This may be confusing for now, but shall
be explained through an example later.
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In reporting the average of a performance measure, we must properly report it with a statistical
confidence interval and level of confidence. For example, we should not simply say: “the average
time in queue is 6.74 sec”. We should say: “the average time in queue is 6.74 sec plus/minus 4.44
sec, with 95% confidence level” or “the average time in queue is between 62.96 and 71.84 sec,
with 95% confidence”. In the last statement, the confidence interval is 62.96 to 71.84, and the
confidence level is 95%.
So how do we determine the confidence interval? If X is some performance measure (say, time
delay) the confidence interval is defined by a lower bound value and an upper bound value, with
the average value of X (or X-bar) at midpoint of the interval. The interval’s lower bound value is (X-
bar – h) , while the interval’s the upper bound value is (X-bar + h). We know the value of X-bar,
which is the average value, but what is h, or the “half-width”?
The formula for his shown on the boxed slide below. If we ignore the subscriptsoft for the meantime,
we shall realize that it is a simple formula. The half-width h is simply equal to t times s divided by
square root of n. In the equation, s stands for standard deviation and n is number of replications or
simulation runs. The variable t with the subscript is the t-statistic which can be determined from
standard statistical tables.
An example in determining the confidence interval for a given confidence level to report the value
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of a simulation output is given below.
Example: Confidence Interval

, . = 2.78 (for 95% level of confidence)
Replicatio Average time
n number, in queue, Xi 3.57
i ℎ = (2.78)
5
1 63.2
ℎ = 4.44 ( for 95% level of confidence)
2 69.7
3 67.3 Thus, the confidence intervals for mean
4 64.8 average time in queue is:
5 72.0 [62.96, 71.84] (for 95% level of confidence)
= 5 = 67.4 “the average time in queue is
= 3.57 6.74 sec plus/minus 4.44 sec,
62.96 71.84 with 95% confidence level”
OR “the average time in queue
( + ℎ , −ℎ)
67.4 is between 62.96 and 71.84
ℎ = sec, with 95% confidence”
,
A particular traffic improvement scenario for a given road network is simulated, and 5 replications
or runs were performed. The performance measure used for evaluation is average time in queue,
and let’s call it X. There were 5 trials, so n = 5, and the table shows the resulting average time in
queue for each of the 5 runs or replications.
The X-bar (or average of X) is 67.4. (We just take the average of the 5 values in the second column.)
We also calculate the standard deviation s of the values in the second column and it is equal to
3.57. To determine the confidence interval, we calculate h using the formula shown (it is equal to t
time s divided by square root of n.
Example: Confidence Interval

, . = 2.78 (for 95% level of confidence)
Replicatio Average time
n number, in queue, Xi 3.57
i ℎ = (2.78)
5
1 63.2
2 69.7 ℎ = 4.44 ( for 95% level of confidence)
3 67.3 Thus, the confidence intervals for mean

4 64.8 average time in queue is:
5 72.0 [62.96, 71.84] (for 95% level of confidence)
= 5 = 67.4 “the average time in queue is
= 3.57 6.74 sec plus/minus 4.44 sec,
62.96 71.84 with 95% confidence level”
OR “the average time in queue
( + ℎ , −ℎ)
67.4 is between 62.96 and 71.84
ℎ = sec, with 95% confidence”
,
We know s and n already, but how do we get t? The subscripts will help us determine the value of
t using a statistical table. The subscripts oft are (n – 1) and (1 – alpha/2), which have the values 4
(called “degrees of freedom”) and 0.975 (for 95% confidence interval), respectively. Now remember
the subscripts as we pick out the t-statistic from a standard statistical table. The subscripts were 4
and 0.975. Looking at the table shown below, we locate 4 in the row headings and locating 0.975
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in the column headings we arrive at this value of 2.775 or rounding-off, 2.78 for t.
Referring back to the calculation in the previous figure, h equals 2.78 times 3.57 divided by square
root of 5 which is equal to 4.44 noting that this is for a 95% level of confidence.
Recall that X-bar is 67.4, thus upper bound (X-bar + h) equals 71.84, and the lower bound (X-bar
– h) equals 62.96.
Therefore the proper way to report the result is as follows:

“The average time in queue is 6.74 sec plus/minus 4.44 sec, with 95% confidence level” OR “the
average time in queue is between 62.96 and 71.84 sec, with 95% confidence”
Exercise: Try determining the confidence for a 99% confidence level.
This is the exercise with the answers.
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7.3.4.4 Number of Repetitions or Replications
Due to the stochastic nature or inherent randomness of traffic flow, every time we run a simulation
program with the same model input, a different value of the performance measure will be outputted.
Therefore, the output value of the performance measure reported for each scenario must be the
average of the results from several replications or repeated simulation runs. The more repetitions,
the more confident we will be that the average value calculated for the performance measure is
within the statistical confidence interval or margin of error.
In scenario analysis, several replications or repetitions must be performed for each scenario so that
the comparison of results among scenarios will be sound.
To help us determine the number of runs to be performed, we can follow this procedure.
• Step 1, we must decide on the acceptable range of allowable error that we would adopt.
Let’s call this plus/minus h-asterisk.
• Step 2, we perform a pilot number of replications n. The prescribed rule of thumb, for
example, is 4 repetitions.
• Step 3, compute the sample standard deviation s of the performance measures gathered
from the pilot runs.
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• Step 4, calculate the half-width h using the formula for h shown, and check if it is less than
or equal to the adopted allowable error h*, and
• Step 5 If the calculated half-width h is still greater than the adopted allowable error, calculate
the required number of repetition n using the formula for n shown, and repeat from step
number 2. Otherwise, we can end and that means that we have already performed a
sufficient number of runs.
Another method isto use the table below that came from one of our references (FHWA, 2004). The
table gives us the minimum no. of repetitions needed to obtain the desired confidence interval (or
allowable error) shown in the last column, given the desired confidence interval on the first column
and the desired level of confidence on the second column. The first step is to determine our desired
range which can be obtained by dividing our desired confidence interval CI by the standard
deviation s. Step 2 is to use the table.
For example, if the standard deviation in the delay is 1.5 s and the desired confidence interval is
“3.0 s at a 95-percent confidence level”, then based on the table, we shall need eight repetitions to
estimate the mean delay to within ±1.5 s. Note that confidence interval CI divided by standard
deviation s in this example is 3 divided by 1.5 or equal to a value of 2 for the first column.
Concluding Note
We must remember that the soundness of the result and conclusions from a simulation project
depends on key components, namely: the assumptions made by the modeler, the inputs that the
modeler provided, and the consideration of local conditions in the modeling exercise. So, please
be mindful of these, and consider them well in your simulation projects. To quote, “a good traffic
modeler can create a good traffic model out of most modeling systems, and a bad traffic modeler
will always create a bad traffic model out of the best system available.”
References:
• Traffic Analysis Toolbox Volume 1, FHWA, July 2004

• Traffic Analysis Toolbox Volume 3, FHWA, July 2004
• US-HCM 2016
• J. Banks, Handbook of Simulation: Principles, Methodology, Advances, Applications, and
Practice. 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
• Traffic Simulation lecture notes by Dr. Ricardo D. G. Sigua
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• Traffic Simulation lecture notes by Dr. Hilario Sean O. Palmiano

• UPNCTSFI, Zamboanga TTMP, 2020
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8 MODULE 8: TRANSPORTATION IMPACT ASSESSMENT

8.1 Definition
Transportation impact assessment (TIA) is an evaluation of the potential effects that a particular
development’s traffic will have on the transportation network in its impact area. Previously, called
traffic impact assessment, ‘traffic’ was changed to ‘transportation’ to represent a wider coverage of
the transportation system rather than be limited to traffic as implied. The magnitude of studies will
vary depending on the following:
• Type of development, which may refer to residential, commercial, industrial, recreational,

institutional or other as well as mixed;
• Size or density of development, which may refer to high, medium or low density of
development; and
• Location of development, which may generally refer to the central business district or city
center, suburb, rural area
8.2 Usefulness
How is a TIA useful? It generally answers or attempts to answer the following questions pertaining
to a proposed development or project:
1) What are the transportation improvements needed to serve the traffic generated by the new
development?
2) How much will the improvement cost be and who will pay for them?
3) Will the new project have impact on traffic on any existing residential streets and how will
those impacts be mitigated?
4) Will the new development aggravate any existing safety hazards or create new ones and,
if so, how can those hazards be corrected?
5) Can the proposed development be served by public transportation?
6) Is the design of the development friendly towards bicyclists and pedestrians who need to
access the development or who need to pass through or by the development?
7) Is the on-site parking sufficient or is there an opportunity to share parking with other
adjacent uses?
8) How many driveways are needed, what design should each driveway have and is there a
long enough throat for each driveway that is clear of parking spaces and other cross aisle
traffic?
9) If any driveway is proposed to be signalized, is the traffic signal really needed and can on-
site circulation handle the traffic that will be queuing to wait for a green light?
8.3 Applications of TIA
ATIA is typically employed in situations when there is a proposed development that is perceived to
generate trips that will have a significant impact on transportation. The National Center for
Transportation Studies (NCTS) identified the following situations:
• When a specified amount of area is being rezoned.
8- 1
• When development contains a specified number of dwelling units or area (e.g., square
meters or hectares of Gross Floor Area (GFA) or Gross Leasable Area (GLA) as may be
applicable).
• At the judgment or discretion of the staff (i.e., local government staff in-charge).
• When development will occur in a sensitive area (i.e., area that is already congested or an
area where there is high-accident or road crash incidence).
• When financial assessments are required and the extent of impact must be determined.
It is appropriate for the following local processes:
a) Zoning and rezoning application -

b) Land subdivision application
c) Environmental assessment (i.e., EIA)
d) Site plan approval / building/construction permits
e) Special-purpose districts
f) Development agreements
g) Changes to general and / or specific plans
h) Annexations
TIA can also be employed to determine the potential impacts of infrastructure projects, traffic
schemes and special events. For example, a proposed overpass or interchange may be evaluated
based on its impacts on transport and traffic. A proposed number coding scheme or truck ban along
certain streets may also be evaluated using TIA methodology. TIAs may also be used for recurring
events like the religious processions or festivals/fiestas.
8.4 Thresholds
8.4.1 Zoning Thresholds
A TIA may be required if a proposal falls under the certain clauses of a Zoning Ordinance such as
those that may refer to deviations. The assessment as to whether a project falls under this clause
simply entails the comparison of the proposal with the allowed uses and land use intensities in the
zone where it is located.
For this purpose, the Zoning Administrator or similar official may provide the following information
for the zone in consideration:
• List of Allowed Land Uses

• Land Use Intensity Control (LUIC) ratings
The project proponent, in turn, provides the basic information on the project as follows:
• Project location
• Project classification according to the latest Housing and Urban Land Use Regulatory Board
(HLURB) Guidelines
• Total land area of project site
• Total floor area of buildings in square meters
• Resultant floor to area ratio (considering all buildings within the project site)
• Percentage of land occupancy
8-2
8.4.2 Project Size Thresholds
A Zoning Administrator or similar official may prepare a list of Significantly Sized Projects (SSP)
with the corresponding thresholds. The project proponent shall, in turn, submit information that
corresponds to the required threshold criteria. Proposals within the list of SSP’s and exceed the
specified threshold criteria shall be required to conduct TIA regardless of conformance with the use
or land use intensity provisions of the Zoning Ordinance. Examples of thresholds for the most
common type of projects are as follows:
• Residential: 48 dwelling units1

• Office: 8,000 square meters gross floor area (GFA)2
• Commercial: 1,333 square meters gross leasable area (GLA)3
The above values are based on peak hour trip generation rates developed by the National Center
for Transportation Studies for local conditions. These thresholds may be expanded and refined
should there be trip generation rates specific to a city or municipality (i.e., based on local studies)
and for specific types of developments that are developed and adopted by the LGU.
8.5 Barriers
There are a number of barriers to the implementation of TIA. These may be classified according to
the following:
• Institutional – TIA is not required by law at the national level. Its requirement for qualified
projects is dependent on the Environmental Impact Assessment Review Committee
(EIARC) of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources Environmental
Management Bureau (DENR-EMB) or LGU ordinance/requirement. This issue will be
addressed in more detail in a succeeding section of this module;
• Unavailability of suitable standards – local standards and unit rates, e.g., threshold trip
generation, parking generation vs. Building Code minimum parking are generally
unavailable. Many studies, for example, often use trip generation rates from the Institute of
Transportation Engineers (ITE), which are derived from experiences in the US and Canada,
and which may not be suitable for Philippine situations;
• Lack of knowledge – capacity building is needed among TIA preparers or consultants as
well as for evaluators. Still very few can prepare or conduct TIA’s as they should be and not
simply the preparation of traffic management plans; and
• Budget limitations – there are perceived costs associated with TIA (e.g., data
collection/survey, simulation, etc.) that are often not considered in the preparation of project
costs.
1 Residential trip generation: AM Peak – 0.76 vehicle trips/hour/dwelling unit inbound; 1.21 vehicle trips/hour/dwelling unit
outbound. PM Peak – 1.15 vehicle trips/hour/dwelling unit inbound; 0.92 vehicle trips/hour/dwelling unit outbound. The
higher combination of inbound and outbound trip rates will produce the lower threshold, which is adopted.
2 Office trip generation: AM Peak – 0.009 vehicle trips/hour/square meter GFA inbound; 0.0014 vehicle trips/hour/square meter
GFA outbound. PM Peak – 0.004 vehicle trips/hour/square meter GFA inbound; 0.0085 vehicle trips/hour/square meter GFA
outbound. The higher combination of inbound and outbound trip rates will produce the lower threshold, which is adopted.
3 Commercial trip generation: AM Peak – 0.036 vehicle trips/hour/square meter GLA inbound; 0.029 vehicle trips/hour/square
meter GLA outbound. PM Peak – 0.036 vehicle trips/hour/square meter GLA inbound; 0.039 vehicle trips/hour/square meter
GLA outbound. The higher combination of inbound and outbound trip rates will produce the lower threshold, which is
adopted.
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8.6 Study Extent
The following guide questions will help local government officials and planners determine the scope
of a TIA for proposed projects:
a. What components of a full site TIA are needed to address issues associated with the site,
proposed development and nearby transport system?
b. How detailed an analysis is needed for the trip generation forecast? What modal split should
be considered?
c. How large should the study area be and what is the influence area of the project?
d. Are traffic counts needed?
e. How should adjacent developments be considered in the study?
f. How should planned or programmed transport improvements be considered in the study?
g. Should the various stages of multi-phased development be analyzed individually?
h. What horizon years should be used?
i. Which trip distribution and assignment methods should be used?
j. Which roadway sections and intersections and driveways should be analyzed?
k. Which capacity analysis technique should be used?
l. To what extent will non-automobile modes of travel, such as walking, bicycling and transit,
be affected?
m. Are other analyses needed, such as crash, sight distance, weaving, gap and queuing
analyses?
n. What types of improvements should be considered?
o. What portion of the improvements are the responsibility of the developer?
p. How detailed should the recommendations be?
q. What are the potential funding sources to implement the recommendations?
The answers to these guide questions should be found in the TIA report to be submitted to LGUs.
These serve to determine the extent of transport impact studies that needs to be undertaken.
8.7 Typical Scope or Work
The scope of work for the conduct of TIA includes but is not limited to the following:
• Transportation improvements;
• Road geometry;
• Traffic safety;
• Site circulation and parking;
• Transportation facilities related to public transport, bicycle and pedestrian travel;
• Transportation Demand Management;
• Neighborhood traffic and parking management; and
• Funding for countermeasures.
Box 1 shows an example Table of Contents for a typical TIA report. Note that the report may be
simpler or expansive depending on the project type and magnitude. That is, a 5 storey office
building may have a simpler, more straightforward report compared to a commercial complex or
mixed use development spread over several hectares of land.
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Box 1. Example Table of Contents

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
1.2 Scope of the Study
2. THE STUDY AREA

2.1 Location
2.2 Accessibility
2.3 Impact Area
3. DATA COLLECTION
3.1 Preliminary Surveys
3.2 Secondary Data
3.3 Traffic Counts
3.4 Travel Time Survey
4. BASELINE TRAFFIC
4.1 Identification of Critical Movements
4.2 Base Traffic
5. TRIP GENERATION
5.1 Background
5.2 Trips Produced and Attracted by the Development
5.3 Traffic Assignment
6. ESTIMATION OF FUTURE TRAFFIC

6.1 Background
6.2 Future Traffic Without Development
6.3 Future Traffic With Development
7. ANALYSIS OF TRAFFIC
7.1 Background
7.2 Road Capacity Analysis
7.3 Intersection Analysis
7.4 Project Site Traffic Analysis
7.4 Parking Requirements
8. RECOMMENDATIONS
8.1 Traffic Engineering and Management
8.2 Public Transport Facilities
8.3 Pedestrian Facilities
8.4 Internal Circulation
8.5 Parking
ANNEX A - Processed Traffic Counts Data
ANNEX B - Travel Time and Delay Data
Note: Other annexes or appendices may be included depending on the project
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8.8 Study area
Proposed
fastfood
resturant
Survey location Suggested additional survey location
Figure 8.1 Example survey station locations for a proposed fast-food restaurant
Proposed
school
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Figure 8.2: Example survey station locations for a proposed school
Proposed
mall
Figure 8.3: Example survey station locations for a proposed mall
8.9 Time Elements in TIA
There are two (2) time elements for impact assessment – the planning period and analysis period.
The planning period refers to the horizon years starting from the anticipated completion date of the
proposed development. The planning period may be set at ten (10) years. Five (5) years may be
too short considering certain projects may have phased development or takes time for full
occupancy or operation to be realized. Meanwhile, twenty (20) years may be considered too long
Time periods to be analyzed typically include the following:

• AM and PM street peak (weekday/week-end)
• AM and PM site peak (weekday/week-end)
• Noon peak (weekday/week-end), when applicable
8.10 Data Collection
Typical surveys conducted for impact assessment include the following:
a. Traffic counts – these are classified vehicle traffic counts and ideally includes all types of
vehicles. Truck types may be simplified unless there is a need to adopt the comprehensive
truck classifications used by the DPWH. Typical counts would be over 16 hours (e.g., 6:00
AM to 10:00 PM). However, in some cases, peak hour counts may be sufficient.
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b. Travel speed surveys – these are surveys to determine travel speeds or travel times to and
from a proposed development along the alternative routes identified in the study. Data may
be used to determine whether there will be significant reduction in speeds (or increased
travel times) once the proposed development is completed and operational.
c. Inventory surveys – these are road facilities inventory surveys to collect information such
as number of lanes, road width, sidewalk width, channelization, traffic signs, pavement
conditions and markings, etc. These may also include the locations or stops, stations or
terminals.
d. Public transport surveys – these include inventories of public transport services and
facilities. Among the data to be collected are information on existing and proposed public
transport routes, occupancies and capacities, and terminal and stops in the vicinity of the
proposed development.
6,000
5,500
5,000
Bicycles
4,500
Motorcycles
traffic volume (veh/hr)
4,000
Tricycles
3,500
Large Trucks
3,000
Medium Trucks
2,500
Buses
2,000
Jeepneys
1,500 Passenger Cars
1,000
500
-
hour of day
Figure 8.4: Example volume count data
8-8
Intersection: Montreal - New York

Date: April 2, 2004 (Friday)
Time : 6pm to 7pm
To Ermin Garcia
Montreal
private cars, pick- motorcycles, total

jeepney, fx buses trucks
up, taxi tricycles (veh/hr)
0 0 0 0 28 28
35 1 0 1 223 260
New York New York

To EDSA To Annapolis
3 0 16 1 16 36
3 1 0 0 63 67
0 0 0 0 43 43
8 0 0 0 2 10
11 1 0 0 108 120
38 1 16 2 267 324
Montreal
To Aurora Blvd.
Figure 8.5: Example intersection counts data
Figure 8.6: Example inventory of an intersection
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Figure 8.7: Example route survey outputs
8.11 TIA and Traffic Management Plans
A traffic management plan is only one part of the TIA. This is usually part of the recommendations
based on the traffic analysis performed on estimated future traffic with the development. How can
the plan be effective if its formulation skips critical steps or components of aTIA such as calculations
of future traffic using, for example, the four-step model of travel demand forecasting?
Most traffic management plans outside a TIA are just characterizations or descriptions of current
traffic, i.e., without the development. This may be one of at least two traffic management plans that
can be provided by aTIA. One for during the construction phase and another during the operations
phase of a project, when the completed project will actually be generating trips and traffic.
Most traffic management plans that are not part of a TIA contains qualitative yet generic
recommendations. Since there should be data collection (e.g., traffic surveys), trip generation
calculations, estimation of future traffic and various analysis involved in the TIA, it is expected that
aTIA will be evidence-based and recommendations are based on sound calculations such as those
that lead to the determination of road and intersection level of service.
Most traffic management plans that are not part of a TIA pass on the responsibility for mitigating
negative impacts to local authorities (e.g., MMDA, LGUs, etc.).
Figure 8.7 and 8.8 shows example illustrations of traffic management plans. Typically, these should
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show map or site plan, vehicle and pedestrian traffic circulation, potential or existing conflicts. In a
TIA report, there can be several traffic management plans. For example, there can be one for the
construction phase, another for when a proposed development begins operations, and another for
further in the future that will already account for forecasted traffic.
Figure 8.7: Example traffic management plan illustrations
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Figure 8.8: Example traffic management plan illustrations
8.12 Institutionalizing TIA
8.12.1 Purpose of Institutionalization of TIA
The purpose of the institutionalization of transport or traffic impact assessment is to make the
conduct of TIA mandatory for development proposals or zoning changes that produce significant
transport/ traffic impacts. The keyword here is significant. Thus, not all development proposals will
be considered in the conduct of traffic impact assessment. The TIA requirement criteria or the
threshold values were discussed in other modules.
8.12.2 Land Use and Transportation Interaction
The development proposal is land use in character. The relationship of land use and transport is
summarized in Figure 9. The land use will generate demand, trips. Travel is really the interaction
of two land uses: the origin – the land use which produces trips and destination – the land use
which attracts the trips. These trips address the transportation needs and affect community growth.
Interaction of two land uses, creates demand. As a result, transportation facilities are developed
providing higher accessibility of the area and an increase in land value. In effect, it is beneficial to
use transport decisions as a tool to accommodate planned growth.
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Figure 8.9: Land Use and Transportation Interaction
8.12.3 Two Ways of TIA Institutionalization
There are two (2) ways of TIA Institutionalization:

1. Through the EIA System
2. Through LGU Ordinance
In the Philippines, TIA is already part of the EIA system. TIA is already required for subdivisions and
condominiums. Under Presidential Decree No. 957, application for subdivision development permit
requires the submission of TIA.
a. Through the EIA System
Environmental Impact Assessment or EIA is a formal process which consists of identifying and
predicting the impacts/consequences of proposed projects/programs on the bio-geophysical
environment on man’s health and wellbeing, and interpreting as well as communicating
information about such impacts in a manner which can be utilized by planners and decision-makers.
The Philippine Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) System was formally established in 1978
with the enactment of Presidential Decree no. 1586. The institutionalizing of its implementing rules
and regulations was completed four years later. A number of laws have been passed through the
years aimed at strengthening, expanding and refining the existing systems and procedures.
The Department of Environment and Natural Resources was given the task of administering the
EIA system through the Environmental Management Bureau and its regional offices.
Projects with potentially significant environmental impacts were categorized either as

environmentally critical or located in environmentally critical areas. Projects under the first category
had to undergo full-scale EIA studies while those in the latter category were submitted to Initial
Environmental Examinations.
Government entities were given mandates to establish their own environmental units, integrate
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environmental concerns in their planning and project cycles and assist in expediting the review
process. A detailed procedural manual issued in 1992 discussed the step-by-step procedure in the
preparation and review of Environmental Impact Statements.
The EIA Policy also states that no person, partnership or corporation shall undertake or operate
such declared environmentally critical project or area without first securing an Environmental
Compliance Certificate (ECC) issued by the President or his/her authorized representative.
The document issued by the DENR Secretary or the Regional Executive Director that based on the
representation of the proponent and the EIS/IEE preparers, as reviewed and validated by the EIA
Review Committee:
a. The proposed project or undertaking will not cause a significant negative environmental
impact
b. The proponent has complied with all the requirements of the EIA system
c. The proponent is committed to implement its approved Environmental Management Plan
in the EIS or mitigation measures in the IEE
The real value of the EIA Process is in the reduction of adverse environmental impact as a result
of incremental decision making before a proposed action reaches final decision-making on whether
it should be allowed to proceed or not:
• To aid the proponent/applicant on environmental considerations prior to starting

construction works on the project
• To aid agencies in considering EIA results in their decision making for their respective
permitting system
b. Through LGU Ordinance
Purpose of Ordinance
To require all developers or owners of industrial, commercial, residential, recreational and similar
establishments to submit a Transport Impact Assessment (TIA) as a pre-requisite in the issuance
of Development Permit.
Examples
Requirement for TIA under the Traffic Code of Davao City
• All major commercial, industrial, housing and condominiums, institutional developments,

including government institutions and other similar developments, as may be determined by
the CTTMO, shall submit a transportation/traffic impact assessment to the CTTMO for
evaluation and recommendation of approval to the City Transport and Traffic Management
Board as preliminary documentary requirement in the application of Building Permit;
• The transportation/traffic impact assessment shall be prepared, signed and sealed by a

transportation engineer or planner certified by the EMB and the NCTS or the licensed
environmental planner duly recognized by the PRC
Sample Contents of a TIA Ordinance
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• When TIA is required

• Scope of TIA
• Qualifications of TIA Preparers
• Implementation of mitigating measures or payment of Impact Fee
• Application Fee
• Penalty
• Implementing Organization
• Funding
c. Comparison between the implementation Through the EIA System and Through an
Ordinance
• Ordinance can be comprehensive while there are limitations under the EIA system, e.g.,
some development proposals do not fall under the EIA System;
• Preparers of EIS may lack expertise in the conduct of TIA;
• Evaluators of EIS may not be too knowledgeable in the TIA system; and
• Ordinance has flexibility in the treatment of mitigating measures.
Needed Reforms for Effective TIA Implementation
1. Passage of a comprehensive traffic code

2. Public transport regulatory changes
3. Creation of local transport and traffic management organization
8.13 Conclusions
The TIA provides an opportunity to address potential transport and traffic problems. In fact, the TIA
provides an opportunity to revisit design (e.g., access and egress, driveways, parking provisions,
etc.) particularly if the TIA was undertaken with a preliminary or draft design already available for
reference. It is common that the assessment was required or commissioned after a site plan or
more detailed planning/design has already been accomplished.
TIA can be an effective tool provided that:

• There is appreciation of the value of TIA in terms of mitigating potential transport and traffic
problems once a proposed development is implemented and operational;
• It is understood that benefits outweigh costs;
• A participatory approach is employed in determining the scope of work and the issues to be
addressed by the study;
• There is capability to conduct (i.e., preparer) and evaluate (i.e., LGUs) TIAs; and
• An effective monitoring mechanism is in place to determine whether proposed
countermeasures, both soft and hard solutions, are implemented should the expected
negative impacts to transport and traffic manifest in the future.
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References
• Environmental Management Bureau (1996) DAO 96-37: Environmental Impact

Assessment Procedural Manual, Department of Environment and Natural Resources.
• Regidor, J.R.F. (2005) “Analyzing Impacts of Transportation Infrastructure and
Policies on Traffic Flow in Metro Manila Using Advanced Tools and Techniques,”
Philippine Engineering Journal, Vol. 24, No. 1, 11-23.
• Tiglao, N.C.C., Regidor, J.R.F., and Teodoro, R.V.R. (2005) “An Assessment of the Truck
Ban and UVVRP, and Their Effects on the Freight Forwarding Industry,” Proceedings
of the First Conference on Transportation Logistics (T-LOG 2005), Furama Riverfront,
Singapore, August 27-29.
• Regidor, J.R.F. (2004) “Public Participation in the Traffic Assessment Process,”
Proceedings of the JSCE-PICE-NCTS Joint Seminar on Sustainable Urban Transport
Systems, Makati City, pp. 65-69.
• Regidor, J.R.F., and Teodoro, R.V.R. (2003) “Assessment of Traffic Impact Components
in a Typical Environmental Impact Study (EIS) in the Philippines,” Proceedings of the
Symposium on Environmental Issues Related to Infrastructure Development, Japan
Society for the Promotion of Science, Core University Program on Environmental
Engineering Symposium, pp. 145-156.
• Regidor, J.R.F., and Teodoro, R.V.R. (2003) “Institutionalizing Traffic Impact
Assessment in the Philippines: Some Issues and Challenges,” Journal of the Eastern
Asia Society for Transportation Studies, Vol. 5, pp. 3192-3205.
• Regidor, J.R.F., and Felias, H.A., Jr. (2003) “Impact Assessment of Infrastructure
Projects in Metro Manila Using Micro-Simulation Tools,” Journal of the Eastern Asia
Society for Transportation Studies, Vol. 5, pp. 1075-1085.
• Japan International Cooperation Agency (2002) Capability Building for the
Implementation of Traffic Impact Assessment in the Philippines, Final Report, U.P.
National Center for Transportation Studies Foundation, Inc.
• Japan International Cooperation Agency (2001) Formulation of Guidelines for the Traffic
Impact Assessment (TIA) of Urban and Regional Development Projects, Final Report,
U.P. National Center for Transportation Studies Foundation, Inc.
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9 MODULE 9: ROAD SAFETY

9.1 Key Areas Towards Improving Road Safety
Improving road safety in any locality, region, or country requires improving three key areas as
shown in Figure 9.1.
Source: Sigua, R.G.
Figure 9.1: Key Areas Towards Improving Road Safety
9.1.1 Data Collection/Information Systems
The data collection/information systems, which generally contain the road crash database, can
provide a comprehensive picture of what is happening at present and will be able us to know how
effective our future actions will be. Information system tells:
• how big the problem is;
• how fast it is growing; and
• what its main features are.
The information system should be able to provide answers to the following basic questions:
• Who were involved or who were the victims?
• When did it happen?
• Where did it happen?
• Why did it happen?
Currently, there are several agencies which have initiatives on the development of Data
Collection/Information Systems.
a. Crime Information Reporting and Analysis System (CIRAS) Enhanced e-Blotter

System by PNP
The system was initially called the e- blotter, which was a stand-alone customized single
database. It was launched in September 2011 to serve as a more efficient electronic blotter
system across the country. It was installed in the existing desktop of the police units/stations
and was utilized by the Police Stations to enter blotter/incident reports directly to the system.
In May 2015, a web-based CIRAS (enhanced e – blotter) was developed and pilot tested
in NCRPO in June 2015.
b. Online National Electronic Injury Surveillance System (ONEISS – DOH, 2008)

Based on the Online National Electronic Injury Surveillance System (ONEISS) of the
Department of Health, all government and private hospitals and infirmaries must report
injuries that have been managed by their facility to the said system.
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As of 2020, there are 2,175 government and private hospitals/ infirmaries. Of this number,
1,772 or 81.5% hospitals and infirmaries have training on the use of ONEISS.
c. Metro Manila Accident Reporting and Analysis System MMARAS (MMDA 2005)
Data sources of the MMARAS database are from the following:

• road crash reports from the Police Traffic Precinct blotter book are copied and
transferred to the TEC – RSU road crash form;
• road crash records of MMDA Command Center (Metrobase) that were reported thru
radio, concerned citizen calls and captured by CCTVs.
d. Data for Road Incident Visualization Evaluation and Reporting (DRIVER) System
(DOTr 2018)
The DRIVER System has the following features:

• Web-based interface;
• Companion android application for data entry;
• Automated reporting based on the most common reports across agencies;
• Custom search and filter tools; and
• Statistical tools for identifying high-incident areas over time, predicting likelihood
of incidents throughout the day and week, and tracking infrastructure
interventions.
The DPWH used to have the TARAS or the Traffic Accident and Reporting System, but its use was
terminated in 2014. Currently the DPWH relies on IRAP for the assessment of the roads within its
jurisdiction.
The Philippine Statistics Authority (PSA) also provides information on road – related mortality.
Road crash statistics
Based on MMARAS database for 12 years (2005 – 2016), a total of 957,348 incidents were
recorded in Metro Manila. The average annual number of fatalities was 400. Table 9.1 shows the
breakdown of road crash fatalities over the period of 12 years. Motorcycle riders are included in the
‘Driver’ category.
Table 9.1. Breakdown of road crash fatalities
Source of data: MMDA MMARAS
The involvement of the different road users is shown in Table 9.2. Pedestrians and MC riders
continue to be the most vulnerable road users in Metro Manila
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Table 9.2. Mode Interaction
Road crash locations

It is surprising to note that most fatal incidents happened along mid-blocks rather than at
intersections or junctions (Table 3). With prior information that most of the victims are pedestrians
and motorcycle riders, this could be indicative of:
• Lack of pedestrian facilities; poor visibility at night
• Uncontrolled lane splitting behavior of motorcycles
Table 9. 3: General road crash locations
Considering the incidents happening at intersections, it is also surprising to note that most of these
happened at intersections with traffic lights (Table 4). This could be indicative of the following:
• Low compliance (beating red lights; ignoring signals)
• Inadequate clearance intervals
Table 9.4: Type of control and road crash incidence
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The following figures show different heat maps for fatal incidents involving the most vulnerable road
users, namely the pedestrians and the motorcycle riders.
Incidents involving cars and pedestrians happened mostly along major wide roads such as
Commonwealth Avenue and EDSA while incidents involving trucks and pedestrians happened
along designated truck routes such as R10, C3, Bonifacio Ave, etc.
Source: MMDA MMARAS, Luo, C.Y.
Figure 9.2: Pedestrian Fatal Road Crashes
As for motorcycle riders, most of self – crash incidents happened along major roads and almost
90% happened at nighttime.
Figure 9.3: MC Alone Fatal
Similar to pedestrians involved in crashes with trucks, fatal incidents happened at designated truck
routes.
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Figure 9.4: MC versus Trucks (Fatal)
Fatal Crashes involving motorcycles and cars happened mostly along major roads.
= Source: MMDA MMARAS, Luo, C.Y.
Figure 9.5: MC versus Car (Fatal)
Why did it happen? The database showed that entries for the answer to this question were few.
Nevertheless, available information such as shown in Figure 6 would tell that human error is the
major cause of road crashes with speeding as the main culprit.
Source: Jacaban, PNP-HPG

Figure 9.6: Causes of Road Crashes(2013)
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Based on international studies, speed has serious consequences when a pedestrian is involved.
Faster speeds also increase the likelihood of a pedestrian being hit since motorists are less likely
to see and react to a pedestrian and are even less likely to be able to stop in time to avoid hitting
one.
Figure 9.7 shows that even at the speed of 30kph, there is about 5% chance pedestrian’s death
if hit by a motor vehicle. At 60kph, that probability of fatal crash is about 90%.
Source: U.K. Dept of Transport
Figure 9.7: Pedestrian’s chance of death if hit by a motor vehicle
9.2 Road Safety Action Plans

Since 2005, the Philippine government has crafted its own National road Safety Action Plans, the
first one was in 2005 as part of the ADB – ASEAN Regional Road Safety Program; the second one
was in response to the call of UN for a decade of action on road safety from 2011 to 2020; the third
one was an update to this plan for the period 2017 – 2022.
Source: Sigua, R.G.
Figure 9.8: Philippine Road Safety Action Plans
9.2.1 The Safe System Approach
The Philippine Road Safety Action Plan (PRSAP) 2017-2022 provides a long-term vision for the
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improvement of road safety in the Philippines based on the Safe System approach and a Vision
Zero, which envisions a Philippine Society with zero deaths on the road.
Guiding Principles:
• People make mistakes.
People will commit errors on the road, but these should not lead to death or injury.
• People are vulnerable. There is a limit to the impact that the human body can tolerate.
• Road safety is a shared responsibility. Those who design the roads and those who use
the roads are both responsible in preventing road crash deaths or injuries from
happening.
• All parts of the system must be strengthened. Even if one part fails, the road user must be
still protected.
The road system is designed to anticipate and accommodate human error and is based on the
vulnerability of the human body.
Four Core Safe System Pillars:

• Safe road users who are competent and follow traffic laws;
• Safe vehicles that have technology to help prevent crashes and safety features that
protect road users in the event of a crash;
• Safe roads that are self-explaining and forgiving of mistakes to reduce the risk of crashes
occurring and to protect road users from fatal or serious injury should a crash occur;
• Safe vehicle speeds that suit the function and the level of safety of the road to ensure that
crash forces are kept below the limits that cause death or serious injury.
Source: PRSAP 2017
Figure 9.9: Safe system 4 pillars
9.2.2 Strategies for improving road safety for specific vulnerable road users
This section discusses the different strategies in improving the road safety of vulnerable road users.
Table 9.5 is intended for pedestrians. Depending on the extent of challenges facing the pedestrians,
strategies are listed to meet the four key objectives. It may be observed that the strategies revolve
around the 3 ‘E’s, namely, engineering, enforcement, and education.
a. Improving Pedestrian Safety
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Table 9.5: Strategies for improving road safety of pedestrians
Source: Sigua, R.G.
Exclusive phase for pedestrians
Aside from allowing pedestrians to move simultaneously with the vehicular traffic, the provision of
‘scramble’ phase can offer more level of safety to pedestrians. During this phase, vehicles in all
directions are required to stop to allow pedestrians to cross in all directions, including diagonally.
Figure 9.10: Scramble Phase for pedestrians
Pedestrian footbridges
Pedestrian overpass(footbridge) or underpass is oftentimes in the list of recommendations to

separate/eliminate conflicts between pedestrian and vehicular traffic. However, such
structure/facility creates difficulties to the physically challenged pedestrians.
Photo taken by author

Figure 9.11: Pedestrian footbridge
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Moreover, the location of pedestrian overpass/underpass must be carefully planned. A study

showed (Figure 9.12) that If the walking time to use an overpass/underpass is 50 percent longer
than crossing at street level, almost no one will use the overpass/underpass. (Moore and Older
(1965)
Source: Moore and Older, 1965

Figure 9.12: Utilization of Overpass/Underpass
b. Improving Motorcyclists’ Safety

Adopting the previous objectives/strategies table for pedestrians, similar table (Table 9.6) for
motorcyclists can be prepared.
Table 9.6. Strategies for improving road safety of Motorcycle riders
Source: Sigua, R.G.
On improving bicyclists’ safety, the reader is encouraged to identify strategies to achieve the
objectives as shown in the table.
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9.2.3 Road Safety Engineering
Focusing on engineering, 2 major approaches must be considered towards improving road safety,
namely: road crash reduction through blackspot identification and analysis and road crash
prevention through the conduct of road safety audit.
Source: DPWH
Figure 9.13: Road safety engineering coverage
In any Road Safety Program, both reduction and prevention strategies are indispensable.
Blackspot or black spot refers to hazardous or accident-prone location; a place on a road where
accidents frequently occur. Blackspot analysis is a valuable tool for:
• Identification of hazardous locations; and
• Programming of road improvement activities.
Recognizing that such incidents are indeed preventable, instead of using the term ‘accident’, which
connotes an unforeseen event or one without an apparent cause; a misfortune or mishap, esp. one
causing injury or death, the term ‘road crash’ is now considered as the more appropriate term.
Road Crash Prevention
Road Safety Audit (RSA) is a formal and systematic road safety assessment or ‘checking’ of a road
or a road scheme. It has the greatest potential and is most cost-effective when applied to a road or
traffic design before it is built. RSA approach is hinged on the principle that prevention is better than
cure. Table 9.7 shows the audit criteria based on the current DPWH RSA Manual.
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Table 9.7: Audit Criteria based on DPWH Road Safety Audit Manual (2004)
Source: DPWH.
Qualifications of Road Safety Auditors based on the DPWH Road Safety Audit Manual
RSA must be performed by a team of people who have sufficient experience and expertise in the
areas of road safety engineering, accident investigation and prevention, traffic engineering and
road design. Having a team offers the following advantages:
• Diverse backgrounds and different experience of people in the team;
• Cross fertilization of ideas which can result from discussions; and

• Advantages of having more knowledge available.
Successful Road Safety Auditor must have experience in road safety engineering and an aptitude
for road crash investigation and prevention techniques.
The experience of a Road Safety Auditor should also be linked with an understanding of:
• Traffic engineering and traffic management;
• Road design and construction techniques; and
• Road user behavior
At present, these requirements of the DPWH Road Safety Audit Manual cannot be fulfilled due to
a lack of qualified (internal and external) experts. There is therefore a need for more RSA
practitioners at the DPWH in charge of national roads; at the local government units in charge of
local roads; and in corporations/agencies operating the expressways.
Road crash reduction
Figure 9.14 shows the general process flow of conducting blackspot studies.
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Source: Sigua, R.G.
Figure 9.14: General process flow of conducting blackspot studies
Blackspot Definition
The current DPWH Accident Blackspot Investigation Handbook (2004) has the following criteria for
identifying blackspots for road sections:
“Average of 3 major accidents per year per kilometer of road length over the past 2 to 3 years”
For intersections or short segments of 500 meters, the same number of accidents/road crashes is
used.
The Handbook was used in conjunction with the Traffic Accident Recording and Analysis System
(TARAS) Database.
9.3 Funding and Support for Road Safety

The last key area is funding and support for road safety. Road safety is only one of the many
competing demands for our scarce resources, but it is essential that it is not overlooked in
developing plans and policies. Road safety is everyone’s responsibility, and it is not enough to rely
on the government alone. It is important to tap the resources of the private sector as well.
9.4 Assessment of Road Safety

The state of road safety of a country or a region is normally gauged by the frequency of occurrence
of accidents. Key indicators are number of accidents (fatal, injured, or property damage) and
accident rates. The rates are normally used instead of actual numbers for comparison studies.
This section provides discussion on some tools to assess road safety situation of an area or region,
as well as specific locations such as intersections or road sections.
Accident rate per 100,000 population
One measure of accident rate is per 100,000 population like the one utilized in the health sector.
For instance, if a certain town, city, or region has N accident occurrences in 1 year and has a
population P, then:
Ap = 根100,000
The following figures and table show such rates are used for the purpose of comparing road safety
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situations.
Source: WHO
Figure 9.15. World fatality rates
Source: PSA, 2017
Figure 9.16: Number of road deaths and death rate per 100,000 population
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Table 9.8. Fatality rates in ASEAN and selected countries (2013)
Source: WHO
Accident per registered vehicles
Another measure of accident rate is per 10,000 registered vehicles. Again, if there are N accidents
in one year and the number of registered vehicles for the same year is V, then:
Av = 根10,000
For specific locations, such as intersections or road segments, the following rates may be utilized:
Accident Rates for Intersections
When analyzing traffic accidents at intersections, the total entering traffic volume usually in AADT
is considered. The equation below is used to compute the accident rate per million entering vehicles
(mev). The factor of 1,000,000 is applied for convenience to obtain values of Ai within 2 to 3 digits.
1,000,000 根 N
Ai =
365 根 T 根V
where: N – total number of accidents in time T

T – time frame of analysis, year
V – AADT or annual average daily traffic
Road Crash Rates for Road Sections
For segments of highways, accident rates are computed based on total vehicle-kilometers of travel.
The equation below is used to compute the accident rate per 100 million vehicle-kilometer (mvk).
Again, the factor of 100 million is applied for convenience.
100,000,000 根 N
As =
365 根 T 根V 根 L
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where: N – total number of accidents in time T

T – time frame of analysis, year
V – AADT or annual average daily traffic
L – length of section in km.
9.5 Identifying hazardous locations or blackspots

There are several methods of identifying blackspots or hazardous locations. Two methods will be
discussed based on statistical analysis.
Classic Statistical Method
The method assumes that the number of accidents at locations of interest follows a standard normal
probability distribution. The method flags a location as hazardous if it satisfies the following
inequality:
Xi > X + K 根 S
where: Xi - accident frequency or rate at location i
X - mean frequency or rate for all locations under consideration
K – constant corresponding to a certain level of confidence
S – sample standard deviation for all locations.
Table 9.9 provides a guide on the appropriate values of K for a given level of confidence.
Table 9.9: Commonly used levels of confidence and K values.
Level of K values
Confidence, %
90 1.282
95 1.645
99 2.327
Rate Quality Control Method
This is a variation of the classic statistical method. Instead of a normal distribution, the method
assumes that the number of accidents at a set of locations follows a Poisson distribution. Also, the
method applies only to rates and not frequencies. It compares the rate of a particular location to
the mean rate at similar locations rather than at all locations.
The method flags a location as hazardous if it satisfies the following inequality:
( Y )0.5 1
Yi > Y + K 根||（ )|| +
Vi 2Vi
where: Yi - accident rate observed at location i

Y – mean accident rate for all locations with characteristics
similar to those of location i
V – volume of traffic at location I, in the same units as the
accident rates are given
K – same as in classic method
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9.6 The Role of Enforcement in Road Safety

Based on WHO report, the following have been identified as key risk factors (Source: Road Safety:
Basic Facts, WHO)
Motorcycle helmets
Seatbelts
Drink & driving
Speed
Child restraints
Mobile phones
Some of the facts are enumerated based on the effects of the above-mentioned key risk factors:
• Drinking and driving, with BAC level of over 0.05 g/dl greatly increases the risk of a crash
and the possibility that it will result in death or serious injury.
• Wearing a seatbelt can reduce fatalities among front-seat passengers by up to 50% and
among rear-seat car passengers by up to 75%.
• Wearing a standard motorcycle helmet correctly can reduce the risk of death by almost
40% and the risk of severe injury by over 70%.
• Child restraint systems decrease the risk of death in a crash by about 70% for infants and
up to 80% for small children.
• In high income countries, speed contributes to about 30% of road deaths, while in some
low- and middle-income countries speed is the main factor in about half of road deaths.
Based on studies in different countries, enforcement has shown to be very effective in addressing
the key risk factors.
• Drinking and driving: enforcement through random breath-testing checkpoints is highly
cost-effective and can reduce alcohol-related crashes by approximately 20%.
• When helmet laws are enforced, helmet-wearing rates can increase to over 90%.
• Public awareness campaigns, mandatory seatbelt laws and their enforcement have been
highly effective in increasing the rates of seatbelt wearing.
• Mandatory child restraint laws and enforcement are effective in increasing the use of child
restraints.
When planning for an awareness campaign or for stricter enforcing of the lawas part of the activities
of a safety program, Table 9.10 provides information which may help in the preparation prior to
implementation.
Table 9.10: Preparation prior to implementation.
Source: Sigua, R.G.
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Post assessment is necessary to determine whether measures introduced are effective. For
instance, compliance rate must increase; the number of apprehensions must decrease; and overall,
the number of road crashes by severity must also decrease.
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TECHNICAL REPORT NO. 2: QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY TO MMDA AND LGUs
10 MODULE 10: TRANSPORTATION PLANNING CONCEPTS

Module 10 consists of 3 parts. In the first part, we will discuss key ideas on transportation planning
including the nature of urban transportation problems and the need to conduct responsive
transportation planning in order to achieve sustainable transportation.
In the succeeding sections, we will cover key concepts and standard practices in travel demand
forecasting and review the tools and techniques currently employed in the application of the so-
called Four-Step Model which is a standard approach and methodology in the conduct of travel
demand forecasting.
10.1 Challenges facing Urban Transport
First, we need to understand the fundamental challenges that cities face in terms of urban
transportation. Cities have high concentrations of economic activities and hence need to be
supported by transport systems in order for these economic engines to work efficiently and
effectively. We need to realize that urban transport problems arise when there is poor urban
circulation. It is also important to recognize that there is a growing complexity of cities for which the
transport system needs to address increasingly.
Key urban transport problems include the following:

1. Traffic congestion and parking difficulties – this is the most prevalent transport problem and
is linked with the diffusion of the automobile
2. Public transport inadequacy – many public transport systems are either over or under used
with both cases creating problems of crowdedness on the one hand and low patronage on
the other
3. Difficulties for pedestrians – intense circulation and the lack of consideration of pedestrian
movements create serious problems in cities
4. Environmental impacts and energy consumption – pollution has greatly lowered the quality
of life in urban areas and dependence on petroleum has
5. Loss of public space – the construction of roads for vehicle as well as large-scale mall
developments have greatly reduced available green space for parks and open spaces
6. Accidents and safety - growing circulation in urban areas has been linked with a growing
number of accidents and fatalities
7. Land consumption - over-reliance on some forms of urban transportation can lead to
wasteful use of limited land area
We can relate car and public transport through a vicious cycle where an increase in car ownership
leads to reduced demand for public transport as depicted in Figure 1. Car dependence is a critical
issue that we must address in the context of Metro Manila and other key cities. In fact, the use of
personal mobility has extended to the alarming increase in the use of motorcycles.
Figure 10.1. Car and Public Transport Vicious Cycle
10- 1
We can also appreciate the negative impact of over-reliance on road building in the famous black
hole theory of road investment. The right perspective is not to dismiss the role of road investments
per see but to situate road infrastructure as part of a holistic strategy to curb car dependence and
promote use of public transport systems.
Figure 10.2: Black Hole Theory of Road Investment
We should understand the land use and transport systems are inter-connected. Transport systems
affect traffic conditions which in turn affect the land use system. On the other hand, land uses give
rise to trip generation that utilize the transport system. We can simulate changes in the transport
sector, for example, an improvement in the transport network. On the other hand, we can simulate
changes in the land use sector, perhaps through a land development project from a subdivision or
even a condominium development.
Figure 10.3: Land use and Transport Interaction
10-2
Figure 10.4: Changes in the Transport System
Figure 10.4: Changes in the Land Use System
The challenges in integrating land use and transport are:

a) Weak integration of the social dimensions of urban planning in existing systems;
b) Weak coordination mechanisms among local governments and the higher planning
authorities
• Effective land use planning has two components: long term comprehensive planning to
deal with metropolitan scale issues and site or locality specific plans.
c) Lack of integrated planning models that are capable of addressing air pollution, transport
and health issues as decision-support tools for a comprehensive planning process.
• There is a need for good data but also for models that are not overly data-hungry.
• Scope for development of ‘sketch planning’ methods
d) Lack of effective urban development management is required to manage the
implementation of land use/ transport plans and policies.
• Significant technical capacity, preferably at a local level, is required to provide
responsive urban management.
e) Lack of timely provision of infrastructure
• Transport is a useful instrument for structuring land uses within an appropriate planning
framework.
In rejecting the former paradigm of building capacity, transport planners have turned increasingly
to managing both demand and the transport system. Building roads has produced a car-oriented
society in which the other modal alternatives have little opportunity to co-exist. Car ownership is
beyond the ability of the transport planner to control directly and the question remains if it should.
But car use and ownership is affected by land use and density, both elements that planners can
affect. High population densities, in particular, favor walking, bicycling and public transit use.
Managing the demand for travel is made up of a large number of small interventions that
cumulatively can have impact of car use, but in particular improve the livability of cities. A sample
of well-practiced and successful interventions includes:
10-3
• Park and ride

• Traffic calming
• Priority lanes for buses, and high-occupancy vehicles
• Alternate work schedules
• Promoting bicycle use
• Car sharing
• Enhancing pedestrian areas
• Improving public transit
• Parking management
According to the Brundtland Commission, Sustainable Development is ”Development which meets

the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs“. As such, a sustainable city must offer to its population a suitable urban environment,
employment, food, housing and transportation without compromising the welfare of the future
population of that city.
As transport planners and engineers, we should actively pursue sustainable transport in our
respective practice and spheres of influence. Based on the vision of sustainable development, we
envision cities that provide a suitable urban environment including transportation systems that meet
the needs of the present population without compromising the welfare of future generations. There
are 3 dimensions of sustainability that we should be concerned about:
There are 3 dimensions of sustainability that we should be concerned about:
• Intergenerational equity
• Social equity
• Spatial responsibility
Figure 10.5: Sustainable Transport
Another effective way of visualizing the interdependencies among various land use and transport
factors is through systems dynamics where negative feedback (‘vicious cycle’) and positive
feedback (‘virtuous cycle) loops are identified and evaluated.
10-4
Figure 10.6: Dynamics of Urban Transportation
Travel Demand
Travel demand occurs as a result of thousands of individual travelers making individual decisions
on how, where and when to travel. These decisions are affected by many factors such as family
situations, characteristics of the person making the trip, and the choices (destination, route and
mode) available for the trip. Travel demand models refer to a series of mathematical equations that
are used to represent how choices are made when people travel.
Models are important because transportation plans and investments are based on what the models
say about future travel. Models are used to estimate the number of trips that will be made on a
transportation systems alternative at some future date. These estimates are the basis for
transportation plans and are used in major investment analysis, environmental impact statements
and in setting priorities for investments.
10.2 Transportation Planning
Transportation Planning is the functional area within transportation engineering that deals with the
relationship of land use to travel patterns and travel demands The planning, evaluation, and
programming of transportation facilities, including roadways, transit terminals, parking, pedestrian
facilities, bikeways, and goods movement.
The objectives of transportation planning are:

• Improve coordination between land use and transportation systems
• Provide cooperative interaction between planning, design, and operation of transportation
services
• Maintain a balance between transportation-related energy use and clean air
• Encourage alternative modes of transportation that enhance energy efficiency while
providing high levels of mobility and safety
Transportation planning at various levels should be aligned and harmonized to ensure consistency
and complementarity of strategies.
10-5
Figure 10.7: Alignment of Various Transportation Plans
There are seven (7) steps involved in functional transportation planning, namely:
1) Goals and Objectives
2) Inventories
3) Forecasts
4) Network Planning
5) Analysis of Alternatives
6) Evaluation
7) Selection/ Implementation
Figure 10.8: Functional Transportation Planning Step 1 - Goals and Objectives
10-6
Figure 10.9: Functional Transportation Planning Step 2 - Inventories
Figure 10.10: Functional Transportation Planning Step 3 - Forecasts
10-7
Figure 10.11: Functional Transportation Planning Step 4 - Network Planning
Figure 10.12: Functional Transportation Planning Step 5 - Analysis of Alternatives
10-8
Figure 10.13: Functional Transportation Planning Step 6 – Evaluation
Figure 10.14: Functional Transportation Planning Step 7 – Selection/ Implementation
10.3 Travel Demand Forecasting
Travel Demand Forecasting is a multi-stage process, and there are several different techniques
that can be used at each stage. The basic steps are as follows:
1) Database Development
2) Trip Generation
3) Trip Distribution
4) Modal Split
5) Traffic Assignment
A Trip is a one-way movement from a point of origin to a point of destination. Home-based trips are
trips that either start from or end at the home. Trips from home to work are referred to as Home-
Based Work (HBW) trips. Trips from home to school are referred to as Home-Based School (HBS)
trips. Other types of trips coming from home are referred to as Home-Based Others (HBO). Finally,
trips that do not have home as its origin or destination are referred to as Non-Home Based (NHB)
trips.
Figure 10.15: Definition of a Trip
Trips captured in the conduct of Household Interview Surveys (HIS) can be classified based on:
• By Purpose (Work, School, Shop, Others)
• By Time of Day (AM, PM, peak, off-peak)
10-9
• By Person Type (income, car ownership, family size, accessibility, etc.)
The Origin-Destination (OD) is a collection of typical day trip activities of residents within the Study
Area.
Figure 10.16: Single Trip Entry
Figure 10.17: Constructing an OD Table
Travel Demand Models
Transport demand models refer to a series of mathematical equations that are used to represent
how choices are made when people travel. Travel demand occurs as a result of thousands of
individual travelers making individual decisions on how, where and when to travel. These decisions
are affected by many factors such as family situations, characteristics of the person making the trip,
and the choices (destination, route and mode) available for the trip.
Mathematical relationships are used to represent (model) human behavior in making these choices.
Models require a series of assumptions in order to work and are limited by the data available to
make forecasts. The coefficients and parameters in the model are calibrated using existing data.
Normally, these relationships are assumed to be valid and to remain constant in the future.
Travel demand modeling was first developed in the late 1950's. As the need to look at other
problems such as transit, land use issues and air quality analysis arose, the modeling process has
been modified to add additional techniques to deal with these problems.
Models are important because transportation plans and investments are based on what the models
say about future travel. Models are used to estimate the number of trips that will be made on a
transportation systems alternative at some future date.
10- 10
These estimates are the basis for transportation plans and are used in major investment analysis,
environmental impact statements and in setting priorities for investments.
Models provide forecasts only for those factors and alternatives which are explicitly included in the
equations of the models. If the models are not sensitive to certain polices or programs (i.e. policy
sensitive), the models will not show the effects of such policies.
Database Development
Generally, the development of database for use in travel demand forecasting involves the following
items:
a) Break the area that requires prediction of future travel demand into study zones that can
be accurately described by a few variables (Zoning Design);
b) Collection of existing socio-economic data for the study area;
c) Conduct of Person-Trip (PT) surveys to establish the present travel patterns, specifically,
person OD trips;
d) Conduct of other traffic surveys to calibrate the model for the base year (e.g. screenline
traffic counts); and
e) Conduct of land use surveys to establish land use development patterns
The zoning design requires considering the decision-making context, the schemes to be modeled,
and the nature of trips of interest in the study. The study area should have majority of origin and
destination trips inside it. The study area should be somewhat bigger than the specific area of
interest.
The Study Area will be comprised of zones. The zoning system is a way of aggregating trips into
manageable chunks for modeling purposes. The Traffic Analysis Zone (TAZ) is a basic unit of
zoning system where each zone is a point of origin and destination for trips.
The zoning criteria that are used in establishing the zone boundaries of Traffic Analysis Zones (TAZ)
are:
a) Zoning size must be such that aggregation errors are minimized
b) Zoning system must be compatible with other administrative divisions, particularly with
census zones
c) Zones should be homogeneous as possible in their land use and/or population composition
d) Zone boundaries must be compatible with cordons and screen lines and with those of
previous zoning systems
e) Shape of the zones should allow easy identification of centroid connectors
f) Zones do not have to be of equal size
g) Zone sizes must consider population distribution; that each zone may have similar
population (homogeneity)
10- 11
Figure 10.18: MMUTIS Zoning System - NCR
Figure 10.19: MMUTIS Zoning System - Outside NCR
Typical surveys that are undertaken in the development of a travel demand forecasting model are:
a) Infrastructure and existing services inventories
10- 12
b) Land use inventory

c) Household Interview Surveys (HIS)
d) Socio-economic information
The Household Interview Survey (HIS) is the most valuable source of data for travel demand
analysis and is certainly the most costly and time-consuming to conduct. The objectives of the HIS
or Person-Trip (PT) Survey are:
a) To capture the socio-economic profile of households in the study area; and
b) To establish detailed trip information of household members in the study area
10- 13
Figure 10.20: Household Information Form
10- 14
Figure 10.21: Member Information Form
10- 15
Figure 10.22: Household Information Form
10- 16
A Sampling design aims at ensuring that the data to be examined provide the greatest amount of
useful information about the population of interest at the lowest possible cost. The problem is how
to use the data (i.e.expand the values in the sample) in order to make correct inferences about the
population.
The greatest difficulties in the conduct of sampling surveys are:

a) How to ensure a representative sample
b) How to extract valid conclusions from the sample
Common sampling methods that are employed in the conduct of HIS are:
a) Simple random sampling
• Simplest and basic method
b) Stratified random sampling
• Subdividing the population into homogeneous strata (with respect to the stratifying
variable)
• Then, random sampling is conducted inside each stratum using the same sampling
rate
c) Choice-based sampling
• Stratifying the population based on the result of the choice process under
consideration
• Fairly common in transport planning with the advantage that data may be produced
at a much lower cost
• Drawback is that the sample may not be random and the therefore the risk of bias
in the expanded values
Sources of errors from household surveys include:

a) Sampling error
• Always present in dealing with samples
• Does not affect the expected values but influences variability and confidence level
b) Sampling bias
• Caused by mistakes either when defining the population of interest or when
selecting the sampling methods
• May be avoided or eliminated by taking extra care during sampling design and data
collection
One critical aspect in survey planning is the determination of sample size. There is no
straightforward or objective answer to the calculation of sample size in every situation. It must be
produced by the analyst after careful consideration of the problem at hand. There is a trade-off
between sample size and overall survey cost.
If the sample size is too small, the degree of confidence on the data will be very low. On the other
hand, if the sample size is too big, the degree of confidence on the data will be very high but the
survey cost will be impractically high.
10- 17
Figure 23. Trade-off between Sample Size and Cost
The number of samples may be computed by

CV2 Z 2
n=
E
CV = /µ
where CV is the coefficient of variation, E is the level of accuracy (expressed as a proportion) and
Zc is the valued of the standard normal variate for the confidence level (c) required.
The types of errors encountered in household surveys, include:

a) Measurement Errors
• Errors in getting base year data
b) Sampling Errors
• Models must be estimated using finite data sets
c) Specification Errors
• Phenomenon being modeled is not well understood or due to simplifications
d) Transfer Errors
• Spatial and temporal transfers
e) Aggregation Errors
• Arise basically out of the need to make forecasts for groups while modeling needs
to be done at the individual level
• Types: Data aggregation, Aggregation of alternatives, Model aggregation
Overview of the Four-Step Model
The Four-Step Model is a sequential process for generating travel demand forecasts with the
following steps:
a) Trip Generation
• Calculate the number of trips starting in each zone for a particular trip purpose
b) Trip Distribution
• Produce a table of the number of trips starting in each zone and ending up in each
other zone
c) Modal Split
• Complete the allocation of the various trips among the available transportation
systems (bus, train, pedestrian, and private vehicles)
d) Traffic Assignment
• Identify the specific routes on each transportation system that will be selected by the
travelers
10- 18
Figure 10.24: Four-Step Model
The key objective of the four-step model is to determine the future traffic volumes on the road
network under various assumptions of road and land use changes.
The total traffic volume in the future will be composed of the following components:
a) Existing traffic;
b) Traffic due to natural increase;
c) Traffic due to proposed development;
d) Traffic due to other developments
Figure 10.25: Objectives of Four-Step Model
Trip generation is the first step in the conventional four-step transportation planning process, widely
used for forecasting travel demands. It predicts the number of trips originating in or destined for a
particular traffic analysis zone.
Trip generation uses trip rates that are averages for large segment of the study area. Trip
productions are based on household characteristics such as the number of people in the household
10- 19
and the number of vehicles available.
For example, a household with four people and two vehicles may be assumed to produce 3.00 work
trips per day. Trips per household are then expanded to trips per zone. Trip attractions are typically
based on the level of employment in a zone. For example a zone could be assumed to attract 1.32
home based work trips for every person employed in that zone. Trip generation is used to calculate
person trips.
Figure 10.26: Trip Generation
Figure 10.27: Sample Trip Generation Computation
Trip distribution is the second component in the traditional 4-step transportation planning (or
forecasting) model. This step matches trip makers’ origins and destinations to develop a “trip table”
a matrix that displays the number of trips going from each origin to each destination.
10-20
Figure 10.28: Trip Distribution
Mode choice analysis is the third step in the conventional four-step transportation planning model.
Trip distribution's zonal interchange analysis yields a set of origin destination tables which tells
where the trips will be made; mode choice analysis allows the modeler to determine what mode of
transport will be used.
Figure 10.29: Modal Split
Mode choice is one of the most critical parts of the travel demand modeling process. It is the step
where trips between a given origin and destination are split into trips using transit, trips by car pool
or as automobile passengers and trips by automobile drivers.
A utility function measures the degree of satisfaction that people derive from their choices and a
disutility function represents the generalized cost that is associated with each choice.
The most commonly used process for mode split is to use the 'Logit' model. This involves a
comparison of the "disutility" or "utility" of travel between two points for the different modes that are
available. Disutility is a term used to represent a combination of the travel time, cost and
convenience of a mode between an origin and a destination. It is found by placing multipliers
(weights) on these factors and adding them together.
10-21
Figure 10.30: Choice Model
Disutility calculations may contain a "mode bias factor" which is used to represent other
characteristics or travel modes which may influence the choice of mode (such as a difference in
privacy and comfort between transit and automobiles). The mode bias factor is used as a constant
in the analysis and is found by attempt to fit the model to actual travel behavior data.
Generally, the disutility equations do not recognize differences within travel modes. For example, a
bus system and a rail system with the same time and cost characteristics will have the same
disutility values. There are no special factors that allow for the difference in attractiveness of
alternative technologies.
Once disutility are known for the various mode choices between an origin and a destination, the
trips are split among various modes based on the relative differences between disutility. The logit
equation is used in this step.
A large advantage in disutility will mean a high percentage for that mode. Mode splits are calculated
to match splits found from actual traveler data. Sometimes a fixed percentage is used for the
minimum transit use (percent captive users) to represent travelers who have no automobile
available or are unable to use an automobile for their trip.
Trip assignment, traffic assignment or route choice concerns the selection of routes (alternative
called paths) between origins and destinations in transportation networks. It is the fourth step in the
conventional transportation planning model.. To determine facility needs and costs and benefits,
we need to know the number of travelers on each route and link of the network
Figure 10.31: Traffic Assignment
10-22
Once trips have been split into highway and transit trips, the specific path that they use to travel
from their origin to their destination must be found. These trips are then assigned to that path in the
step called traffic assignment.
The process first involves the calculation of the shortest path from each origin to all destinations
(usually the minimum time path is used). Trips for each O-D pair are then assigned to the links in
the minimum path and the trips are added up for each link. The assigned trip volume is then
compared to the capacity of the link to see if it is congested. If a link is congested the speed on the
link needs to be reduced to result in a longer travel time on that link.
Changes in travel times mean that the shortest path may change. Hence the whole process is
repeated several times (iterated) until there are equilibrium between travel demand and travel
supply. Trips on congested links will be shifted to uncontested links until this equilibrium, condition
occurs. Traffic assignment is the most complex calculation in the travel modeling sequence and
there are a variety of ways in which it is done to keep computer time to a minimum.
The Bureau of Public Roads (BPR) function is the most commonly-used function for relating
changes in travel speed to increases in travel volume. The BPR function is specified as follows:
where:
Tf = final link travel time
To = original (free-flow) link travel time
alpha = coefficient (often set at 0.15)
V = assigned traffic volume
C = the link capacity
beta = exponent (often set at 4.0)
Traffic assignment models usually compute the shortest path based on generalized travel cost on
the network. In transport economics, the generalized cost is the sum of the monetary and non-
monetary costs of a journey.
Monetary (or "out-of-pocket") costs might include a fare on a public transport journey, or the costs
of fuel, wear and tear and any parking charge, toll or congestion charge on a car journey.
Non-monetary costs refer to the time spent undertaking the journey. Time is converted to a money
value using a value of time figure, which usually varies according to the traveller's income and the
purpose of the trip.
The generalised cost is equivalent to the price of the good in supply and demand theory, and so
demand for journeys can be related to the generalised cost of those journeys using the price
elasticity of demand. Supply is equivalent to capacity (and, for roads, road quality) on the network
10-23
11 MODULE 11: WRAP-UP SESSION

11.1 Objectives of the Workshop:
1) Evaluate how the training modules have addressed prevalent challenges in traffic
enforcement experienced by the participating LGUs and NGAs;
2) Solicit recommendations on technical topics and follow-through support to strengthen
traffic enforcement efforts
The template below may be used for Item #1:

Traffic Management Issue Training Module/s that were Strategy/ies that were used
useful to address the issue based on the module/s
Time allocation:
Time Activity
9:00 – 9:15am Discussion of workshop mechanics
9:15 – 9:45 am Group discussion to finalize report
9:45 – 11:15 am Group presentation (each group is given 3-5 minutes each)
11:15 – 11:30am Free discussion
11:30 – 11:45am Synthesis and way forward
11- 1

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JAPAN INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION AGENCY (JICA)

THE PROJECT FOR COMPREHENSIVE TRAFFIC

TECHNICAL REPORT NO. 9

Table 1.1: Parts of the Guidebook ................................................................................. 1-3

CLUP Comprehensive Land Use Plan

1.2 Intended Users

1.3 How to Use

Table 1.1: Parts of the Guidebook

Chapter Title Content

1.5 Out of Scope

1.6 Origin of this Guidebook

2 FUNDAMENTALS OF TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT

2.1 What is Traffic Management

Figure 2.1: Three Elements of Road System

to be carried by road networks. In more developed countries, governments have recognized

(i) Land use planning strategies

2.2 Core Objectives

2.3 Road Hierarchy

Figure 2.2: Mobility and Accessibility Issue

Figure 2.3: Administrative Classification

Figure 2.4: Functional Classification

Administrative Functional Speed Access Points Trip Distance

As a guide to traffic management, the functional classification is characterized further in

Functional Classification of Roads in Metro Manila

Table 2.2: Road Classification for Traffic Management

2.4 Basic Traffic Variables and Relationships

Figure 2.5: Mean Speed Formulas

Figure 2.6: Speed Volume Relationship

Figure 2.7: Speed and Density

transportation engineering, to assess traffic-flow rate on a highway.

Vehicle Types PCU (Phil) India UK Recommended

Carriageway Width Basic Capacity

Figure 2.8: Levels of Service

Table 2.5: Detailed Description of Level of Service

LOS Qualitative Description

2.5 The Stochastic Nature of Traffic Behavior

2) Statistical Distributions in Traffic

Preceding discussions assume deterministic values of descriptors – usually, the mean or

(i) How many data samples are required?

(c) Poisson Distribution: to describe the random arrival of vehicles to a tollgate, an

A video on Poisson distribution and its application in traffic engineering is available on

3 TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES

3.1 Traffic Signs

Equilateral Triangle – with one side horizontal,

Round Shape – for regulating traffic;

Rectangular – for informative signs

Octagonal – for Stop signs only

Inverted equilateral – for Yield signs only

Informative Signs shall have a white or light-colored symbol on a dark coloured

(d) Placement of Signs: In general, signs shall be mounted approximately at right

3) Cases of Fuzzy Traffic Signs

Background color is Pink. Rectangular shape implies for

Shape, symbol, and color follow standard design. Text,

Too many signs posted on the same place, as to be

The first sign is circular in shape, thus implying

As an informative sign, it is compliant with standards

A warning sign about road closure is compliant with

A Informative sign about a location that tried to compress

3.2 Pavement Markings

(i) Functions of Pavement Markings

(2) Object Markings

(i) Retro-Reflector Raised Pavement Markers

(b) Thermoplastic Materials: Use of thermoplastic materials with or without reflective