Carbohydrates and lipids

An organic compound is a compound that contains carbon and is found in living things
● Exceptions include carbides (CaC2), carbonates (CO32–), oxides of carbon (CO2) and
cyanides (CN–)

Carbon forms the basis of all organic compounds due to its ability to form large and
complex molecules via covalent bonding
● Carbon atoms can form four covalent bonds, with bonds between carbon atoms
being particularly stable
● This allows carbon to form a wide variety of structures, including compounds
consisting of branched or unbranched chains and single or multiple rings
● Atoms that are covalently bonded with other atoms gain more stability, which is
gained by forming a full electron shell

(a) Hydroxyl group (b) phosphate group (c) amino group (d) carboxyl group

Types of Carbon Compounds

There are four main groups of organic compounds that contribute to the structure and
function of a cell

Carbohydrates
● Carbohydrates are molecules consisting of carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen
(O) – typically in a consistent ratio of (CH2O)n
● The monomeric subunit of a carbohydrate will commonly adopt a closed ring
structure that can form different stereoisomers
● Carbohydrates are commonly used in nutrition as an energy source, but can also
be used in cell recognition (glycoproteins) and structure (cellulose)
● The monomeric subunits are also used as components in a range of different
molecules, including DNA and coenzymes (ATP and NADH)

Lipids
● Lipids are non-polar hydrophobic molecules that typically consist of either
unbranched chains (fatty acids) or ringed structures (steroids)
 ● Lipids serve as the main structural component of cell membranes (phospholipids
and cholesterol) and may also be utilised for energy storage (triglycerides)
● Certain lipids may also function as signalling molecules (steroid hormones)

Nucleic Acids
● Nucleic acids consist of monomeric subunits (nucleotides) containing a pentose
sugar, a phosphate group and a nitrogenous base
● Nucleic acids function as the genetic material of the cell and determine the
inherited features of an organism
● There are two main types of nucleic acids – DNA functions as a master copy,
while RNA is responsible for protein assembly

Proteins
● Proteins are composed of one or more chains of amino acid residues and
comprise over 50% of the dry weight of the cell
● They perform a vast array of functions within the cell – including catalysis
(enzymes), structure, signalling and transport
● Some proteins can have non-peptide groups attached (cofactors / prosthetic
groups) which contribute to the overall function of the molecule

Monomers
Organic compounds are typically composed of recurring subunits (monomers) which are
covalently joined to form polymers

● The monomeric subunit of carbohydrates is a monosaccharide (single sugar unit)

● Nucleic acids are composed of repeating nucleotides (containing a sugar,
phosphate and nitrogenous base)
● Proteins consist of linked chains of amino acids which differ according to a
variable side chain (‘R’ group)
● Lipids do not contain monomers but certain types may be composed of distinct
subunits (fatty acid chains)

Polymerisation
Polymers can be formed from monomeric subunits via condensation reactions

● A hydroxyl group (-OH) on one monomer is combined with a hydrogen atom (-H)
on another monomer
● The two monomers become covalently bonded and a water molecule is
produced as a by-product
Polymers
Polymers are large macromolecules composed of smaller repeating subunits (called
monomers) via condensation reactions

● Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides are joined together to form polysaccharides via

glycosidic linkages
● Nucleic Acids: Nucleotides are connected by phosphodiester bonds to form
polynucleotide chains (DNA or RNA)
● Proteins: Amino acids are linked by peptide bonds to form polypeptide chains
(proteins can possess multiple chains)
● Lipids: Do not possess monomers but fatty acid chains can be connected by ester
linkages to form triglycerides and phospholipids

Digestion
Polymers can be broken down into their monomeric subunits via hydrolysis reactions

● A water molecule is split to provide the -H and -OH groups required to break the
covalent bond between two monomers

Carbohydrates are made of C, H and O (‘carbo’ – contains carbon ; ‘hydrate’ – contains H

and O)

● Carbohydrates are composed of recurring monomers called monosaccharides

(‘mono’ – single ; 'saccharide’ – sugar)

Monosaccharides typically form ring structures as a result of a chemical reaction

between functional groups at opposite ends of the molecule

● A hydroxyl group (-OH) links to a carbonyl group (=O) to form a cyclic structure
connected by an oxygen atom
Types of Monosaccharides
Most monosaccharides have either 5 carbons (pentose sugars) or 6 carbons (hexose
sugars)
● The name describes the number of carbons – not the shape (e.g. fructose is a
hexose sugar but forms a pentagon)

An example of a pentose sugar is ribose – which is a core component of RNA

nucleotides and is also found in coenzymes (such as ATP)
● DNA nucleotides have a modified form of this pentose sugar in which an oxygen
atom is removed (deoxyribose)

An example of a hexose sugar is glucose – which is primarily used as a source of energy

(it is digested via cell respiration to produce ATP)
● Glucose can exist as one of two isomers (⍺-D glucose or ß-D glucose) depending
on the orientation of the 1’-OH group

Function of Monosaccharides
The primary role of most monosaccharides is to function as a source of energy for the
cell
● Monosaccharides are oxidised (broken down) to produce large quantities of
biological energy (ATP) via cellular respiration

Glucose is the most common monosaccharide to be used as an energy source due to its
various chemical properties:
● Solubility: Glucose is a polar molecule (due to –OH groups) and so will dissolve in
water (it is hydrophilic)
● Stability: Glucose is a very stable molecule as cyclic structures are generally more
energetically favourable than straight chains
● Transport: Because glucose is soluble and stable, it is easier to transport within
aqueous solutions (like blood or cytosol)
● Potential Energy: Glucose has many high energy electrons (between C–C and
C–H bonds) which can be released via oxidation
● ATP Yield: Glucose can by oxidised to produce a large yield of ATP via aerobic cell
respiration

Monosaccharides may be linked together via condensation reactions (water is formed as

a by-product)

● Two monosaccharide monomers may be joined via a glycosidic linkage to form a

disaccharide
● Many monosaccharide monomers may be joined via glycosidic linkages to form
polysaccharides
Types of Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides are carbohydrate polymers comprised of many monosaccharide
monomers

● Three key polysaccharides can be produced from glucose alone – cellulose,

starch and glycogen

The type of polymer formed depends on the isomer of glucose involved and the
bonding arrangement between the subunits

● Cellulose is composed of ß-glucose subunits with glycosidic linkages between

the 1’ – 4’ carbon atoms
● Starch is composed of ⍺-glucose subunits and may involve one of two distinct
bonding arrangements

○ Amylose is solely comprised of 1’ – 4’ linkages organised into a helical

structural arrangement
○ Amylopectin is a branched molecule comprised of both 1’ – 4’ linkages and
additional 1’ – 6’ linkages
● Glycogen is similar to amylopectin in structure but is more highly branched (more
frequent 1’ – 6’ linkages)

Energy Storage
Polymers of ⍺-glucose are used in energy storage – glycogen is used in animals and
starch is used in plants

● Glucose monomers can be added or removed (by condensation or hydrolysis

reactions) to build or mobilise these energy stores

In both glycogen and starch, the ⍺-glucose monomers are connected via 1’ – 4’
glycosidic linkages to form helical structures

● Starch can exist as linear strands (amylose) or be branched (amylopectin) due to

the presence of additional 1’ – 6’ linkages
● Glycogen is a more highly branched molecule than amylopectin as it possesses
more frequent 1’ – 6’ linkages
Branching causes the polysaccharides to adopt a more compact structure, but their
large molecular size renders them insoluble in water

● This means that glycogen and starch are efficient storage molecules but not
suitable from transport within aqueous solutions (like the blood or sap)
●

Structure
Polymers of ß-glucose are used to form cellular structures – cellulose is a component of
plant cell walls

● Cellulose is composed of ß-glucose subunits in an alternating arrangement (every

second glucose is inverted)
● This allows cellulose to form straight linear chains that can be grouped in bundles
and cross-linked with hydrogen bonds
● These cross-linked bundles function to increase the structural integrity and
mechanical stability of the polymer

Communication
Carbohydrates can be attached to proteins via the process of glycosylation to form
glycoproteins (‘glyco’ = sugar)

● When carbohydrates are attached to membrane proteins they can perform key
roles in cell–cell recognition

Human red blood cells can be categorised into different blood groups based on the
structure of a surface glycoprotein

● Individuals with blood group A possess type A glycoproteins, while individuals

with blood group B possess type B glycoproteins
● Additionally, individuals may possess both types of glycoproteins (AB blood) or no
glycoproteins (O blood)

The glycoproteins function as identification tags to allow the immune system to

recognise the cells as ‘self'

● This is why blood transfusions are not compatible between individuals with
different blood groups

○ The exception is AB blood which can accept any blood type (AB
individuals possess both glycoproteins)

Hydrophobic properties of lipids

Lipids are a class of organic molecule composed primarily of hydrocarbon chains (fatty
acids) or rings (steroids)
● Hydrocarbons are non-polar (they lack charged regions) and will not dissolve in
polar substances like water
● Hence lipids are considered to be hydrophobic molecules (they are
water-repelling)

The hydrophobic properties of lipids have many important biological consequences

● Waxes are used to prevent water loss from leaves while birds coat their feathers
with oil to render them waterproof
● Phospholipids provide a structural framework for cells by forming spontaneous
membranes in aqueous solutions
● Lipids in foods help the body to absorb certain fat-soluble micronutrients,
including vitamins A and D

However, the hydrophobic properties of lipids make them difficult to transport around the
body
● Digested fats are packaged within a protein coat to become water soluble
lipoproteins
● Steroid hormones are bound to carrier proteins (such as albumin) to facilitate their
movement through the bloodstream

Certain lipids have polar components, becoming amphipathic (having both hydrophobic
and hydrophilic regions)
● Phospholipids possess a polar phosphate head, cholesterol has a polar hydroxyl
group and glycolipids can have polar carbohydrate chains
● These amphipathic molecules all have a limited capacity to interact with water,
helping them to function in maintaining membrane integrity

Unlike other biological macromolecules, lipids are not polymers as they do not contain
monomers (recurring subunits)

● However, most types of lipids (excluding steroids) contain at least one fatty acid
chain in their structure

Fatty acids can be linked to the hydroxyl group of alcohols via condensation reactions to
produce an ester linkage

● Triglycerides are composed of three fatty acid chains linked to a single glycerol
molecule
● In phospholipids, one of the fatty acid chains is replaced by a polar phosphate
group
Main Classes of Lipids
Lipids can be classified in a number of different ways, according to their chemical
composition, fatty acids and capacity to form soap
● Three commonly recognised groups of lipids are simple lipids, compound lipids
and derived lipids

Simple Lipids
Simple lipids include esters of fatty acids and alcohol (e.g. glycerol)
● Waxes consist of a fatty acid chain linked to a long chain alcohol group and are
used to create waterproof surfaces
● Triglycerides consist of three fatty acid chains linked to a glycerol molecule and
are used for energy storage and insulation

Compound Lipids
Compound lipids include esters of fatty acids and alcohol linked to an additional group
● Phospholipids consist of a glycerol molecule linked to two fatty acid chains and
one phosphate group – they are a principle component of cell membranes
● Glycolipids consist of a carbohydrate linked to an ester of fatty acids and alcohol
– they function to facilitate cell-cell interactions

Derived Lipids
Derived lipids are substances produced from the hydrolysis of simple or compound
lipids
● They include signalling molecules such as steroids and prostaglandins, as well as
cholesterol

Difference between saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids

Fatty acids are long hydrocarbon chains that are found in most types of lipids (excluding
steroids)
● Fatty acids may differ in the length of the hydrocarbon chain, but most typically
contain between 4 – 24 carbons

Types of Fatty Acids

Fatty acids can be classified according to the presence or absence of double bonds
between the carbon atoms in the hydrocarbon chain
● Saturated fatty acids possess straight hydrocarbon chains with no double bonds
(they have the maximum possible number of H atoms)
 ● Unsaturated fatty acids have double bonds – they can be either
mono-unsaturated (1 double bond) or poly-unsaturated (>1 double bond)

Unsaturated fatty acids may occur in either of two distinct structural configurations – cis
and trans isomers
● Cis: The hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon double bond are on the same
side, causing the hydrocarbon chain to kink
● Trans: The hydrogen atoms attached to the carbon double bond are on different
sides, meaning the hydrocarbon chain remains straight

In living organisms, unsaturated fatty acids are nearly always in the cis configuration –
only ruminant animals (cows and sheep) produce trans fatty acids

Fats versus Oils

Living organism store their lipids as either fats or oils depending on the type of fatty acid
involved (saturated or cis-unsaturated)
● These fatty acids differ in the shape of their hydrocarbon chains (straight or bent)

Fats (Saturated)

● Saturated fatty acids have straight chains that can be more tightly packed, making
them more efficient for energy storage
● However, this tight packaging also increasing the number of intermolecular forces
between the fatty acid chains, resulting in a higher melting point
● This means it takes higher temperatures to keep them liquid and they will
typically exist as fats (solid at a room temperature of 25ºC)

Oils (Unsaturated)
● Unsaturated (cis) fatty acids have kinked chains that cause them to be more
loosely packed (poly-unsaturated fatty acids have multiple kinks and are
consequently even more dispersed)
● This means there are fewer intermolecular forces and less energy is required to
separate the fatty acids, resulting in a lower melting point
● Consequently, they will remain liquid at cooler temperatures and so usually exist
as oils (liquid at a room temperature of 25ºC)
Lipid Storage
The storage of lipids as either fats or oils is primarily a consequence of an organism’s
physiology and environment
● Organisms need fatty acids that will remain liquid at their normal body
temperature (to allow them to be utilized by the body)
● However, organisms will try to produce the most tightly packed fatty acids
possible in order to maximize their energy storage

Animals
● Endotherms (warm blooded mammals) will tend to produce more saturated fats –
as their higher core body temperatures can keep these fatty acids liquid
● Conversely, ectotherms living in cold environments tend to produce
cis-unsaturaed oils – as saturated fats would solidify in the colder temperatures
● This is why cold water fish oils are a rich source of poly-unsaturated fats that are
essential to a human diet (omega-3 and omega-6)

Plants
● As plants cannot control their own internal temperatures, they also predominantly
produce cis-unsaturated liquid oils
● However, tropical plants (found in warmer climates) will tend to produce
comparatively more saturated fats than temperate plants (found in cooler
climates)
Structure
Phospholipids are one of the key structural components of all cell membranes that are
responsible for the formation of lipid bilayers
● Phospholipids consist of a polar head (hydrophilic) composed of a glycerol and a
phosphate molecule and two non-polar tails (hydrophobic) composed of fatty
acid chains
● Because phospholipids contain both hydrophilic (water-loving) and lipophilic
(fat-loving) regions, they are classed as amphipathic

Phospholipids spontaneously arrange into a bilayer with the two hydrophobic tails being
shielded from the surrounding polar fluids by the outward facing hydrophilic heads
● The phospholipid bilayer is only held together by the weak hydrophobic
associations between the non-polar tails, making the bilayer both fluid and
flexible
● Because phospholipids contain both hydrophilic (water-loving) and lipophilic
(fat-loving) regions, they are classed as amphipathic

Communication
Steroids are lipids that are composed of four fused carbon rings that are non-polar and
lipophilic (fat-loving)
● Steroids do not resemble other types of lipids (they do not contain a fatty acid
chain), but share their basic chemical properties (they are hydrophobic)

A steroid hormone is a steroid that functions as a signalling molecule within the body
● Because they are lipophilic, they can freely diffuse across the phospholipid bilayer
and bind to receptors within the target cell
● However, because they are hydrophobic, they cannot be freely transported within
the bloodstream and must be bound to carrier proteins (e.g. albumin)
Steroid hormones are generally synthesised from cholesterol in either the adrenal gland
(corticosteroids) or the gonads (sex steroids)
● Examples of sex steroids include oestradiol (a type of oestrogen) and
testosterone