Research

JAPAN INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION AGENCY (JICA)
THE PROJECT FOR COMPREHENSIVE TRAFFIC

MANAGEMENT PLAN FOR METRO MANILA
TECHNICAL REPORT NO. 10

PILOT PROJECT 2
November 2022
ALMEC CORPORATION
ORIENTAL CONSULTANTS GLOBAL CO., LTD.
TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH INSTITUTE CO., LTD.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION TO STRENGTHENING OF THE TRAFFIC

MANAGEMENT CAPACITY OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT UNITS ............. 1-1
2 MODULE 2: IDENTIFICATION OF ROADS FOR TRAFFIC
MANAGEMENT ................................................................................................... 2-1
3 MODULE 3: DEFINITION AND IDENTIFICATION OF TRAFFIC
CONGESTION AND BOTTLENECKS ............................................................ 3-1
4 MODULE 4: TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES.................................................. 4-1
5 MODULE 5: INTERSECTION DESIGN & CONTROL ............................... 5-1
6 MODULE 6: CORRIDOR AND SUB-AREA TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT. 6-1
7 MODULE 7: TRAFFIC SIMULATION AS A TOOL IN TRAFFIC
MANAGEMENT ................................................................................................... 7-1
8 TRANSPORTATION IMPACT ASSESSMENT ............................................... 8-1
9 MODULE 9: ROAD SAFETY .......................................................................... 9-1
10 MODULE 10 TRANSPORTATION PLANNING CONCEPTS ..................... 10-1
11 MODULE 11: WRAP-UP SESSION................................................................. 11-1
APPENDICES
Appendix A: Introduction on Strengthening of the Traffic Management
Capacity of Local Government Units
Appendix B: Road Classification
Appendix C: Definition and Identification of Traffic Congestion and
Bottlenecks
Appendix D: Traffic Control Devices
Appendix E: Intersection Design and Control
Appendix F: Corridor and Sub-area Traffic Management
Appendix G: Microscopic Traffic Simulation
Appendix H: Traffic Impact Assessment
Appendix I: Key Areas Towards Improving Road Safety
Appendix J: Transportation Planning Concepts
Appendix K: Wrap-Up Session
i
The Project for Comprehensive Traffic Management Plan for Metro Manila
TECHNICAL REPORT NO. 10: PILOT PROJECT 2
1 MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION ON STRENGTHENING OF THE

TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT CAPACITY OF LOCAL
GOVERNMENT UNITS
1.1 Introduction
This module covers the current traffic issues including traffic congestion; and basic
understanding of traffic engineering and management. By the end of the course,
participants should be able to have a common understanding of the situation, issues, and
solutions related to traffic management in Metro Manila, particularly traffic congestion,
based on data and scientific planning methodologies.
1) Objectives
(i) To enhance/improve the capacities of LGU on traffic management;
(ii) To identify and analyze LGU’s Demand-Supply gaps in traffic management; and
(iii) To help LGU develop a Road Map on traffic management.
2) Main Activities and Expected Outputs

The development of the materials for the training program on traffic management for LGUs
was based on surveys on issues and concerns of the different LGUs in Metro Manila as
well as the needs of each LGU to capacitate its staff in the different aspects of traffic
management. Outputs of the training program are consolidated teaching materials, video
recorded modules, draft traffic management manual for LGUs, etc.
Source: JPT
Figure 1.1: Traffic Management Training Activities and Expected Outputs
3) General Framework
Figure 1.2 shows the basic procedure in finding solutions to traffic problems. Baseline
information/data should be able to help assess the current overall traffic situation in an LGU,
for instance. Corridors and intersections vital to the road networkshall be identified for traffic
management improvements. Specific bottleneck locations are identified and analyzed.
Alternative solutions are considered and evaluated, after which the most feasible solution
is recommended. An implementation plan is prepared prior to actual implementation.
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Source: JPT
Figure 1.2: Basic Procedure in Finding Solutions to Traffic Problems
1.2 Metro Manila Transportation & Traffic Issues and Concerns

This section discusses the transportation and traffic issues and concerns Metro Manila is
facing. The discussion focuses on congestion and road safety although it is recognized that
there are other issues such as environmental and energy impacts and inadequate public
transportation.
1) Congestion
Metro Manila began facing congestion problem some 5 decades ago. Trips are
characterized by very low travel speed and very high idle time or delay. The annual
economic cost is enormous.
c3638
70
60
50
Velocity , kph.
40
o Idle: 33.33%
Ave. Speed: 14.60 kph.
30
20
o
10
0
1 101 201 301 401 501 601 701 801 901 1001 1101 1201
Time, sec.
Source: Sigua, R.G.
Figure 1.3: Driving Cycle for Metro Manila
In 2000, the economic loss was estimated at P101 billion annually (UP NCTS, 2000). A
recent JICA study estimated the economic loss as follows:
• PhP 2.4B/day based on JICA Study in 2014 (more than PhP 800 B a year)
• PhP 6.0B/day in 2030 if w/o intervention
Practically, almost all the roads in Metro Manila are experiencing congestion due to very
high traffic volume especially during peak periods.
1-2
Source: Roadmap for Transport Infrastructure Development for Metro Manila and Its Surrounding Areas (Region III and Region IV-A)
Figure 1.4: Road Traffic Volume and V/C Ratio, 2012
Causes of Congestion: Main causes of congestion may be attributed to the following:

(i) Economic development; increasing population; increasing number of vehicles
(ii) Lack of strong will to implement the projects and programs recommended by past
studies
(iii) Traffic management too dependent on human power
(iv) High dependence on low-capacity modes of transport such as the jeepneys and
tricycles. Over the last 50 years or so, only 3 lines of LRT totaling to approximately 50
kms.
Due to uncontrolled growth of vehicles, the road’s capacity simply could not cope up with
the sheer number of vehicles. There is also the growing concern on the rapid increase in
the number of motorcycles.
2) Road Crashes
The high number of incidents of crashes on the road is another major concern.
(i) Annual number of fatalities in 2016 stands at 11,300 deaths or 10.92 per 100,000
population, one of the highest within the ASEAN region
(ii) Economic cost estimated at 2.6% of the country’s GDP
(iii) Pedestrians and powered two wheelers consist of what may be considered as the most
vulnerable road users
(iv) Number of motorcycles is way below that of our neighboring countries in the ASEAN
but the number of fatalities involving motorcycles has become very alarming
Figure 1.5 shows the increasing number of road crash deaths and death rates based on
PSA statistics.
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Source: Philippine Statistics Authority
Figure 1.5: Trends in Fatality Rates (per 100,000 population)
A summary of road crash data (2005–2016) for Metro Manila based on the MMARAS
database of MMDA is provided below:
(a) Breakdown of road crash victims, Metro Manila
(i) 12 years (2005 – 2016)
(ii) 957,348 records of road crashes from MMDA
(iii) Average annual # of fatalities:400
The table shows pedestrians with the highest number of fatalities. Riders of motorcycles
are included in the driver group.
Table 1.1: Breakdown of Road Crash Victims, Metro Manila (2005-2016)
Source: MMARAS
(b) Mode Interaction: Pedestrians and MC riders continue to be the most vulnerable road
users in Metro Manila.
Table 1.2: Mode of Interaction od Road Crashes in Metro Manila (2005-2016)
Source: MMARAS
(c) Road Crash Locations: As far as road crash locations are concerned, there is a high
number of incidents at midblock locations rather than at intersections or junctions.
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Table 1.3: Road Crash Locations IN Metro Manila (2005-2016)
Site No. of Road Crashes No. of Deaths

Mid-Block 269,003 (28%) 1,682 (35%)
Junction 95,883 (10%) 367 (8%)
Total (sample) 364,886 (38%) 2,049 (43%)
Source: MMARAS
Considering that largely, pedestrians and motorcycle riders are the casualties, the
possible factors which need further analysis could be the following:
(i) Lack of pedestrian facilities
(ii) Uncontrolled lane splitting behavior of motorcycles
(iii) Swerving maneuvers of vehicles.
Surprisingly, majority of road crashes and fatalities occurring at locations (other than
midblock) were recorded at intersections controlled by traffic signals.
Table 1.4: Road Crash Locations Junction Control (2005-2016)
Rank Junction Control Number of Number of

Crashes Fatalities
1 Traffic Lights 43,599 130
2 Other 5,722 64
3 Give Way sign or marking 5,270 26
4 Other (Flyover/Bridge Marking) 432 12
5 Stop sign 45 2
6 School Zone 315 1
7 Other (entrance/exit of an establishment) 46 0
8 Other (Tunnel/Underpass Marking) 95 0
Source: MMARAS
This could be indicative of the following:

• Low compliance (beating red lights; ignoring signals)
• Improper signal setting; inadequate clearance intervals, for instance.
Pedestrian fatal road crashes occurred mostly along very wide roads such as
Commonwealth Avenue and EDSA.
1-5
Source: MMARAS, Luo, C.Y.
Figure 1.6: Pedestrian vs Car Fatal Road Crashes
Fatal road crashes of pedestrians hit by trucks happened mostly along designated truck
routes such as R10, C3, Bonifacio ave., etc.
Figure 1.7: Pedestrian vs Trucks, Fatal Road Crashes
Motorcycle alone or self-road crash leading to fatal incident happened along major roads
in Metro Manila. More than 90% of the incidents happened at nighttime.
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Figure 1.8: Motorcycle Alone (self-road crash) Fatal
Fatal road crashes involving motorcycles and trucks happened mostly along designated
truck routes.
Source:MMARAS, Luo, C.Y.
Figure 1.9: Motorcycle vs Trucks Fatal
Fatal road crashes involving motorcycles and cars happened mostly along major roads in
Metro Manila.
Figure 1.10: Motorcycle vs Car Fatal
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1.3 Understanding the Problem

Our road system is comprised of 3 major elements, namely the road or environment, the
vehicle, and the road user composed of the driver, pedestrians, cyclists, etc.
Source:Sigua, R.G.
Figure 1.21: Major Elements of a Road System
The road and vehicle may be subjected to change and improvement but are generally
inflexible especially if we consider a very short period, say, a day. Unlike them, driver or
human behavior changes quite fast. Major portion of existing regulations therefore are
aimed at the driver.
1) Prerequisite to Good Traffic/Transportation System
Ideally, a good transportation/traffic system can only be realized if the following desirable
features are present:
(i) Adequate road infrastructure exists.

(ii) Discipline exists
• Priority is defined – humans before vehicles
• ‘Safety First’ - should be instilled to all road users, pedestrians, enforcers
(iii) Traffic laws and regulations are strictly enforced.
(iv) Public transport system is efficient.
2) Specific/Main Causes of Congestion (MMDA+LGUs)
The figure shows the specific causes of congestion based on questionnaire surveys
administered to MMDA and Metro Manila LGUs.
1-8
Source: The Project for Comprehensive Traffic Management Plan for Metro Manila, JICA/MMDA
Figure 1.32: Motorcycle vs Car Fatal
The major causes cited by both MMDA and LGUs are saturated demand, mixed traffic with
pedestrians, and inappropriate boarding/ alighting practices of PUVs at intersections.
Around 280 bottleneck locations were initially identified by MMDA and the 17 LGUs.
Source: The Project for Comprehensive Traffic Management Plan for Metro Manila, JICA/MMDA
Figure 1.43: Candidate Traffic Bottlenecks in Metro Manila
The bottleneck locations are broken down as follows:
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Table 1.5: Traffic Bottleneck Locations in Metro Manila
Source: : The Project for Comprehensive Traffic Management Plan for Metro Manila, JICA/MMDA
3) Government Bodies in the Philippines Involved in Transportation and Traffic

Activities
The Table 1.6 below shows the different government bodies in the Philippines which are
involved in transportation and traffic activities. MMDA is responsible for traffic management
on national roads in Metro Manila while the Local government Units (LGUs) handle traffic
management on local roads.
Table 1.6: Government Bodies in the Philippines Involved in Transportation and Traffic
Activities
4) Traffic Management at the LGU Level
The table below shows the existence of traffic management unit/office in each LGU. Since
national roads pass through cities and town in Metro Manila, MMDA enforcers are also
deployed to the LGUs. The table also provides information on each LGU on the existence
of policy requiring TIA for new developments.
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Table 1.7: Traffic Management Unit/Office in Metro Manila
5) Major Causes of Traffic Congestion on Local Roads
Based on the responses of the LGUs, the lack of capacity is the main cause of congestion
along local roads. Furthermore, the lack of capacity was attributed to:
(i) Reduction of lanes caused by pedestrians jaywalking at locations other than

pedestrian crossings
(ii) Reduction of lanes caused by passengers boarding/ alighting from PUJs around the
markets etc.
(iii) Reduction of lanes caused by street vendors occupying the road
(iv) Occurrence of traffic conflict caused by vehicles not respecting the traffic rules
(v) Reduction of lanes caused by on-street parking
(vi) Occurrence of gridlock at intersections due to a lack of traffic signals or traffic signals
that are not in operation
(vii) Inadequate traffic control by traffic enforcer without coordination between the different
intersections
6) Institutional issues and challenges
Based on the Institutional Analysis of Traffic Management Agencies in Metro Manila, Final
Report, February 7, 2020, several institutional issues and challenges have to be resolved
both in the inter-agency and intra-agency levels:
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(a) Issues at inter-agency Level

(i) Autonomy and pre-eminence of LGUs
(ii) Wide variation in LGU traffic engineering and management capacity
(iii) Weak consultation and coordination mechanisms among transport agencies
(iv) Politicization of transportation crisis
(b) Issues at Intra-agency Level (within MMDA)

(i) Lack of institutional continuity
(ii) Shortage of qualified and sufficient manpower
(iii) Limited budget and dependence on external sources of revenue
(iv) Outsized emphasis on enforcement
(v) Poor enforcement due to limited police powers, manual approach, and rampant
corruption
(vi) Poorly designed success metrics and weak performance monitoring
1.4 Addressing Congestion

Once traffic demand exceeds the capacity being supplied by the road system, congestion
occurs.
Figure 1.54: Traffic Demand versus Traffic Supply
In addressing congestion, either supplied is increased or demand is decreased, or both.

The table provides some of the options to achieve this.
Table 1.8: Options in Addressing Congestion
Source: Sigua, R.G.
1) Lowering the Demand
This may be achieved through vehicle reduction schemes such as UVVRP or color-coding
scheme. However, such vehicle reduction schemes are temporary solutions and are
therefore not sustainable.
The government must look at how to improve our public transportation system. Only then
can we expect modal switch from car users. The promotion of active transport through
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better pedestrian and bicycle facilities can help reduce dependency on cars.
2) Increasing Capacity
Increasing the supply/capacity is a very costly undertaking. As stated by an EST Champion,

Mr. Enrique Peñalosa: “Widening roads to address congestion is like buying larger clothes
to address obesity.” It is a vicious cycle. Through traffic management, the operation of the
road network can be optimized by reducing or eliminating bottlenecks.
Traffic management is a term used to embody the activities undertaken by an agency to

improve roadway system safety and efficiency for both providers and consumers of
transportation services. The Figure 1.15 below shows the key objectives of traffic
management, desirable outcomes, and strategies.
Source: Sigua, R.G.
Figure 1.65: Key Objectives of Traffic Management
3) Strengthening LGU Capacity on Traffic Management
The strengthening of LGU capacity on traffic management will require improving 3 key
areas as shown in Figure 1.16 below.
Source: Sigua, R.G.
Figure 1.76: Three Key Areas in Strengthening LGU Traffic Management Capacity
It must be recognized that traffic management is a regular, daily part of the responsibility of
the LGU. The scope and complexity of traffic management activities vary depending on the
economic activities of the LGU. Such activities may include the following tasks at various
levels.
(i) Traffic operation and control
(ii) Traffic studies
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(iii) Geometric design

(iv) Traffic planning
(v) Road safety
An LGU may consider the creation of a Traffic Engineering and Management Office or
upgrade an existing Traffic Management Office to perform the above-mentioned functions.
The following figures show the extent of activities within each task.
Source: Sigua, R.G.
Figure 1.87: General Coverage of Traffic Operation and Control
Source: Sigua, R.G.
Figure 1.98: General Coverage of Traffic Studies
1- 14
Source:Sigua, R.G.
Figure 1.109: General coverage of geometric design
Source: Sigua, R.G.
Figure 1.20: Major tasks in road safety
Source: Sigua, R.G.
Figure 1.21: General coverage of traffic planning
4) Strategy to Mitigate Traffic Congestion
An ‘avoid, manage, and mitigate’ strategy may be adopted to address traffic congestion.
Avoid strategy should be able to give the most benefits as the negative effects are avoided
or reduced at the early stage. If the negative effects are already existing, the manage
strategy should be able to reduce the impact through traffic management which would only
require non-physical changes to traffic operations. If effects cannot be entirely avoided or
managed, civil works may be required to mitigate the said effects. The table shows an
example of how the strategy may be adopted.
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Source: Sigua, R.G.
Figure 1.22: Strategies to Mitigate Congestion
Table 1.9: Example on How the Strategies to Mitigate Congestion May be Adopted
Source: Sigua, R.G.
1.5 Studying Bottlenecks: Technical Approach

This section discusses the technical approaches in dealing with bottlenecks
1) Intersection
If a problematic intersection can be totally isolated from the other intersections within the
road network, then the study may simply focus on that intersection. The technical approach
is shown below.
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Source: JPT
Figure 1.23: Technical Approach in Studying Traffic Bottlenecks
The process is applied to Samson Road – New Abbey Road Intersection in Caloocan City:
(a) Identification of Issues: The issues are as follows: (i) jeepneys and buses were observed
to stop less than 30 meters from the intersection on both sides and from both directions
along Samson Road, resulting in blockage of turning movements and reduction in capacity;
(ii) because the signal control was not operational, there were no clear phase pattern or
sequence to manage the flow from different approaches; (iii) given a heavy flow of vehicles
on the eastbound and westbound direction, conflicts between turning vehicles generated
delay; (iv) the STI gate is less than 20 m from the intersection. Even with small ingress and
egress trips during peak hours, additional delay occurred when going in or out of the
establishment; and (v) pedestrians from all directions crossed all the legs of the intersection,
causing delay because motorists were forced to give way to them.
(b) Data Collection: A 14-hour traffic count and travel time and delay survey were conducted
on 26 February 2020. Peak hour volumes are shown in the table. Most of the vehicles in
the distribution were motorcycles (MCs), as shown in the pie chart in Figure 1.24.
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Source: Caloocan CPT based on MMDA data.
Figure 1.24: 14- Hour Total Vehicle Distribution Volume
Table 1.10: Peak Hour Vehicle Volume in Samson Road – New Abbey Road Intersection
in Caloocan City
Source: Caloocan CPT based on MMDA data.
(c) Analysis of Intersection Capacity: The Samson Road–New Abbey Road intersection
has signal control equipment installed which were not operational during the case study.
Instead, traffic enforcers managed the traffic flow during the day. The unsignalized
intersection was assessed as having an “F” level of service (LOS).
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(d) Formulation of Alternative Solutions: Based on the identified issues at the intersection
and the possible solutions considered to improve the situation, several scenarios are
formulated.
Table 1.21: Formulated Traffic Management (TM) Scenarios
Problem Improvement Impact
1. Jeepneys stop before Place public transport Delays caused by public transport vehicles such as
and after the intersection (PT) stops after the jeepneys and buses stopping before and after the
that cause delays. intersection. intersection previously are reduced.
Pedestrians would have to walk much further if their
destinations are far from the stops.
2. Bus stop is located The reduced PT stop length may need to be
before the intersection. compensated, unless otherwise, proven
unnecessary by analysis.
3. Movement conflicts in the Reroute left-turning Delays at the intersection will be reduced because
intersection causes vehicle to reduce of restricted left turn movements.
delay. conflicts. Delays at the roads where vehicles are rerouted will
increase. Whether the rerouting has significant
unfavorable impacts to the roads in question has
yet to be determined because of the lack of data.
A portion of New Abbey Rd will be one-way.
4. There are too many Place median barriers Pedestrians will be prohibited to cross from the
pedestrians crossing at at the west approach south to the north via the west leg to reduce delay.
different places in the to prohibit pedestrians When combined with placing PT stops after the
intersection causing from crossing. intersection, the pedestrians unloaded at the west
conflict leg would have to circle around the intersection.
Place a footbridge in Pedestrians will be safer since they will not be
the area. exposed to vehicle hazards.
The existing sidewalk with little space (around 1.2
m-width) will be occupied by the footbridge.
Installing the footbridge may require land
acquisition (and thus be costly) because of
insufficient space at the sidewalk.
5. The intersection Signalize the The delays will be minimized.
experiences heavy intersection. Foot traffic will be more orderly.
delays due to large
vehicle volumes and
uncontrolled foot traffic.
Scenario Description
1 Do nothing
PT stops after the intersection +
2 Traffic signal
3 Traffic signal + Rerouting
4 Rerouting + Median
5 Traffic signal + Rerouting +
Median
6 Traffic signal + Rerouting +
Median + Footbridge
(e) Micro Simulation of TM Scenarios: Microcomputer traffic simulation provides the tool to
analyze the different scenarios.
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Scenario 2: PT Stops after the Intersection + Traffic

Scenario 1: Do Nothing
Signal
Scenario 3: PT Stops after the Intersection + Traffic Signal Scenario 4: PT Stops after the Intersection +
+ Rerouting Rerouting + Median
Footbridge
placed
here
Scenario 5: PT Stops after the Intersection + Traffic Signal Scenario 6: PT Stops after the Intersection + Traffic
+ Rerouting + Median Signal + Rerouting + Median + Footbridge
Source: JPT based on CPT meetings agreements.
Figure 1.25: Micro Simulation of TM Scenarios
(f) Economic Evaluation: The cost of improvement required and the benefits provided by
each scenario (time savings, road crash savings, etc. ) are estimated for the benefit – cost
analysis.
Table 1.31: Estimated Cost of Improvement of Each TM Scenarios
Scenario
Item
1 2 3 4 5 6
1. Total Direct Cost (PHP) - 2,960,715.39 2,981,619.39 1,055,709.63 3,184,839.39 6,341,982.25
2.Indirect Cost (25% - 740,178.85 745,404.85 263,927.41 3,184,839.39 1,585,495.56
Mark-up) (PHP)
3.Total VAT (PHP) - 444,107.31 447,242.91 158,356.44 477,725.91 951,297.34
4. Total Estimated Cost - 4,145,001.54 4,174,267.14 1,477,993.48 4,458,775.14 8,878,775.14
(PHP)
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Table 1.42: Estimation of Benefit–Cost Ratio
2) Corridor
When more than 1 intersection along an arterial or corridor need to be considered for the
study, a corridor analysis will be necessary. The general procedure is shown below.
Source: JPT
Figure 1.26: General Procedure for Corridor Analysis
The corridor of Ortigas Avenue is considered as a case study. Based on initial field
observations, the causes of traffic congestion along the corridor may be attributed to the
following:
(i) Traffic Bottleneck Intersections due to some geometry issues
(ii) Vague lane configuration on Santolan Road northbound (NB):
(iii) Inadequate signal timing and signal coordination
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(a) Data Collection: Traffic volume data for each intersection were gathered. Travel speed
data were based on Waze data.
Table 1.53: Traffic Volume Data of the Study Area – Ortigas Avenue
Volume Volume
Time of Day
(vehicle/hour) (PCU/hour)
0600 - 0700 23,194 19,670
0700 - 0800 29,209 24,331
0800 - 0900 33,072 27,745
0900 - 1000 31,451 26,523
1000 - 1100 30,391 26,413
1100 - 1200 27,987 24,918
1200 - 1300 27,539 24,738
1300 - 1400 26,965 24,345
1400 - 1500 28,804 25,321
1500 - 1600 29,254 25,633
1600 - 1700 30,043 25,983
1700 - 1800 29,543 25,549
1800 - 1900 28,550 24,656
1900 - 2000 26,583 23,004
Total 402,585 348,829
1%
0% Car
60% PUJ
UV Express
32% Taxi
PUB
Truck
Trailer
0% Motorcycle
1% Tricycle
1% 4% Bicycle
0% 1%
AM Peak Hour
Club Filipino
Connecticut
Roosevelt
Santolan
Madison
Wilson
Time
8:00 32.82 27.43 17.46 16.91 16.54 17.38 17.38 17.06 15.63 15.57 15.57 15.16 17.25 34.16 33.27 33.17 33.84 20.26 20.00
8:20 31.91 26.74 17.11 16.53 16.25 16.96 16.96 16.69 14.72 14.63 14.63 14.36 16.25 35.31 33.89 33.72 34.26 18.02 17.69
8:40 34.15 30.78 19.04 18.37 18.15 18.68 18.68 18.25 16.18 16.09 16.10 15.60 17.80 34.43 32.72 32.54 33.19 15.11 14.79
PM Peak Hour
Club Filipino
Connecticut
Roosevelt
Santolan
Madison
Wilson
Time
16:00 29.54 26.48 20.85 20.32 19.63 21.62 21.62 21.11 15.69 15.43 15.43 14.68 17.08 34.22 33.86 33.83 34.39 29.32 29.18
16:20 30.36 26.00 19.59 19.08 18.16 19.98 19.97 19.42 14.83 14.63 14.63 14.05 16.10 32.97 31.80 31.77 32.44 25.89 25.77
16:40 35.19 32.90 23.11 22.34 21.66 22.71 22.71 21.84 16.15 15.90 15.91 15.22 17.56 32.88 31.32 31.18 31.74 25.05 24.94
Source:JPT and Counterpart Team
Figure 1.27: Peak Hour Vehicular Volume at the Study Area – Ortigas Avenue
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(b) Individual Analysis of Intersection Capacity: All intersections along the corridor are
analyzed individually and degrees of congestion are determined.
(c) Formulation of Alternative Solutions: The following are considered as possible

solutions:
1.Geometric Improvement
2.Review/Modification of
Lane Configuration at
intersection approaches
3.Optimization of Signal Phase A Phase B

Phasing and Revision of
Offset Timing
Phase C Phase D
(d) Micro Simulation of TM Scenarios: Traffic simulations are performed for various
alternative solutions based on geometric improvements and traffic signal control options.
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Table 1.14: Micro Simulation of TM Scenarios

Scenario
Alternative Solution
1A 1B 2A 2B 3A 3B 4A 4B
Geometric Improvements
2 lanes for left turn at Club Filipino (modified triangle) + Shared lane (thru
A and left turn) at innermost lane at Santolan NB ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
2 lanes for left turn at Club Filipino (modified triangle) + Left turn only at
B innermost lane at Santolan NB ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Traffic Signal Control Option
1 Adjusted Signal Timing (130 secs) using existing offset ✓ ✓
2 Adjusted Signal Timing (130secs) using revised offset ✓ ✓
3 Adjusted Signal Timing (135 secs) using existing offset ✓ ✓
4 Adjusted Signal Timing (135 secs) using revised offset ✓ ✓
Source: JPT and Counterpart Team
The following key performance indicators (KPIs) were utilized and estimated for each
scenario.
Table 1.65: Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) used for each TM Scenarios
KPI Description
Average travel time The average travel time of all vehicles passing from Santolan to Connecticut and vice
(sec) versa.
The difference between the theoretical free flow travel time and the simulated travel
Average delay (sec)
time of all vehicles passing from Santolan to Connecticut and viceversa.
Average travel The distance between Santolan and Connecticut (1.43 km) over the average travel
time ofvehicles passing throughthe eastbound andwestbound directions starting and
speed (kph) ending in Santolan and Connecticut.
Average queue
length at approach The average queue length from all the eastbound and westbound approaches.
(m)
Vehicle volume(veh) Used in computing for the weighted average of travel time, delay, and travel speed.
Source: JPT
(e) Economic Evaluation: The cost of improvement and benefits were estimated for the
benefit – cost analysis.
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Table 1.76: Cost Estimation
Table 1.87: Benefit - Cost Estimation
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2 MODULE 2: IDENTIFICATION OF ROADS FOR TRAFFIC

MANAGEMENT
2.1 Principles of Road Classification
2.1.1 Mobility vs Accessibility

Roadways serve two primary travel needs:
• access to/egress from specific locations; and

• travel mobility.
While these two functions lie at opposite ends of the continuum of roadway function as suggested
by the line function in Figure 2.1, most roads provide some combination of each. Note that the line
function does not need to be a straight line.
The roadway mobility function provides few opportunities for entry and exit and therefore low travel
friction from vehicle access/egress while the roadway accessibility function provides many
opportunities for entry and exit, which creates potentially higher friction from vehicle access/egress.
Figure 2.1: Mobility and Accessibility line function
2.1.2 Broad classifications

Figure 2.2 shows road classifications used by selected countries. These may be summarized as
follows:
a. US (FHWA): Arterials, collectors, local
b. Australia (ACT): Arterial roads, major collector roads, minor collector roads, access
roads
c. Japan: National expressway, national highway, prefectural road, municipal road
d. Philippines: Expressway, National primary, national, secondary, national tertiary,
provincial, municipal and city, barangay.
2- 1
Figure 2.2: Road Classifications Used by Selected Countries
Table 2.1 shows some characteristics of roads based on US (FHWA) classification.
Table 2.1: Characteristics of roads based on functional classification
Figure 2.3 provides an illustrative example of a road network showing the role of the different road
classes. In general:
Arterials are those roadways that provide a high level of mobility

Locals are those that provide a high level of accessibility
Collectors are those that provide a more balanced blend of mobility and access. Collectors
“collect” traffic from Local Roads and connect traffic to Arterial roadways
2-2
Source: CDM Smith, FHWA
Figure 2.3: Typical road network in urban areas
These classifications may beakinto the human body’s bloodvessels and that of the tree’sstructure.
Source: FHWA
Road Classifications
The current road classifications may be grouped into two broad categories namely: functional and
jurisdictional as shown in Table 2.2.
Table 2.2: Categories of road classification
Source: Sigua, R.G.
The use of “Local” roadway in the context of functional classification is separate from the use of the
term in a jurisdictional context. While it is true that roadways functionally classified as “Local” are
often under the jurisdiction of a “local” entity, Local Roads are not always under local jurisdiction.
2-3
Other roadway classifications, including Arterials, may also be under the jurisdiction of a local entity.
2.2 Importance of Functional Classification
Functional classification is the process by which streets and highways are grouped into classes, or
systems according to the character of traffic service that they are intended to provide.
Roads or highways are functionally classified in order to help plan appropriate design components
for each type of facility. A well-designed roadway system has a mix of roadway types. Each roadway
type is designated based on its need or priority for access or mobility.
Roads with high mobility, such as freeways, have high speeds and limited access. Roads with high
accessibility have lower speeds and very few restrictions on access.
This also clarifies the responsibility of appropriate authorities as regards traffic management.
Hierarchy of the road network

Hierarchy of the road network should show all roads playing different roles in the proper circulation
of traffic flow around the city. This can also help identify appropriate regulations, such as on – street
parking. An example is shown in Table 2.3.
Table 2.3: Road inventory of roads and indicative regulation on on – street parking
Source: Sigua, R.G.
2.3 Current Road Classification
Functional classification system

The functional classification system groups roadways into a logical series of decisions based upon
the character of travel service they provide. Figure 2.4 shows the functional classification based on
FHWA of US.
Source: FHWA and CDM Smith
Figure 2.4: Functional classification (US FHWA)
2-4
Road classification in the Philippines based on DPWH is essentially jurisdictional as shown in

Figure 2.5.
(Source: DPWH DO 133s2018), Sigua, R.G.

Figure 2.5: Philippine Road Classification
The following section describes each road classification:

a. National roads
i.) Primary Roads - A contiguous length of significant road sections extending linearly without any
breaks or forks that connect major cities (at least around 100,000 population) comprising the main
trunk line or the backbone of the National Road System.
ii.) Secondary Roads
- Directly connect cities to national primary roads, except in metropolitan areas
- Directly connect major ports and major ferry terminals to national primary roads
- Directly connect major airports to national primary roads
- Directly connect tourist service centers to national primary roads
- Directly connect cities (not included in the category of major cities)
- Directly connect provincial capitals within the same region
- Directly connect major national government infrastructure to national primary roads or
other national secondary roads
iii.) Applicable only for Primary and Secondary Roads
- Bypass/Diversion Roads - Roads that divert through traffic away from the City/Municipality
Business Center.
- Roads that would connect or fill the gap between adjoining national roads (protruding) to
form a continuous national road network.
iv.) Tertiary Roads
- Other existing roads under the DPWH which perform local function.
b. Local roads
i.) Provincial Roads
- Connect cities and municipalities without traversing National Roads.
- Connect National Roads to barangays through rural areas.
- Connect to major provincial government infrastructure.
ii.) Municipal and City Roads
- Roads within the poblacion.
- Roads that connect to provincial and national roads.
- Roads that provide inter-barangay connections to major municipal and city infrastructure
without traversing provincial roads.
iii.) Barangay Roads
- Other public roads (officially turned over) within the barangay and not covered in the above
definitions.
c. Other roads
i.) Expressways
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- Highways with limited access, normally with interchanges; may include facilities for levying
tolls for passage in an open or closed system.
2.4 Philippine Road Network
The current Philippine road network is shown in Table 2.4.
Table 2.4-a: Philippine road network condition (DPWH)
Source: DPWH Strategic Infrastructure Programs and Policies, Feb 2019

https://iro.ph/article_doc/eaaa3b67_Philippine%20Economic%20Briefing%20(Osaka,Japan)%20%20DPWH%20Presentation.pdf)
Table 2.4-b: Philippine road network (Local)

Local Roads Classification Length (km) %
Provincial roads 31,688 17.3%
City roads 15,377 8.4%
Municipal and barangay roads 136,425 74.4%
Total 183,490 100.0%
Source: DILG (2017)
2.5 The need for functional road classification
There are several issues concerning the existing road classification at LGU Level:
• Unclear hierarchy.
• The road types are not continuous as they differ as soon as they cross city boundaries
(Figure 6)
• Although the LGUs are adjacent to each other, the road types in each LGU may be different,
resulting in an imbalance
• This difference in road types indicates that roadside usage, road use, and road facilities
change before and after the boundary, making it difficult to implement extensive and
efficient traffic management measures
• And since the continuity of traffic capacity is not ensured, this requires different operational
methods such as on-street parking, street vendors, quality of surface pavement, number of
lanes, pedestrian facilities, etc., and reduced travel speed due to different grades of traffic
facilities.
2-6
Source:JPT
Figure 2.6: Discontinuity of road classification at LGU Level
Functional classification can help disperse traffic flow which is too concentrated on primary roads.
Primary roads alone are not sufficient to handle traffic demand, and that the improvement of tertiary
roads and other roads with lower standards will allow for sufficient traffic dispersion. (Figure 2.7)
Source:JICA Project Team
Figure 2.7: Traffic dispersion on the road network
2-7
2.6 Assigning Functional Road classification to existing roads
In many instances, assigning a functional classification to a roadway is straightforward, especially

for Arterials and Locals. However, there is flexibility when deciding between adjacent classifications
(Figure 2.8) and assigning may not be an easy task but challenging.
Source: FHWA
Figure 2.8: Assigning functional classification
2.7 Mapping of roads
The following figures show mapping of roads in regional and local levels. There is no standard color
being used in the designation of the different road classes in the local level.
Source:DPWHAtlas
Figure 2.9-a: Road network of Region XIII
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Source:DPWH Atlas
Figure 2.9-b: Road network of NCR Region
Source:Local maps
Figure 2.9-c: Road network (Local level)
An example of a color coding scheme for roadways by functional classification is shown in Figure
2.10.
a. FHWA
b. DPWH
Figure 2.10: Color coding scheme
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2.8 Proposed Functional Road classification to existing roads for traffic

management
Based on the issues and status of Metro Manila as well as available data, the following definitions
of road standards are proposed, focusing on road functions (Table 2.5).
Expressway is the road type set by the DPWH;
Class A refers mainly to radial and ring roads;
Class B refers to roads intersecting Class A and connecting to major facilities;
Class C refers to roads intersecting Class B and connecting residential subdivisions and barangays
in a city; and
Class D refers to roads used daily, roads to and from barangays and residential subdivisions, and
pedestrian roads.
Table 2.5: Proposed functional classification
Source: JICA Project Team
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No. of
Class of Intersection Intersection
1 Class Ax Class A 114
2 Class Ax Class B 174
3 Class Ax Class C 206
4 Class B x Class B 91
Others 221
Total 806
Source: JICA Project Team
Figure 2.11: Metro Manila Roads including Potential Traffic Bottleneck
2.9 Does the function of the road change?

The function of a road may change due to several factors. The following questions may be useful
in deciding the right time to change the road’s functional classification:
• Have new significant roadways been constructed that may warrant Arterial or Collector
status?
• Has any previously non-divided roadway been reconstructed as a divided facility?
• Has any new major development (such as an airport, regional shopping center major
medical facility) been built in a location that has caused traffic patterns to change?
• Has there been significant overall growth that may have caused some roadways to serve
more access or mobility needs than they have previously?
• Have any Arterial or Collector roadways been extended or realigned in such away to
attract more through trip movements?
• Has a particular roadway experienced a significant growth in daily traffic volumes?
DPWH DO 133 s2018 provides a set of criteria and guidelines for the evaluation of roads for
conversion from local to national and viceversa relative to Executive Order (EO) No. 124, series of
1987, Section 5(i). The evaluation sheet shown below is used for road classification conversion
application.
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Source: DPWH DO 133s2018
Figure 2.12 : Evaluation sheet for road classification conversion application
2- 12
3 MODULE 3: DEFINITION AND IDENTIFICATION OF TRAFFIC

CONGESTION AND BOTTLENECKS
3.1 Understanding Traffic Flow
3.1.1 Traffic Flow

Traffic flow is usually classified either as uninterrupted or as interrupted flow. Flow occurring at long
sections of road where vehicles are not required by any cause external to the traffic stream is called
uninterrupted flow. On the other hand, flow occurring at intersections or driveways where vehicles
are required to stop by any cause outside the traffic stream such as traffic signs (‘STOP’ or ‘YIELD’),
traffic signal lights, etc., is called interrupted flow.
3.1.2 Main Traffic Flow Variables

Uninterrupted flow can be described by any of the following traffic variables:
1. Flow rate or volume -the number of vehicles passing a point during a specified period of
time. (q)
2. Speed - rate of motion in distance per unit time (u)
3. Density or concentration - the number of vehicles within a given length of road at an instant
point in time. (k)
Flow rate or volume

Flow rate is defined as the number of vehicles passing a point during a specified period of time. It
is often referred to as volume when measured over an hour or a day.
Speed
Speed is defined as rate of motion in distance per unit time. When describing traffic stream, two
types of speed are used, namely: time mean speed and space mean speed.
1) Time mean speed
Also called spot speed, time mean speed is simply the arithmetic mean of the speeds of vehicles
passing a point within a given interval of time.
3- 1
Example:
u1 = 30 kph.
u2 = 40 kph.
u3 = 50 kph.
2) Space mean speed

Space mean speed is used to describe the rate of movement of a traffic stream within a given
section of road at an instant of time. It is the speed based on the average travel time of vehicles in
the stream within the section. It is also called the harmonic mean speed.
Based on average travel time
Or
Example:
u1 = 30 kph.
u2 = 40 kph.
u3 = 50 kph.
Density or concentration
Density is defined as the number of vehicles in a given length of road at an instant point in time.
3-2
1
2
3
If there are 100 vehicles in 1 km., k = 100veh/km.
3.1.3 Other Traffic Flow Variables

There are other variables used to describe traffic flow. These variables, however, are simply
variants of the three variables described previously.
Headway - time interval between passage of consecutive vehicles at a specified point on the road
Spacing - distance between 2 vehicles measured from the front bumper of a vehicle to another
Time Occupancy – percentage of time a detector is occupied by vehicles.
Source: Sigua, R.G.

Figure 3.1: Time occupancy estimation
Passenger Car Unit (PCU)

A way of normalizing traffic flow as if all are cars (assuming car is the dominant vehicle type) is
through the use of PCU. PCU value depends on the amount of space and length of time a particular
vehicle occupies a point or section of the road.
In simple terms:
Source: Sigua, R.G.

Figure 3.2: Time occupancy estimation
3-3
Example:
During morning peak hour, the average headway of UP-Katipunan jeepneys is estimated at 5
minutes. If the passenger demand during the same period is 240, determine whether there is a
need to increase the number of jeepney units (or shorten the headway) for this route. Assume that
passenger demand is evenly distributed within that period and the average load/occupancy is 14
passengers per jeepney (Note: this assumption may not necessarily be true due to fluctuation of
passenger demand and variability of passenger occupancy).
The number of jeepneys per hour is:
there is a need to increase the number of jeepneys
Example
During heavy traffic congestion, it was observed that the average bumper to bumper spacing of
vehicles of stopped vehicles in the innermost lane of EDSA is 6.5meters. Determine the jam density.
The jam density is:
vehicles/km.
Example:
Determine the volume in pcu per hour for the given traffic data.
3.2 Observed Relationships

A relationship exists among the three most important traffic variables, namely, flow rate, space
mean speed, and density. A dimensional analysis of the units will show that flow rate (veh/hr.) is
simply the product of density (veh/km.) and space mean speed (km/hr.), or:
3.2.1 Fundamental Relationships

It is oftentimes useful to determine the relation between any two variables. Surveys at the South
Luzon Expressway were conducted. Scattered plots of the data are shown in the figure.
3-4
Source: Sigua, R.G.
Figure 3.3: Volume – Speed – Density Relations3.2.2 Relationship of Flow, Speed, and
Density
Assuming a linear relationship between density and speed, i.e., as density increases, speed
decreases, as shown in the figure, the relationships between flow rate and density, and flow rate
and density will be a 2nd degree curve (parabola). Uncongested and congested regions, as well as
the highest value of flow rate (capacity) are indicated in the figures.
Source: Sigua, R.G.
Figure 3.4: Relationships of flow variables showing capacity and congested regions
3.3 Capacity and Level of Service
Capacity is defined as the maximum hourly rate at which vehicles can reasonably be expected to
traverse a point or uniform section of a lane or roadway during a given time period under prevailing
roadway, traffic and control conditions.
On the other hand, Level of Service (LOS) is a qualitative description of how a certain facility is
performing.
The Philippine Highway Planning Manual provides a guide on basic capacity for various road types
in the tables below.
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Table 3.1: Basic Capacities for Highways and Urban Streets
Source: Philippine Highway Planning Manual, 1982
3.3.1 Volume-Capacity Ratio and LOS
The LOS concept uses qualitative measures that characterize operational conditions within a traffic
stream and perception of these conditions by motorists and passengers.
Six levels of service (LOS) are defined for each type of facility and they are given letter designations,
from Ato F, with A representing the best operating conditions and F the worst. Each level of service
represents a range of operating conditions and is defined by quantitative factors known as
measures of effectiveness. In the PHPM method, LOS are defined based on the computed volume
and capacity ratio and the space mean speed of the traffic flow. The volume referred to is the hourly
demand volume. This method was similar to the HCM method of 1965. The latest HCM now
considers density as the main variable in determining LOS. Nevertheless, both methods give the
same description of each level of service as shown in the table.
Source: Ministry of Public Works and Highway, 1982
Figure 3.5 Level of Service
3-6
Table 3.2 Detailed Description of LOS
Source: Transportation Research Board, 2000
Example
Section of a 4-lane divided city road.
For the heavy direction:
• Peak hour factor: 8%; Directional Distribution: 60%
• Assumed pcu values:
Car 1.0
Van 1.4
Bus or Truck 2.2
Daily Volume:
Determine the LOS of the city road.
Solution:
Conversion from Vehicle per Day/Hr to PCU per Day/Hr
Peak hour volume in pcu/hr/direction = Veh/day * pcu equiv * peak hour factor * dir distribution
Capacity = 2*1,800 = 3,600 pcu/hr.
volume.capacity ratio = 2,418.72  3,600 = 0.67
3-7
LOS is C
3.4 Congestion and Bottlenecks
3.4.1 Congestion
Precise definition of congestion is still vague. A survey of technical people by FHWA on how
congestion is defined and measured gave varying responses.
How is congestion defined? (n = 567) How is congestion measured? (n = 682)

Source: Federal Highway Administration (FHWA)
Figure 3.6: Defining and measuring Congestion
Traffic congestion means there are more vehicles or people trying to use a given transportation
facility during a specific period of time (i.e., “demand”) than the facility can handle (i.e., “capacity”
or supply).
However, traffic demand fluctuates significantly across seasons, days of the week, and time of day.
Similarly, capacity changes dynamically based on the degree of weather (e.g., ponding, heavy rain,
etc.), degree of work zone interference, degree of traffic incident severity, and other nonrecurring
events. Congestion should be considered in two dimensions: spatial and temporal, including where
(i.e., location, such as an intersection, roadway segment, or transit route) and when (i.e., time of
day or year)
Type of Congestion
Depends on whether the capacity or the demand factor is out of balance, congestion may be
classified as follows:
• Recurrent/Recurring Congestion -occurs when demand increases beyond the available
capacity (during AM and PM peak periods).
• Non-Recurrent/Non-recurring Congestion -results from a decrease in capacity, while the

demand remains the same.
3-8
Causes of congestion
A better understanding of the sources of congestion can help transportation professionals identify
areas of improvement and design solutions better suited toward local issues.
Congestion is the result of the following seven root causes, often interacting with one another.
1. Physical Bottlenecks ("Capacity") – Capacity is the maximum amount of traffic capable of
being handled by a given highway section. Capacity is determined by a number of factors: the
number and width of lanes and shoulders; merge areas at interchanges; and roadway alignment
(grades and curves).
2. Traffic Incidents – Events that disrupt the normal flow of traffic, usually by physical impedance
in the travel lanes. Events such as vehicular crashes, breakdowns, and debris in travel lanes are
the most common form of incidents.
3. Work Zones – Construction activities on the roadway that result in physical changes to the
highway environment. These changes may include a reduction in the number or width of travel
lanes, lane "shifts," lane diversions, reduction or elimination of shoulders, and even temporary
roadway closures.
4. Weather – Environmental conditions can lead to changes in driver behavior and ability that affect
traffic flow.
5. Traffic Control Devices – Intermittent disruption of traffic flow by control devices such as railroad
grade crossings and sub-optimally timed signals also contribute to congestion and travel time
variability.
6. Special Events – A special case of demand fluctuations whereby traffic flow in the vicinity of the
event is radically different from "typical" patterns. Special events occasionally cause "surges" in
traffic demand that overwhelm the system during short periods of peak demand.
7. Fluctuations in Normal Traffic – Day-to-day variability in demand leads to some days with
higher traffic volumes than others. Varying demand volumes superimposed on a system with fixed
capacity also results in variable (i.e., unreliable) travel times.
3.4.2 Bottleneck
According to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, a bottleneck as: (1) a narrow route or (2) a point of
traffic congestion. However, a road does not necessarily have to narrow for a bottleneck to exist
(e.g., bottlenecks caused by a weaving condition, sun glare, rubbernecking, or a vertical climb or
sag). A layman’s understanding of a bottleneck might be too many cars trying to use a highway at
the same time.
Source: Oguchi, T.
Figure 3.7: Bottleneck analogy
3-9
Broad Categories of Bottlenecks

• Recurring (i.e., predictable and routine, as exemplified by that which occurs during
commute peak hours); Recurring locations may have the opportunity to be corrected by
redesign;
• Nonrecurring (i.e., due to random events like incidents, weather, special events, and work
zones). Nonrecurring locations have less design-influenced solutions and more event-
response opportunities to improve the condition.
Disruptions leading to bottlenecks
Bottlenecks may be caused by a physical disruption such as:

• reduced number of lanes
• a change in grade
Recurring bottlenecks
• on-ramp or off-ramp with a short merge lane.
• Others
Such bottlenecks recur predictably at the same time of day and same day of week. May be
corrected by redesigning or by introducing geometric improvements
Or disruptions due to the following events:
• collisions or highway repairs that block one or more lanes
• special events like concerts or ball games that create
Non-recurring
bottlenecks
demand surges; or parades that severely affect traffic flow
• adverse weather that reduces capacity.
Non-recurring bottlenecks may be corrected through event response or incident management

system
The term “traffic bottleneck” infers a localized congestion problem, not a systemic congestion
problem. A physical bottleneck cause (e.g., a lane drop or other operationally deficient design on
the roadway) only manifests itself when traffic demand overwhelms the available roadway capacity.
Otherwise, the design operates safely/ok.
Congestion and Bottleneck
A bottleneck may cause congestion, but congestion is not always the result of a bottleneck.
Bottlenecks comprise a significant portion of the total congestion causes. Bottlenecks, as the name
implies, denote an area of significant breakdown in flow
3.5 Shockwave Concept
Stalled vehicles, road crashes, parades, or any other temporal activities will cause abnormal traffic
flow and will reduce the capacity of the roadway. These activities lead to long queue extending to
several kilometers that can only be dissipated even long after the obstruction is removed.
Analysis of this type of problem is done using shockwave theory. Shockwave is simply the motion
or propagation of a change in density and flow. Consider two flow regions A and B as shown in the
figure. Region A has prevailing flow described by speed u1 and density k1 while flow in Region B
has speed u2 and density k2.
3- 10
uw
A: k1 , u1
B: k2 , u2
x, distance
Source: Gerlough, D., Huber, M.
Figure 3.8: Two flows with different properties
The general equation for the speed of the shock wave uw is given as follows
On a q-k curve, the equation is represented by the slope of the line connecting points 1 and 2 as
shown.
(q2, k2)
2
uw
q2-q1
1 k2-k1
(q1, k1)
k
Source: Sigua, R.G.
Figure 3.9: Representation of shockwave in q-k diagram
3- 11
What if the 2 lanes are blocked totally?
3- 12
4 MODULE 4: TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES
4.1 Road Signs and Pavement Markings
The objective of this module is for the trainees to be familiar with the Philippines and
international standard road signs and pavement markings.
The Road Traffic Signs are used to communicate to the road users through shape,
color, symbols, and texts about the regulations, roads and information. These signs
convey as much information as possible in a very easy to understand package. At night,
the information on a road sign must be bright enough to be read
Traffic signs may be classified according to their functionality.
4.1.1 Regulatory Signs – inform of traffic laws and regulations, when it is

disregarded, will constitute an offense. The types of Regulatory signs are
A. Priority Signs (R1) – used to regulate priority of movement

B. Direction Signs (R2) – Indicate the only direction(s) allowed
C. Prohibitive or Restrictive Signs (R3) – indicate regulation which is prohibitive or

restrictive
D. Speed Signs (R4) – indicate the allowed minimum and maximum speed
E. Parking Signs (R5) – tells where to or not to park.
F. Miscellaneous Signs (R6) – other prohibition signs and restriction signs
4- 1
4.1.1.1 Priority Signs:

STOP Sign
- Shape: Octagon (this shape is

exclusively for stop sign)
- Background Color: Red
- Border Color: White
- Legend Color: white
- to ensure caution before entering an
intersection and where a complete
stop is necessary.
4-2
Give Way or Yield or Magbigay Daan

Sign
- Shape: Inverted Triangle (this shape

is exclusive for Give Way sign)
- Background Color: White
- Border Color: Red
- Legend Color: black
- Can be incorporated on rectangular
plate with texts.
- The text inside the triangle should be

“GIVE WAY”
- assigns right-of-way to traffic on

certain approaches to intersections
4.1.1.2 Direction Sign

- Shape: Circle
- Background Color: Blue
- Border Color: None
- Legend Color: White
- Can be incorporated on rectangular plate with texts
- Indicate the only direction(s) allowed
Some of the Direction signs are shown below:
4-3
4.1.1.3 Prohibitive or restrictive signs

Unless specified these signs shall be:
- Shape: Circular
- Border Color: Red with oblique bar
- Can be incorporated on rectangular plate with texts
- used on specified section of the road to indicate regulations which are restrictive
in nature.
Some of these signs are shown below:
4-4
4-5
4.1.1.4 Speed Signs:
(SPEED SIGNS: (MAXIMUM SPEED

LIMIT)
- Shape: Circular
- Border Color: Red
- Legend Color: black numerals
- The numbers indicate the
maximum speed limit
(MINIMUM SPEED LIMIT)
- Shape: Circular
- Background Color: Blue
- Border Color: white
- Legend Color: white numerals and
legend
- Indicate the minimum speed limit
- Used exclusively on suitable sections
of expressways only
4-6
SPEED DE-RESTRICTION
- Shape: Circular
- Background Color: White or Blue
- Border Color: white
- Legend Color: white numerals
- The distinct feature is the black
oblique bar across the numbers
- This indicates the end of the speed

restriction
4-7
Source: A. Mappala (Photo taken in Taiwan)
Figure 4.1 Example of Speed Signs
4-8
4.1.1.5 PARKING SIGNS:

No Parking Signs
- Shape: Circular
- Border Color: red with oblique bar
- Legend Color: black letter P
- Can be incorporated on rectangular plate
with texts
- Indicates where partial or total parking is

prohibited
4-9
No Waiting, No Loading and Unloading.
No Stopping Anytime
- Shape: rectangular
- Border Color: red
- Legend Color: red, black
- Can include the times of restriction
4- 10
NO PARKING SIGNS: PUV Stop Area
- Shape: rectangular
- Border Color: red
- Legend Color: black letter
- Exclusively used for loading and
unloading of passengers and goods
- The NO PARKING symbol is used
with this sign where total parking is
prohibited
Figure 4.2 Example of No Parking Signs
4.1.1.6 MISCELLANEOUS SIGNS:

Prohibition on use of audible warning devices, Load and dimension restriction
- Shape: Circular
- Border Color: red

4- 11
Figure 4.3 Example of Miscellaneous Signs
Pedestrian crossing, School children crossing
- Shape: Circular
- Background Color: Fluorescent Yellow Green
- Placed at the stop lines on the approaches to a marked crossing
Figure 4.4 Examples of Pedestrian Crossing, School Children Crossing Signs
Bike lane
- Shape: Circular
4- 12
- Background Color: Fluorescent Yellow Green
- Border Color: red

- Placed on roadway dedicated to bike lane for bicycle used only to protect
cyclists
- Requires cyclists to use the Bike Lane only
Figure 4.5 Example of Bike Lane Sign
Some signs that are used for cyclists
Figure 4.6 Examples of Signs used for Cyclists
4- 13
Other regulatory signs are
Figure 4.6: Other Regulatory Signs
4- 14
4.1.2 Warning Signs - Warns about possible danger or unusual conditions ahead and
alert you on what to expect. Drivers are to take extra vigilance for safety.
Warning signs are generally

- Triangular in shape (equilateral) with the apex pointing upwards
- Red border
- Black symbol and/or text
- White background, though yellow is used as background for roadwork signs
Other exceptions to the standard triangular shape include
- the signs pertaining to non-motorized transport such as Pedestrian type signs and
Wheelchair crossing signs which are a pentagon shape, and
- the rail level crossing which is in the form of a cross buck.
The types of Warning signs are

A. Alignment (W1) - warn of road curve ahead
B. Intersection & Junction (W2) - used where sight distance on the approach to an
intersection or junction is less than the safe stopping distance or where drivers
may have difficulty in appreciating the presence or configuration of an intersection
ahead.
C. Advance warning of TCD (W3) – giving advance warning of Traffic control devices
like traffic signal, stop signs or give way sign
D. Road width (W4) - warn of sudden change of road width either narrowing or
widening of carriageways.
E. Road obstacle (W5) - warn of unexpected road features such as change in road
pavement surface and infrastructure, hazard due to weather conditions and
environment.
F. Pedestrian, bicycle & school (W6) – warn of pedestrian crossing or bike lane
ahead
G. Railway level crossing (W7) - warning of the presence of the level crossing ahead
H. Auxiliary (W8) - Auxiliary or supplementary signs installed below a warning sign

with which it is associated.
I. Other warning signs (W9) – warns of vertical clearance, accident prone area,
merging traffic ahead, lane ends – merge left, or weighbridge ahead
The different types of warning signs are expounded on the next section.
A. Alignment (W1) - warn of road curve ahead
4- 15
B. Intersection & Junction (W2) - used where sight distance on the approach to
an intersection or junction is less than the safe stopping distance or where
drivers may have difficulty in appreciating the presence or configuration of an
intersection ahead.
C. Advance warning of TCD (W3) - Advance warning of Traffic control devices like
traffic signal, stop signs or give way sign
4- 16
D. Road width (W4) - warn of sudden change of road width either narrowing or widening
of carriageways.
E. Road obstacle (W5) – warn of unexpected road features such as change in

road pavement surface and infrastructure, hazard due to weather conditions
and environment.
F. Pedestrian, bicycle & school (W6) – these signs that pertain to non-motorized
transport are the exception to the common shape and color of a warning sign.
These signs are pentagon in shape when there is a symbol of a pedestrian.
4- 17
Rectangular shape is used for those of texts. The background is fluorescent

yellow green. These signs
The old signs of this type that are being replaced are
G. Railway level crossing (W7) - warning of the presence of the level crossing
ahead. May be used in combination with STOP or GIVE WAY signs, signals
or gates
4- 18
H. Auxiliary (W8) - Auxiliary or supplementary signs – installed below a warning

sign with which it is associated. The general shape is rectangle with black
legend on white background.
I. Other warning signs (W9) - Other Warning Signs that are another exception to
the common shape and color of a warning sign. Commonly rectangular with
black legend and border. These signs indicate the
• Vertical clearance
• Slow down accident prone area
• Slow down merging traffic ahead
• Lane ends – merge left
• Slow down weighbridge ahead
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Some signs of this type are shown below:
Warning signs are primarily for protection of driver not familiar with the highway. Location
and installation must be undertaken with care. These signs are installed at a certain
distance from the hazard.
• Urban areas: 30-100 m ahead
• Rural areas: 75-225 m ahead
4.1.3 Guide Signs or Informative Signs - inform & advise on directions, distances,
routes, location of services and points of interest. The types of these signs are
A. Advance Direction Signs (G1) - placed in advance of an intersection to indicate

destinations along each route.
B. Intersection Direction Signs (G2) - Supplement the Advance Direction Signs and
installed within or near the intersection
C. Reassurance Direction Signs (G3) - Reassure who are travelling toward their
intended designation and to indicate the distance to the desired destination
D. Finger Board Direction Signs (G4) - Provide directions to towns, scenic
attractions, geographical interests, and to other local facilities such as post offices,
railway stations
E. Street Name Signs (G5) - Gives information of the names of roads and streets.
F. Town Name and Geographical Feature Signs (G6) - Conveys general information
of interest such as geographical locations
G. Service Signs (G7) - Informs location of service facilities
H. Route Markers (G8) - are installed to identify and show the general direction of
arterial roads and national highways that have significance as ‘through’ routes
I. Tourist and Tourist Destination Signs (G9) - Denote places of public, scenic,
historic or cultural interest
The different types of Guide Signs or Informative Signs are expounded on the next section.
A. Advance Direction Signs (G1) - Placed in advance of an intersection to indicate
destinations along each route.
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- Shape: Rectangular with long axis

horizontal M on u m ent o
- Background color: green
- Border color: White M a n ila
- Legend color: white
P at eros
B. Intersection Direction Signs (G2) – Supplement the Advance Direction Signs.

Located within or near the intersection

horizontal B at a ngas
Background color: green
Border color: White
Legend color: white
C. Reassurance Direction Signs (G3) – Reassure who are travelling toward their
intended designation and to indicate the distance to the desired destination
- Shape: Rectangular with long

axis horizontal A n g e les 7 0
Background color: green
Border color: White
B a g u io 15 6
Legend color: white
D. Finger Board Direction Signs (G4) - Provide directions to towns, scenic

attractions, geographical interests, and to other local facilities such as post offices,
railway stations

L EGA S P I C ITY 16
horizontal with one side pointed to
indicate the direction
- Background color: usually white
Border color: none
Legend color: black
E. Street Name Signs (G5) - Gives information of the names of roads and streets.
May contain house number range for 1 block
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horizontal
- Color: white legend on
blue or green background.
Other combinations may be used
except red as background
BON IFA CIO DR

1 - 350
F. Town Name and Geographical Feature Signs (G6) - Conveys general information
of interest such as geographical locations. Erected at the boundary or entrance
to a town or the location of interest

horizontal M O U N TA I N
- Background Color: white
P R OV I N C E
- Border color: none
- Legend color: black
G. Service Signs (G7) - Informs location of service facilities like

- Gasoline station
- Parking area
- Accommodation, hotel, motel
- Information center
- Restaurants, cafes
- Directions of airport
- Telephone
- Rest rooms
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- Shape: usual is rectangular with long

axis horizontal.
- Background Color: blue
- Border color: White
Some of the other service signs are shown below
H. Route Markers (G8) – are installed to identify and show the general direction of
arterial roads and national highways that have significance as ‘through’ routes.
May be incorporated in the advance warning signs at places where reassurance is
desirable. An example is the Asian Highway, a network of highway routes of
international importance within Asia. Philippines is AH 26. AH26 route is the
Pan-Philippine Highway or the Maharlika Highway, stretching from Laoag City,
Ilocos Norte, to Zamboanga City
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- Shape: Shield
- Background color: white
- Border color: black
- Legend: black numeral
The route marker in a rectangular plate
I. Tourist and Tourist Destination Signs (G9) - Denote places of public, scenic,
historic or cultural interest

horizontal FORT SA NTIA GO
- Background Color: blue or brown
- Border color: White
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Source: A. Mappala
Figure 4.7 Example of Tourist and Tourist Destination Signs
4.1.4 Special Instruction Signs – instruct to follow a direction or to obey a course of

action. Normally not regulatory signs but are used in conjunction with
regulatory or warning signs to form a standard treatment, and to support the
operation of traffic rules
- Shape: Rectangular
- Color:
o Black legends on white
background
o White legends on red
background
o red legends on white
background
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4.1.5 Roadwork Signs - warn or advise of temporary hazardous conditions.
- Advance Signs
- Position Signs
- Road Condition Signs
- Traffic Diversion Signs
- Vehicle Mounted Signs
Shape is rectangular with

- Black legends on yellow background or
- Black legend on orange background (when legends or text relate to personnel

working)
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One-Way Hazard Markers

- To delineate an abrupt narrowing of
pavement, for example, at a lane drop;
- At exposed ends of raised median
islands where traffic is required to pass
to one side
- On central island of a roundabout
facing entering traffic; and
- To delineate the curve approach just

prior to entering an intersection
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Two-way hazard markers

Where it is necessary to delineate an
exposed obstruction on a traffic island nose
at which traffic may pass to either side
• Wide column of an overpass
structure
• Median island separating the
carriageway
• Opposite stem of a T-junction as a

target
Width Marker
Are used at approaches to road bridges:
• Where clearance to bridge curb
from the edge of the running lane is
less than the shoulder or curb width
of the approach road;
• Where there are non-frangible
vertical obstructions less than 600
mm clear behind the bridge curb;
and,
• Where any bridge less than 2m
wider than the approach pavement
or running portion of the
carriageway
Obstruction Marker
• Delineate vertical clearance above
the road where height restrictions
exist
• To highlight road closures, either

mid-block or at the end of a road
(eg cul-de sac, service road
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4.1.6 Pavement Markings are essential for the guidance and control of vehicles and
pedestrians (& other road users).
They are used to guide traffic or give advance warning, or impose restrictions based on some traffic
regulation
These markings maybe in the form of lines, symbols, messages, or numerals that are applied upon,
attached to, or set upon the pavement. Sometimes used to supplement other devices like road
signs or traffic signals
Raised Pavement Markers

• small devices which are fixed to the concrete pavement surface to stimulate, or
supplement painted pavement markings
• generally, not obscured at night under wet conditions and the reflective types are more
brilliant than reflectorized paint markings
• Better used in hilly areas where fog and rain are frequently the causes of traffic accidents;
and, In winding roads and accident-prone areas
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Pavement Markings are classified into the following groups:

A. Pavement and Curb Markings can be used as
1. Longitudinal Lines
2. Transverse Lines
3. Other Lines
4. Other Markings
5. Messages and Symbols
B. Object Markings
Objects within or adjacent to the roadway
C. Reflectorized Markings
Raised pavement marker (RPM), hazard markers, delineators
The Longitudinal Lines may further be subdivided into

• Center Line - Separate opposite traffic movements of an undivided roadway
• Lane Line - Separate adjacent lanes of traffic moving in the same direction
• Barrier Lines – to indicate whether overtaking or passing is permitted, prohibited or

discouraged
• Edge Line - Delineate the edge of the traveled way to distinguish it from the shoulder area
or curb
• Continuity Line - Indicate that portion of a carriageway assigned to through traffic
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• Transition lines - To guide traffic safely past obstructions on roadways such as islands,
median strips, bridge piers
Source: A. Mappala
Figure 4.8 Example of Edge Line and Center Line
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Source: A. Mappala
Figure 4.9 Example of Lane Line
Source: A. Mappala
Figure 4.10: Example of Barrier Line
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Source: A. Mappala
Figure 4.11 Example of Continuity Line
Transition lines are used to guide traffic safely past obstructions on roadways (islands, median
strips, bridge piers) or indicate changes in the width of the traveled portion of the roadway and an
increase or reduction in traffic lanes. Lane, edge, separation or continuity lines may be used as
transition lines whichever is appropriate. Minimum transition length depends with the prevailing
speed of the road
Source: A. Mappala
Figure 4.12 Example of Transition Line
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Other pavement markings that are seen in the country, specifically in Metro Manila are those to
delineate the Motorcycle lane, PUV/Bus lanes and the Bike lane
Source:www.Philstar.comdownloaded on November 15, 2016
Figure 4.13 Example of Motorcycle Lane and PUV/Bus Yellow Lane
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Source: A. Mappala
Figure 4.14 Example of Bike Lane
The following section shows what are the transverse lines.

Stop Line, Give Way Line, Holding lines and Pedestrian Crossings are some of the transverse lines
and are shown in the following pictures.
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Pedestrian Crossing Markings
Zebra crossing which

is used in
unsignalized
intersection. But
nowadays, the zebra
crossing design is
also used in
signalized
intersection for its
higher visibility
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Crosswalks used in
signalized
intersection.
Other Markings
Railroad Crossing Exit Ramp
Red painted curbs or solid longitudinal lines adjacent to the curb indicate where “No Waiting –
Standing Zones”. While a yellow painted curbs or solid longitudinal lines adjacent to the curb
indicate “No Parking Zones”. These zones are supplemented with signs.
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Source: DPWH Manual
Figure 4.15 Typical Layout of No Parking Zone
Source: DPWH Manual
Figure 4.16 Typical Layout of No Loading/Unloading Zone
Messages and Symbols painted on the pavement are limited to three (3) words or less, used to
supplement other traffic control devices and usually white in color. Some of the common
messages are
- Stop,
- keep clear,
- school,
- ped xing,
- railroad x’ing;
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- signal ahead,
- no right (left) turn;
- Bus & puj lane
Source: DPWH Manual
Figure 4.17: Typical Layout of Pedestrian Crossing Ahead Pavement Markings
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Source: A. Mappala
Figure 4.18 Example of Bicycle Lane Pavement Marking
Some of the common symbols used are

- Give way symbol
- Pavement arrows
- Numerals
- Bikes
4-40
Source: DPWH Manual

Figure 4.19: Typical Layout of Give Way Pavement Markings
Source: DPWH Manual
Figure 4.20: Example of Turn Lines
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– Poles, tress, rocks
Rumble Strips or Jiggle Bars (the term used by MMDA) are raised or grooved patterns on the road.
It alert inattentive drivers to potential danger by causing a tactile vibration and audible rumbling,
transmitted through the wheels into the car body. The objectives of the rumble strips are to
1. Warn/alert drivers of upcoming roadway condition such as intersections, sharp horizontal
curves, narrow bridge approaches, toll plazas/gates, and tunnels.
2. Use as complementary/enhancement to advance warning signs such as the Stop Ahead

or the various Curve signs.
3. Use to prevent/lessen the effect of drowsiness during long drive, inattention and highway
hypnosis.
Rumble strips placement can be as
. Transverse rumble strips – placed transversely or perpendicular to the direction of traffic.
. Longitudinal rumble strips- delineate the edge of a road where driver fatigue is known to
cause crashes
. Centreline rumble strips and flexi-posts. Longitudinal rumble strips can also be used in the
centre of the road
Source:A.Mappala
Figure 4.23: Example of a Rumble Strips
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Source: http://toolkit.irap.org/default.asp?page=treatment&id=30
Figure 4.24: Example of Shoulder Rumble Strips
Traffic Signals are used to control of traffic is done by separating in time conflicting movements.
Conflicts at intersections are minimized by giving right-of-way to particular movements. Critical
conflicts such as crossing and merging are practically eliminated with only a maximum of 2
diverging movements allowed at any given time given the phasing of traffic flows.
Traffic Signals can be portable and mobile like the picture shown below.
• Portable traffic signals mounted on small trailers. Usually powered by solar energy. They
can be moved into position quickly and started with minimum effort.
• used on short term works, or other works not exceeding a period of about one week.
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Source: A. Mappala
Figure 4.25: Examples of Portable Signal Light
Hierarchy of Authority in an intersection

1. No Physical Control (RA 4136 Right of Way Rule prevails)
2. Traffic Signs
3. Signalization
4. Police Officer
There is another module that will discuss more on Traffic Signals.
References:
Road Signs and Pavement Marking of DPWH, 2009 and 2012
Road Safety Design Manual of DPWH, 2012
1968 Vienna Convention of the United Nations on Road Traffic and Road Signs
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4.2 Traffic Control Devices
Learning Objectives
a. To identify the role of traffic control devices currently introduced in Metro Manila
b. To be familiar with the Philippines and international standard road signs and pavement
markings; and
c. To demonstrate the effectiveness of traffic control devices on road crash reduction.
4.2.1 Role of Traffic Control Devices
Learning Objective
a. To identify the role of traffic control devices currently introduced in Metro Manila
4.2.1.1 Traffic Management
Traffic management comprises of activities undertaken by a highway transportation agency to

improve roadway system safety, efficiency and effectiveness for both providers and consumers of
transportation services.
The following are the types of traffic management:

a. utilizes traditional traffic engineering tools or simple devices to regulate and control traffic;
and,
b. relies on advanced technology through the use of Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS).
4.2.1.2 Traffic Regulations
Traffic regulations cover all aspects of control of:

a. Vehicle – registration, ownership, roadworthiness, accessories, size, weight
b. Driver – age, ability to operate specific types of vehicles, financial responsibility
Traffic regulations should be:

a. rational – social, economic and human problems must be considered
b. developed progressively – must be planned over a long period of time
Regulations alone are not enough – must be used in conjunction with traffic control devices,
highway planning and design, and administrative policies
4.2.2 Elements of the Road System
4.2.2.1 Road and Vehicle
Road system elements include road, vehicle and driver. Roads and vehicles are subject to constant
change and improvement. Given a period of time, they may be considered inflexible. For vehicles,
controls exist: vehicle registration, motor vehicle inspection system (MVIS) for roadworthiness and
emissions.
4.2.2.2 Driver
Major portion of existing regulations are therefore aimed at the driver. Worldwide, licensing has
become the most effective way to control the number of drivers on the road. Licensing should be
used to influence drivers to become familiar with rules and regulations of the road (including traffic
control devices).
4.2.2.3 Traffic Control Devices
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Traffic control devices are means by which the road user is advised as to detailed requirements or
conditions affecting road use at specific places and times so that proper action may be taken and
accident or delay avoided.
There are three distinct functional groups of traffic control devices:

a. Regulatory devices – These have the authority of law and impose precise requirements upon
the actions of the road user.
b. Warning devices – These are used to inform road users of potentially hazardous roadway
conditions or unusual traffic movements that are not readily apparent to passing traffic.
c. Guiding devices – These are employed simply to inform the road user of route, destination, and
other pertinent information.
To be effective, every traffic control device must be able to meet the following requirements (FHWA
1988):
a. It should compel attention.

b. It should convey a simple clear meaning at a glance.
c. It should allow adequate time for easy response.
d. It should command the respect of the road users for whom it is intended.
Every traffic control must meet all these requirements in logical sequence. The effectiveness of a
sign or marking normally depends on its size, color contrast, shape (simple, regular shapes),
relative position, and maintenance to compel attention. To convey a clear meaning, the shape, color,
and message must be well understood. The message should be kept as short as practicable
because not more than three familiar words can be conveyed at a glance. After capturing the clear
meaning of the device, it should provide adequate time for response, simpler message like STOP
and YIELD requires only a second, while multiple choice (as in destination or guide sign) may
require three to four seconds. Finally, all of these requirements – the design features of size, and
brightness, position allowing time for response, properly maintained control device-should
command the respect of road users. Thus, shabby, ill-kept signs must be discarded and replaced.
4.2.3 Traffic Signs
Traffic signs are employed more frequently than any other devices to regulate, warn, or guide road
users. Traffic markings normally consist of lines, patterns, words, symbols, reflectors, etc. They
may be considered as specialized types of traffic signs in which the message is in contrast with the
color and brightness of the pavement or other background. Figure 4.26 shows the examples of
traffic signs.
Source: (Sigua, 2008)

Figure 4.26: Examples of Traffic Signs
Philippine traffic signs conform to the 1968 Vienna Conventions of the United Nations on Road
Traffic and Road Signs, which the country officially adopted on June 6, 1973.
Traffic signs are necessary to give information as to routes, directions, destinations, etc. Their
4-47
function becomes more relevant when used to warn road users of hazards and regulate any
prohibitive action at specific places and/or at specified times.
To ensure uniformity, traffic signs shall be installed only by a duly authorized public body or official
for the purpose of guiding, regulating, and warning traffic. In case of temporary construction work,
however, special permission is given to contractors or utility companies to install signs to protect
the public provided that such signs conform to the set standards.
Traffic signs are normally of fixed/permanent type although some variable signs have been
employed and have become useful in locations where traffic and environment conditions often
change.
Traffic signs are classified depending on their intended uses:

a) Informative: the signs are intended to guide users while there are traveling;
b) Regulatory: the signs are intended to inform users of special obligations, restrictions, or
prohibitions with which they must comply; and,
c) Warning: these signs are intended to warn users of a danger on the road and to inform them
of its nature.
4.2.3.1 Elements of Design
Uniformity in design includes shape, color, dimension, symbols, wording, lettering, and illumination
or reflectorization.
4.2.3.1.1 Shape
Shapes of signs are standardized as follows:
a) Equilateral triangular shape with one side horizontal shall be used for danger warning signs
(Figure 4.27).

Figure 4.27: Example of Traffic Sign with an Equilateral Triangle Shape (Danger Warning)
b) Round shape shall be used for regulating traffic (Figure 4.28).
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Figure 4.28: Example of Traffic Sign with a Round Shape (Regulating)
c) Rectangular shape shall be used for informative signs (Figure 4.29).

Figure 4.29: Example of Traffic Sign with a Rectangular Shape (Informative)
d) Octagonal shape shall be used for STOP signs only (Figure 4.30).

Figure 4.30. Example of Traffic Sign with Octagonal Shape (STOP)
e) Inverted equilateral triangle shall be used for YIELD signs only (Figure 4.31).
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Figure 4.31: Example of Traffic Sign with an Inverted Equilateral Triangle Shape
(YIELD)
4.2.3.1.2 Color
a) Danger warning signs shall have a yellow or white background with black symbols and red
border (Figure 4.32).

Figure 4.32: Example of a Danger Warning Sign
b) Prohibitory signs and restrictive signs shall have a white background with black symbols
and red border (Figure 4.33).

Figure 4:33: Example of a Prohibitory Sign
c) Mandatory signs with the exception of STOP and YIELD signs shall have a blue background
and white symbols (Figure 4.34).
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Figure 4:34: Example of Mandatory Signs
d) STOP signs shall have a red background and white symbols ( Figure 4. 35) .

Figure 4.35: Example of a Stop Sign
e) YIELD signs shall have a yellow background and red border (Figure 4.36).

Figure 4:36: Example of a yield sign
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f) Informative signs shall have a white or light-colored symbol on a dark-colored (blue or black)
background or a blue or dark-colored symbol on a white or light-colored background (Figure
4.37).

Figures 4.37: Example of Informative Signs
4.2.3.1.3 Size
The minimum dimensions of signs depend upon the intended applications. Larger sizes are
necessary at wider roadways and on high-speed highways. According to Section 2.5 of the DPWH
Highway Safety Design Standards Part 2: Road Signs and Pavement Markings Manual, regulatory
signs are of four sizes based on the speed of the facility as follows:
a. A for urban low-speed roads

b. B for rural roads with speed limits between 60 kph and 70 kph
c. C for high-speed rural highways
d. D for expressways
In the case of a STOP or YIELD sign, for example, table below should be followed:
Table 4.1: Recommended Dimensions for STOP and YIELD Signs

Size Dimension (mm)
A 600 x 600
B 750 x 750
C 900 x 900
Source: (DPWH Road Signs and Pavement Markings, 2011)
The reader is advised to refer to the DPWH manual for the dimensions of various traffic signs and
for other details – letter, symbol border, bar sizes, etc.
4.2.3.1.4 Illumination and Reflectorization
Signs are intended to convey messages during both daytime and nighttime. During hours of
darkness, this can be achieved through illumination or by using reflective materials for signs.
4.2.3.1.5 Placement and Height of Signs
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In general, signs shall be mounted approximately at right angles to the direction and, facing the
traffic they intend to serve. Mounting signs at exactly right angle must be avoided especially on
roads following the east and west directions as the sun's brightness reflecting on the signs will be
too glaring for the drivers. However, there may be no standard location for traffic signs. Each
location must be carefully studied so as to achieve the most advantageous position. Signs are
generally placed on the right side of the roadway. On wider roads, overhead signs are often
necessary. On roads with medians, signs may be placed on both sides. Signs may also be placed
on channelized islands.
a. Lateral placement
On uncurbed roads in the rural areas, the sign should be at least 60 cm clear of the
outer edge of the road shoulder, the line of guideposts, or face of guardrails. The clearance
should not be less than 2 m nor more than 5 m from the edge of the traveled way, except for
large guide signs on expressways where ample clearance may be required. In urban areas,
signs should be located away from the face of the curb not less than 30 cm but not more than
1 m. If curb is mountable or semi-mountable, the minimum clearance should be 50 cm. On
uncurbed roads, the distance given for rural areas shall be used.
b. Height
In rural areas, the height of the sign should normally be between 1 m and 1.5 m
above the nearest edge of the traveled way. For intersection direction signs, the height
should be increased to 2 m. Final height is dictated by visibility factor as the sign should be
mounted clear of vegetation and it must be clearly visible under headlight illumination at
night.
On curbed roads such as in urban areas, the signs should be mounted at a
minimum of 2 m above the top of the curb to prevent obstructions to pedestrians.
4.2.4 Pavement Markings
4.2.4.1 Functions and Limitations of Pavement Markings
A system of clear and effective pavement markings is essential for the guidance and control of
vehicles and pedestrians. They take the form of lines, symbols, messages, or numerals, and may
be set into the surface of, applied upon, or attached to the pavement. In some cases, pavement
markings are used as a supplement to other traffic control devices, such as traffic signals and road
signs. In other instances, they may simply guide traffic or give advance warning, or they may impose
restrictions supported by traffic regulations. Pavement markings have some definite limitations:
a. They are subject to traffic wear and require proper maintenance.

b. They may not be clearly visible if the road is wet or dusty
(e.g., near shoulder edge or median).
c. They may be obscured by traffic.
d. Their effect on skid resistance requires careful choice of materials.
e. They cannot be applied on unsealed roads.
Despite these limitations, they have the advantage under favorable conditions of conveying
warning message or information to drivers without diverting their attention from the road.
4.2.4.2 Legal Authority
Markings shall only be applied and/or removed by the Department of Public Works and Highways
(DPWH) or an authority to which these powers are delegated.
All line-marking plans must be approved by the DPWH before installation.
4.2.4.3 Standardization
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As is the case with all other traffic control devices, it is imperative that markings be uniform so that
they may be recognized and understood instantly by all drivers. Manuals are available from the
DPWH, and on request, it will furnish traffic authorities, road markers, material suppliers/
manufacturers, and similarly interested agencies, detailed drawings of the standard designs and
locations.
4.2.4.4 Types of Markings
Markings are classified into the following groups:

• pavement and curb markings
• object markings
• reflector markings
4.2.4.5 Pavement and Curb Markings
a. Longitudinal lines are those laid in the direction of travel. These include Center Line, Lane
Line, Double Yellow Line, "No- Passing" Zone Markings, Pavement Edge Line, Continuity
Lines, and Transition Line.
b. Transverse lines are those laid across the direction of travel. These include Stop Line, Yield
(Give Way) Lines, and Pedestrian Crossing Markings.
c. Other lines, which include Turn Lines, Parking Bays, Painted Median Islands, and Bus &
PUJ Lane Lines.
d. Other markings, which include Approach Markings to Islands, and Obstructions, Chevron
Markings, Diagonal Markings, Markings on Exit and Entrance Ramps, Curb Markings for
Parking Restrictions, Approach to Railroad Crossing, Messages, and Symbols and
Pavement Arrows.
4.2.4.6 Object Markings
a. Object within the roadway

b. Object adjacent to the roadway (Figure 4.38)

Figures 4.38: Object Markings
4.2.4.7 Reflector Markings
a. Retro-reflector raised pavement markers

b. Hazard markers
c. Delineator
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4.2.4.8 Materials
Road markings should be of nonskid materials and should not protrude more than 6 mm above the
level of the carriageway. Raised pavement markings should not protrude more than 15 mm above
the level of the carriageway. The following are the commonly used materials for road markings:
paint, thermoplastic materials, precut sheeting and raised pavement markers.
4.2.4.8.1 Paint
Paint with or without glass beads embedded or premixed can be applied either by hand or with line
marking machines. For proper reflectorization at night, the amount of glass beads used should be
no less than 0.45 kg and no more than 0.50 kg per liter of mixed paint.
4.2.4.8.2 Thermoplastic Materials
Use of thermoplastic materials with or without reflective properties is recommended at locations

subject to extreme traffic wear. The average service life of thermoplastic materials has been
experienced to be equivalent to eight times that of beaded traffic paints.
4.2.4.8.3 Precut Sheeting
Precut materials both with or without reflective properties are used. It is usually in adhesive tape
form, with aggregate, pigment, and plastic rubber combined on one side and adhesive on the other
side.
4.2.5 Raised Pavement Markers
These are studs of plastic, ceramic, aluminum, cast iron, etc. that are embedded into the
carriageway or attached to the road surface with adhesive. They may be reflective or nonreflective.
4.2.5.1 Color
The color of pavement markings shall be white, except for the alternative uses of yellow in the
following cases:
a. Double yellow "no-passing" lines

b. Unbroken portion of "no-parking" lines
c. Curb markings for prohibition of parking
d. On islands in line of traffic
e. Bus and PUJ lanes
Black may be used in combination with white or yellow in hazard markers to warn drivers at
locations where the protruding objects – such as bridge piers, traffic islands, or other permanent
objects- on or near the roadway. However, the use of black does not establish it as a standard color
for pavement marking.
4.2.5.2 Types of Lines
Depending on the direction that lines are marked on the pavement, lines may be longitudinal,
transverse, or oblique. And depending on the use and meaning of such lines, they are either broken
or solid lines. Figure 4.39 shows examples of lines.
A broken lineshall consist of line segments of equal lengths separated by uniform gaps. The speed
of vehicles on the section of road or in the area in question should be taken into account in
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determining the lengths of the strokes and of the gaps between them.
A solid unbroken line is used where crossing of the line is either discouraged or prohibited. It is
generally used to replace or supplement a broken line where required, e.g., barrier lines, center
lines, etc. Solid lines may be either yellow or white, depending whether crossing the line is legally
prohibited or not.
Source: (Daily Civil, 2016)

Figure 4.39: Types of Lines
4.2.5.3 Width of Lines
The width of solid or broken lines varies from 100 mm to 300 mm, depending on the usage of the
specified line. Transverse lines are usually wider because of the angle at which the driver sees
markings on the carriageway.
4.2.6 Messages
Messages when used should be limited to as few words as possible, never more than three. They
shall only be used to supplement other traffic control devices. The distance between words is
variable, depending on the message and location at which it is based (usually twice the length of
the word if achievable).
The first word of the message is to be nearest the motorist on rural roads. In urban low-speed areas,
the order is optional.
Messages are white in color. Letters or numerals used on roads in urban areas shall measure at
least 2.5 m; on high-speed highways, they may need to be at least 5 m.
Messages generally in use are STOP, KEEP CLEAR, SCHOOL, PED XING, RAILROAD XING,
SIGNAL AHEAD, NO RIGHT (LEFT) TURN, BUS LANE, and PUJ LANE.
4.2.7 Symbols
a. Give way (yield) symbol
The symbol used to supplement the give way sign consists of an isosceles triangle
having two equal sides of 3.1 m and a base of 1 m. Outline width is 450 mm at the base
and 150 mm for the sides. The distance of the symbol from the holding line is between 5 m
and 25 m, depending on the location and vehicle speeds on that road.
b. Pavement arrows
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Pavement arrows are used for lane use control. White in color, they are generally 5
m in length on urban roads and 7.5m on high-speed roads.
For half-turn movements, the stems of the straight arrows can be bent to suit the
particular direction of movement.
The first set of arrows should be placed at a distance of 15m from the stop bar, and
the subsequent sets should be placed at 45 m apart.
c. Numerals
The only numerals that should be used are those associated with speed limits at
location to supplement speed limit signs, which are continuously disregarded by drivers.
4.3 Traffic Signals
Using traffic signals, control of traffic is done by separating in time conflicting movements,
i.e., conflicts at intersections are minimized by giving right-of-way to particular movements. Critical
conflicts such as crossing and merging are practically eliminated with only a maximum of two
diverging movements allowed at any given time given the phasing of traffic flows. They separate in
time conflicting movements.
4.3.1 Advantages of Traffic Signal Control
• May provide for the orderly movement of traffic by assigning right-of-way to conflicting
movements of traffic
• May increase the traffic-handling capacity of an intersection by permitting conflicting
streams of traffic to share the same intersection
• May reduce the frequency of certain types of accidents especially right-angle collisions
• May provide for continuous movement and progression of traffic through coordination with
surrounding traffic signals
• May interrupt heavy traffic to allow both vehicular and pedestrian traffic to cross
4.3.2 Disadvantages of Traffic Signal Control
• May increase delay – both overall intersection delay and/or specific movement delay
especially during off peak hours
• May encourage the use of alternate and/or less adequate routes by drivers wishing to avoid
the signal
• May encourage increased volumes of traffic on the minor street by drivers wishing to use
the signal
• May cause an increase in frequency of certain types of accidents especially rear-end
collisions
• May encourage disobedience of the signal indication
• May result to total, widespread confusion and difficulties when the installation break down
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References
Daily Civil. (2016, October). Road Marking- Types & Purpose/ Pavement Marking Types.
Retrieved April 22, 2022, from Daily Civil: https://dailycivil.com/types-of-road-marking/
Department of Public Works and Highways. (2008). Accident Blackspot Investigation
Handbook.
Department of Public Works and Highways. (2011). Road Signs and Pavement Markings
Manual.
Sigua, R. G. (2008). Fundamentals of Traffic Engineering. Quezon City: University of the
Phlippines Press.
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4.3.3 Impact of Traffic Control
Learning Objective
a. To demonstrate the effectiveness of traffic control devices on road crash reduction
Impact of Traffic Control
Table 4.2 shows the treatment types for traffic control devices, sight distance, intersection/geometry
and the corresponding road crash reduction factor and treatment life according to the DPWH
Accident Blackspot Investigation Handbook (DPWH, 2008). Signal installation, geometric
improvements, channelization, auxiliary left turn lane, road realignment and rotunda are the most
effective measures to reduce road crashes. They are followed by pedestrian operated signals,
signages and pavement markings.
Table 4.2. Treatment Types for Traffic Signals, Signs, Markings, Sight
Distance and Intersection/ Geometry and the Corresponding Road Crash
Reduction Factor and Treatment Life
Source: (DPWH Accident Blackspot Investigation Handbook, 2008)
4.3.3.1 Pedestrian Operated Signals
Pedestrian operated signals are traffic signals that are activated in response to a pedestrian
pressing a button. Pedestrian operated signals are most commonly found at mid-blockpedestrian
crossings.
Source:http://lgam.wikidot.com/pedestrian-operated-signals
4.2.1.2 Centerlines
Centerlines can be used to discourage overtaking or accidental ‘drifting' from the lane.
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4.2.1.3 Edge Lines
Edge lines are used to outline and separate the outside edge of the pavement from the shoulder
Edge lines help drivers judge the alignment of the road ahead and can reduce run-off-road crashes.
Line marking is also effective at reducing shoulder damage, and therefore in reducing maintenance
costs.
Source:https://toolkit.irap.org/default.asp?page=treatment&id=5&hl=edge%20lines
4.2.1.4 Rumble Strips
Longitudinal rumble strips (also referred to as raised profile edge lines or audio-tactile edge lines)
can be used to delineate the edge of a road where driver fatigue is known to cause crashes. As
well as providing visual delineation, longitudinal rumble strips can also be heard and felt by drivers
and riders. When a tire runs over the rumble strips a noise and vibration is produced. This tells a
sleepy or distracted driver that their vehicle is starting to leave the road.
Source: https://toolkit.irap.org/default.asp?page=treatment&id=30
4.1.5 Auxiliary Turn Lanes
Auxiliary turn lanes - either for left turns or right turns - provide physical separation between turning
traffic that is slowing or stopped and adjacent through traffic at approaches to intersections.
4.2.1.6 T-intersection
An offset T-intersection is an at-grade road intersection where a conventional four leg intersection
is split into two three-leg T-intersections to reduce the number of conflicts and improve traffic flow
(Federal Highway Administration, 2010).
Table 4.3 shows the treatment types for cross section and median and the corresponding road
crash reduction factor and treatment life according to the DPWH Accident Blackspot Investigation
Handbook (DPWH, 2008).
Table 4.3 shows the treatment types for cross section and roadside and the corresponding road
crash reduction factor and treatment life according to the DPWH Accident Blackspot Investigation
Handbook. Median strip, pedestrian island, construct sidewalk, curb extension, curb construction
or widen shoulders to separate vehicles and pedestrians are the more effective measures to reduce
road crashes with crash reduction factor of 35% to 40%. They are followed by passing lane, road
safety barriers such as guard rails and street lighting.
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Table 4.3: Treatment Type for Cross Section and Roadside
Source: (DPWH Accident Blackspot Investigation Handbook, 2008)
4.2.1.7 Median Strip
The median strip or central reservation is the reserved area that separates opposing lanes of traffic
on divided roadways, such as divided highways, dual carriageways, freeways, and motorways. The
term also applies to divided roadways other than highways, such as some major streets in urban
or suburban areas.
4.2.1.8 Indented Parking
Indented parking – Provision of a parking bay located immediately adjacent to a through traffic lane,
but protected from through traffic by virtue of the kerband channel alignment adjacent to the parking
bay(s) being offset in the direction of the property boundary.
4.2.2 Safe Roads and Roadsides
This set of interventions comes from the reference: Turner, B., Job, S. and Mitra, S. (2021). Guide
for Road Safety Interventions: Evidence of What Works and What Does Not Work.
Interventions that reduce crash severity outcomes generally are the most beneficial,
producing up to 80 percent reductions in fatal and serious injury. These include roadside and central
barrier systems on high speed roads, infrastructure that supports lower speed environments
(especially for vulnerable road users and roundabouts at intersections (lower impact speed and
angle of impact).
Interventions that reduce exposure to risk are also highly beneficial. These interventions
include access control/management, separating vulnerable road users from other road users (that
is, by providing a well-designed foot path which is kept clear of obstructions, commerce, and
parking, and thus ensuring that the footpath is usable by pedestrians) and designs that prevent
cross-traffic turning movements (banning left turn in, or left turn out movements at intersections.
Interventions can also reduce the likelihood of a crash occurring in the first place. This class
of intervention has more varied results. Examples include signs and line-marking (lower safety
benefits), traffic signals (moderate benefits), and infrastructure that supports speed reduction.
Table 4.4 shows the descriptions and potential effectiveness of interventions of integrated
public transport, roadside barrier systems and central barrier systems.
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Table 4.4: Potential Effectiveness of Interventions

(Integrated Public Transport, Roadside Barrier Systems, Central Barrier Systems)
Source: (Turner, Job, & Mitra, 2021)
4.2.2.1 Integrated Public Transport
This can have the effect of moving road users from modes of travel that can be higher risk (such
as motorcycles and informal public transport services such as mini-buses and shared taxis to safer
mass transit options.
4.2.2.2 Roadside and Central Barrier Systems
4.2.2.2.1 Barriers
Barriers are used to shield errant vehicles from hazards. They can be used along the median
(central barriers) to prohibit movement of traffic across the median or on the roadsides to shield
vehicles from roadside hazards. They are designed to redirect an impacting vehicle and in some
cases to dissipate crash forces in a controlled manner thus reducing the severity of crashes
involving out-of-control vehicles.
4.2.2.2.2 Medians
Medians provide a degree of segregation between vehicles moving in opposite directions and are
effective at reducing head-on collision, particularly in high-speed environments. They can be
constructed (raised medians) through provision of curbing, or can be provided through wide
centerline markings and often in association with audio-tactile line marking.
They can also be used in urban areas, including to help pedestrians stagger their crossing
movement (especially when used in association with formal crossings). Care needs to be taken
when painted medians are installed that they are not used by vehicles as passing or additional
lanes. This behavior can be discouraged through use of flexible posts or intermittent traffic islands.
Table 4.5 shows the descriptions and potential effectiveness of interventions of medians,
infrastructure to support appropriate speed for road users and roundabouts.
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(Medians, Infrastructure to Support Appropriate Speed for Road Users and
Roundabouts)
4.2.2.2.3 Roundabouts
Well-designed roundabouts are able to deliver considerable road safety benefits, with reductions in
fatalities and serious injury of between 70 percent and 80 percent. The reason for this success is
that roundabouts:
• Reduce the number of conflict points within an intersection compared with other intersection
types
• Reduce the entry speed of vehicles as well as speeds through the roundabout, because
vehicles are forced to take a meandering path rather than traveling straight through the
intersection
• Reduce the impact angle (and therefore the impact force and severity) if a collision does occur,
effectively converting more severe crossing conflicts to merging and diverging conflicts.
Table 4.6 shows the descriptions and potential effectiveness of interventions of grade
separation at intersections, reducing risk exposure at intersections and pedestrian footpaths.

(Grade Separation at Intersections, Reducing Risk Exposure at Intersections and
Pedestrian Footpaths)
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4.2.3 Reducing Risk Exposure at Intersections
This can include full closure of intersections, although there is a requirement that good quality
alternative options be available for this strategy to be effective. Full closure can virtually eliminate
severe crash risk (noting that some risk will remain through traffic displacement). In addition, partial
closure of intersections can also be highly effective. This might include providing a median through
an intersection to eliminate cross-traffic turning movements (such as,when driving on the right hand
side of the road, prohibiting left turns into and out of side roads). There is typically a need to provide
alternative high quality turning facilities. Banning turning movements has resulted in substantial
road safety benefits, with reductions of between 30 and 45 percent of injuries having been noted.
4.2.4 Pedestrian Footpaths
Pedestrian footpaths are an area adjacent to the roadway for use by pedestrians. In urban areas
they are typically raised, separating pedestrians from motorized traffic with curbing. To be effective,
footpaths must be of adequate width, well maintained, and free from obstructions, including parked
vehicles, signs, traders, and so forth.
Footpaths are included as standard infrastructure in many countries as it is accepted wisdom that
they produce improvements for pedestrian. The evidence indicates benefits of up to 60 percent
reductions for pedestrians from the installation of footpaths.
Table 4.7 shows the descriptions and potential effectiveness of interventions of pedestrian
crossing, separated bicycle facilities and separated motorcycle facilities.
Table 4.7:Potential Effectiveness of Interventions

(Pedestrian Crossing, Separated Bicycle Facilities, Separated Motorcycle Facilities)
4.2.5 Pedestrian Crossings
Crossing types include low-cost measures such as marked priority crossings (“zebra crossings”),
signal-controlled crossings, raised crossings (an area of elevated pavement surface, preferably
with pedestrian priority), or pedestrian under- or over-passes.
Marked priority crossings (“zebra crossings”) often have limited impact in low- and medium-income
countries and may even increase risk if not installed at appropriate locations and with adequate
features (for instance, higher speed environments with multiple lanes in situations where there is
poor sight distance, or where compliance is poor). Similarly, under- and over-passes, especially in
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urban settings that dramatically increase the distance and effort of pedestrians to cross a road, or
that result in personal security issues, may provide little benefit.
Other facilities to assist pedestrians when crossing include road narrowing, refuge islands, and
slow speed environments. Improving visibility including through better sight distance and lighting
can also have benefits.
4.2.6 Separated Bicycle Facilities
Bicyclists are vulnerable road users and so it is important to provide adequate facilities so that they
can use roads safely.
Facilities include off-road paths, on-road lanes (preferably separated from both passing vehicles
and parked vehicles), and dedicated facilities at intersections (signalized crossings, protected
intersections, areas of high contrast road surfacing, off-road bypass facilities, and bicycle storage
boxes).
Reductions of around 15 percent in cyclist injuries have been noted from the use of cycle lanes
adjacent to traffic while higher benefits have been seen with more comprehensive interventions,
such as bicycle boulevards.
Table 4.8 shows the descriptions and potential effectiveness of interventions of other intersection
improvements, signs and line markings, audio-tactile line marking and improving surfacing on poor
quality roads without additional infrastructure improvement.
Table 4.8. Potential Effectiveness of Interventions

(Other Intersection Improvements, Signs and Line Markings, Audio-Tactile Line Marking,
Improving Surfacing on Poor Quality Roads Without Additional Infrastructure Improvement)
4.2.7 Other Intersection Improvements
These includes low cost (and typically lower benefit) interventions such as warning signs and
introduction of priority signs (Give Way/Yield and Stop signs), through to more substantive
infrastructure improvement with higher costs, but also typically higher benefits (these include
improved facilities such as turning lanes and channelization, and improved intersection visibility).
One of the more commonly-used interventions is traffic signals. When well designed (including
provision of fully controlled turns) and when used in moderate speed environments (including
provision of speed-reducing features to reduce speeds to survival impact levels of 50 km/h or less),
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these can produce quite reasonable benefits.
4.2.8 Improving Surfacing on Poor Quality Roads without Additional Infrastructure
Improvement
Road surface improvements can lead to substantially higher traffic speeds, and if other measures
are not taken to improve safety for vulnerable road users (for example, provision of footpaths, traffic
calming) or for motorists (including improvements at intersections and curves, roadside
management, improved sight distance, and so forth) crashes are likely to increase.
Table 4.9 shows the descriptions and potential effectiveness of interventions of traffic calming
including humps, chicanes, and raised intersections.

(Traffic Calming including Humps, Chicanes and Raised Intersections)
4.2.9 Traffic Calming Including Humps, Chicanes
Humps and platforms refer to raised sections of pavement, with various forms of speed humps
and platforms available for different road types and speed environments. Chicanes provide
another mechanism for slowing vehicles through horizontal deflection (or movement) of
vehicles. These interventions can be used at high risk locations (such as areas where
pedestrians and other vulnerable road users need to cross) or as part of an integrated area-
wide traffic calming scheme.
4.2.10 Raised Intersections
Raised intersections (also known as raised junctions or plateaus) are raised sections of pavement
with ramps designed to reduce speeds to required levels (typically 50 km/h in the absence of
vulnerable road users, and lower where they are present). The whole intersection can be raised or
alternatively, raised sections can be placed in advance of the intersection (sometimes referred to
as raised stop bars).
Table 4.10 shows the descriptions and potential effectiveness of interventions of raised crossings,
gateway treatments and lower speed limits.
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(Raised Crossings, Gateway Treatments and Lower Speed Limits)
4.2.11 Raised Crossings
Raised pedestrian crossings are flat-top speed humps that also provide priority to pedestrians
rather than motorists. They typically consist of a raised platform with a marked pedestrian crossing
on top. A central refuge and narrowing may also be provided, particularly on wider roads. Additional
humps may be used in advance of the crossing to further reduce vehicle speeds. The raised
crossing slows vehicles and also increases the visibility of pedestrians due to the increased height.
4.2.12 Gateway Treatments
Gateway treatments (also called entry treatments or thresholds) are used to mark the transition
points between a higher speed environment to a lower speed environment. They are particularly
useful when approaching a town or village. Speed reductions are achieved through the use of
speed signs (these may be larger than normal) and road narrowing (either through constructed
islands or through painted markings). In some cases, raised pavements are used, or colored or
textured pavements used instead.
Table 4.11 shows the descriptions and potential effectiveness of interventions of speed
zones and speed cameras.
(Speed Zones and Speed Cameras)
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References
Department of Public Works and Highways. (2008). Accident Blackspot Investigation Handbook.
Turner, B., Job, S., & Mitra, S. (2021). Guide for Road Safety Interventions: Evidence of What
Works and What Doew Not Work. Washington, DC, USA: World Bank.
iRAP (2022) The Road Safety Toolkit, https://toolkit.irap.org/
Knowledge Bases Australia ( ). Local Government & Municipal (LGAM)
Knowledge Base, http://lgam.wikidot.com/pedestrian-operated-signals
Federal Highway Administration (2010). Chapter 6.3.4. Alternative Intersections/
Interchanges: Informational Report (AIIR). Federal Highway Administration. FHWA-HRT-
09-060
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5 MODULE 5: INTERSECTION DESIGN & CONTROL

5.1 Typology of intersections; Intersection design and control principles
5.1.1 Introduction
Intersection plays an important role in any network system. It is the point where traffic flow
converges and where direction of travel changes.
Main objectives in the design and control of intersections
• Minimize the potential for and severity of conflicts among all road users;
• Provide adequate capacity; and
• Assure the convenience and ease of drivers, pedestrians, cyclists, etc. in making the
necessary maneuvers/actions.
Typology of intersection
The types of intersection may be categorized into three, namely as to:
a. Shape /Configuration
This refers to the configuration of the intersection and would depend largely on the number
of legs. Carefully planned and properly designed road networks often lead to intersections
with simpler shape having lesser number of legs. Some of the most commonly observed
intersection configurations are the following:
i) 3-leg:’T’ or ‘Y’
ii) 4-leg: normal crossing, oblique, or skewed
iii) multi-leg: with more than 4 legs
iv) Rotary, roundabout, traffic circle
b. Structure
Most of the intersections are either designed as at-grade intersection or grade separation such as
flyovers or interchanges. Almost all intersections are initially designed at-grade and are planned to
be grade-separated in the future to cope up with high traffic volume. The type of grade separation
depends largely on the extent of improvement it would provide in terms of easing up congestion or
reducing traffic accidents.
5- 1
i) At-grade intersection
D
‘ STOP’
50
45
30
60
A 380
B 70
70
380
60
45 30
50
‘STOP’
Hourly traffic volume in vph
ii) Grade-separation such as flyovers or interchanges
c. Operation
Rules and regulations applied to a given intersection depend largely on the type of control which is
in operation at that intersection. The main objective is to simplify traffic flow. This is often achieved
by reducing the number of conflicts of vehicles.
An intersection operates as unchannelized or channelized; and unsignalized or signalized.

Channelization often leads to simplified movements of vehicles as it leads drivers to one conflict at
a time. On the other hand, signalization greatly reduces crossing conflicts at the intersection area.
5.1.2 Intersection Design, Control & Analysis
Intersections are normally designed with a specific/corresponding type of control in mind. This
would depend on the amount of traffic volume expected to use the intersection, turning movements
allowed, and other considerations. Analysis, be it on capacity, safety or economic cost, will depend
on the combination of the geometric design of the intersection and control to be adopted.
Source: Sigua, R.G.
Figure 5.1: intersection design, control, and analysis interaction
5.1.3 Hierarchy of Control of Intersections
Depending on the traffic volume using the intersection and the severity of conflicts, intersection
control may fall under any of the following categories:
5-2
a) Unsignalized
- ‘right of way’ rule
- ‘STOP’ or ‘YIELD’ sign (Priority)
- U-turn scheme
- roundabout
b) Signalized
c) Flyover/Grade Separation
Unsignalized Intersection
When two minor roads intersect, traffic may be assumed to arrive at any approach of the
intersection in random fashion. In this case, signals may not be necessary, but some form of
control must be employed to ensure safety. The simplest form of control is to have no control
at all. At least, there are no visible reminders such as signs or markings posted in the vicinity
of the intersection. There is actually a rule for minor intersections where there is no clearly
defined priority. The so-called ‘right of way rule’ governs. This rule states that when two vehicles
arrive at the same time at the intersection, the vehicle on the right has the priority. This rule
must be understood by all drivers, and it does not depend on the size of the vehicle! There is
no such thing as ‘right of weight’.
In the case of intersections where priority is clearly defined, a major road crossing a minor road
for instance, the traffic on the minor road has to depend on available gaps at the major road
to be able to cross or turn. For this kind of intersections, reasonable controls for unsignalized
intersections may be done through the use of traffic signs such as ‘YIELD’ or ‘STOP’ sign. The
use of ‘YIELD’ sign is to establish or strengthen legal superiority of one traffic flow over another
where most traffic on all legs is able to proceed through without a full stop. With the use of
‘STOP’ sign, 2-way stop control or 4-way stop control may be implemented. In a 2-way stop
control, the major approaches without ‘STOP’ signs have complete priority over the minor
approaches with ‘STOP’ signs. In the 4-way stop control, all approaches have equal priority.
Studies indicate that 4-way stop control works to the best advantage of traffic when flows on
the two cross streets are approximately equal. In a simulation study of 4-way stop control by
Wright, it has been found out that the percentages of right, left, and through movements had
little effect on delays and queue lengths. This may be due to the fact that 4-way stop control
offers flexibility, i.e., the driver is given the opportunity to use his own judgment in deciding
what movements are possible at a given instant.
Roundabout or Rotary
This is another form of unsignalized intersection that works best when the number of turning
vehicles is almost equal to the number of through vehicles. In a roundabout , all the vehicles move
counterclockwise in one-way fashion. Movement is characterized by merging at very small angles,
weaving, and diverging when leaving the intersection. When traffic signals’ cost proved to be costly,
roundabout is a good alternative.
U-Turn Slots
U-turn scheme has been implemented at several intersections within Metro Manila for several years
now. Operation at U-turnslots is very similar to that of a roundabout except that it favors a particular
road which is assumed to be the major road.
Signalized Intersection
The control of traffic intersections by traffic signals is done by separation in time, i.e., conflicts
5-3
between opposing or merging streams are prevented by giving the right of way to a given
direction.
Grade-Separation
Grade-separation eliminates the problematic crossing conflicts of the different movements of

vehicles. Flyover/overpass, underpass, or full-blown interchanges are some of the examples
of grade-separation. Interchanges provide the safest and most efficient method of control but
definitely the costliest, and sometimes unaesthetic.
5.1.4 Principles of safe/good design and/or control of intersections
There are several principles that must be adopted so as to ensure safe and efficient operation and
control of intersections, namely:
• Minimize the number of conflicts
• Minimize the speed of vehicles at potential collision points; Minimize relative speed of
conflicting movements
• Minimize the area of conflict
• Separate movements and points of conflict
• Control movements to reduce the possibility of conflict; give preference to major
movement/s
Minimize number of conflicts
As much as possible, the maximum number of legs should be 4. The following figures illustrate 3 –
leg and 4 – leg intersections showing potential conflicts among vehicles, pedestrians, and cyclists.
3-leg
4-leg
Source: Sigua, R.G.
Figure 5.2: potential conflicts among vehicles, cyclists and pedestrians.
The table shows the number of vehicular conflicts, classified into diverging, merging, and crossing.
Diverging conflict is much less problematic compared to merging and crossing.
5-4
Table 5.1: No. of Intersection Conflicts

Intersection Type
Type of conflict
3-Leg 4-Leg
Diverging 3 8
Merging 3 8
Crossing 3 16
Total 9 32
Source: Sigua, R.G.
The figure shows the exponential increase in the number of conflicts if intersections are designed
with more than 4 legs.
200
180
160
No. of Conflicts
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
2 3 4 5 6 7
No. of Legs
Source: Sigua, R.G.

Figure 5.3: Number of legs and number of conflicts
Consider, a 4-leg intersection with all movements allowed. The figure shows the conflict diagrams
for the different types of intersections discussed previously.
Unsignalized Intersection Signalized Intersection
P- 1 P-2
P-3 P-4
Roundabout/Rotary U-Turn Slots
Source: Sigua, R.G.
Figure 5.4: Number of Vehicular Conflicts by Intersection Control
5-5
Staggered intersection, as shown in the figure, should be avoided as it complicates the movements
and conflicts of road users utilizing the intersection.
If 5-leg cannot be avoided, use the fifth as a minor leg only for exit.
Minimize relative speed of vehicles

This principle is aimed at reducing the impact of speeds of vehicles approaching the intersection.
Main consideration is the angle of conflict of vehicles. Very high relative speed, i.e., vectorial speed
of convergence of vehicles in a conflict maneuver, should be avoided.
Relative speed is measured based on cosine law:
C 2 = A2 + B2 − 2ABCOSθ
For instance: if two conflicting vehicles at a right-angle intersection have approach speeds of
A=60kph and B=60kph., the calculated relative speed is C=85kph.
As a rule, 2 roads should preferably intersect at right angle or must be at least 60o.
When modifying alignment, major highway should not be bent (and the intersection must beat right
angle).
5.1.5 Channelization
Channelization or use of traffic islands or pavement markings to direct the traffic into predetermined
paths improves the geometry of the intersection. Channelization can be very effective in achieving
the following objectives:
• Separate conflicting movements
• Reduce areas of conflict
• Cause opposing traffic streams to intersect at right angles
5-6
• Improve and define the alignment of major movements

• Control the speed of traffic entering an intersection by changing alignment
• Control speed of traffic by restricting width
• Provide refuge or median to shelter a turning or crossing vehicle
• Provide protection for pedestrians
• Prohibit certain turns
• Provide locations for traffic signal poles or traffic signs
The following show some illustrations on how these objectives can be achieved:
a.Reduction of area of conflict through the introduction of median separators
b.Crossing at or near right angle
c.Refuge for crossing and turning vehicles
d.Refuge for crossing pedestrians
e. Merge traffic stream at small angles
5-7
f.Speed of traffic stream may be controlled by bending
f.Speed of traffic stream may be controlled by funneling
g.Conflict movements are separated; drivers are exposed to one conflict at a time
h.Blockage of prohibited turns
i.Installation of essential traffic control devices (traffic signals and signs)
5-8
Illustrative examples
Example 1: Consider the T - junction where left turn movements are allowed as shown. Very high
relative speeds are created due to the almost head – on conflicts.
The figure below shows an existing junction which exhibits the same issues mentioned above.
Improving the intersection using channelization and the introduction of traffic signal control will be
able to eliminate dangerous maneuvers.
Example 2: The following figures illustrate how to improve an intersection with large conflict areas
through channelization and use of pavement markings.
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Considering the travel paths of the different movements, appropriate sizes of the median separator
are determined. Moreover, the area of conflict has been considerably reduced.
5.1.6 Roundabouts
Roundabouts are considered safer compared to other types of intersections since the relative
speeds of conflicting vehicles are much lower, thereby preventing serious crashes. Comparing
roundabouts and signalized intersections, the following must be considered:
• Conflicts can arise from both legal and illegal maneuvers.
• Many of the most serious crashes are caused by failure to observe traffic control devices.
• Even though traffic control devices (signals) can significantly reduce many conflicts, they
cannot eliminate them entirely due to violations of those devices.
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Signalization
Figure 5.5: Traffic signal control and roundabout
5.2 Traffic Signal Control
5.2.1 Introduction
The control of traffic intersections by traffic signals is done by separation in time, i.e., conflicts
between opposing or merging streams are prevented by giving the right of way to a given direction.
This separation in time is termed as signal phasing. And it can be seen that the more the number
of conflicts there is, the more the number of phasing is needed. However, in some cases as in a
major street- minor street intersection, or in approaches where left turning volume is relatively low,
a separate phasing for the minor flow may not be necessary. The number of phases employed at
any intersection must be kept to a minimum compatible with safety because with every phase
added, there is a corresponding additional loss of green time which eventually leads to increased
intersection delay.
5.2.2 Types of Signals
There are many types of traffic signals being used to control traffic flow. Depending on the distance
and influence of one or more signals over the other, the intersections may be classified as isolated,
coordinated, or area controlled.
a. Isolated
A particular intersection may be considered isolated if arrivals of vehicles at its approach are
random. Consider the traffic flow at the two signalized intersections A and B as shown in the figure.
Supposing queue formed in A proceeds towards intersection B. If this queue has dispersed and
vehicles arrive at random at B, then B may be considered as an isolated intersection. Naturally, this
will happen only when distance between the two intersections is far or when traffic volume is
relatively low. In highly built-up areas such as the city or town centers, it is unlikely to have this kind
of intersection.
A B
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Pre – time or Fixed time
Pre-time or fixed time signals work best when there is not much fluctuation in traffic flow. The
pre-time signal controller may be of a single or multi-program type of controller. The single-
program controller makes use of one set of signal parameters to control traffic flow throughout
the day or during the period when the signal is in operation. On the other hand, the multi-
program type makes use of several sets of parameters. This offers greater flexibility and may
be able to cope with the fluctuating demand within the day. Nowadays, a controller with five
or more programs is not uncommon.
single program multiple programs
Figure 5.6: Programming pre-time signal control
Traffic actuated
For isolated intersections where randomness of arrivals is expected, traffic-actuated signals is

very effective. In case of a priority road, a semi-actuated type of signal control is appropriate.
In this system, detectors are located only on the approaches of the minor road. With this set
up, continuous green time may be given to the major road traffic flow. Right of way is given to
the minor road only when demand is detected. In case of two roads where there is no clear
priority given to any direction, fully actuated type of control is sometimes utilized. In this scheme,
all approaches are provided with detectors.
When the interval of time between vehicles crossing the detector becomes greater than the
last unit extension period, the right of way is transferred to the other directions. When there is
heavy volume of traffic in a particular direction, successive demand for extension period may
happen and this will lead to continuous green indication. Hence, a preset maximum green
period is necessary to limit the length of the green period. It can be expected that when traffic
demand is heavy in all approaches, green period may always reach the maximum green period
resulting to an almost fixed-time operation.
Semi-actuated Fully actuated
Figure 5.7: Types of traffic – actuated signals
b. Coordinated:
Where randomness can no longer be ensured and there is a need for continuous movement over
an arterial, coordination or synchronization of the timing of the signals in series is required. It is also
possible that within an arterial, subgroups consisting of several intersections may be developed.
Each subgroup is treated independently from another subgroups.
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Figure 5.8: Subgrouping of intersections for efficient control
c. Area traffic control

In urban centers, links (road sections) and nodes (intersections) often form a network.
Optimization techniques have been developed to cope with such network. Nowadays,
sophisticated software run by powerful computers are used. Examples of these are the SCATS ,
SCOOT, etc. In such advanced traffic signal control systems, the signal timings are free to
evolve in response to detected traffic volumes and queues.
Figure 5.9: road network in urban centers suited for area traffic control
5.2.3 Data Requirements
In planning for phase pattern, determination of appropriate timing of the signals, several data
are required:
a. Traffic volume – must include all types of vehicles (including nonmotorized- bicycles,
pedicabs, etc.); directional
b. Pedestrian flows – movement of pedestrians in all directions
c. PCU values – passenger car unit equivalent of the different types of vehicles
d. Saturation flow rates – maximum flow rate occurring at the stop line once traffic
initially in queue is given green time indication.
e. Physical characteristics of the road - no. of legs; width of approaches; no. of lanes;
gradient.
Consider the flow of a single queue of vehicles once signal indication turns to green as shown
in the figure. At the start of green, it can be observed that the lead vehicle will take a second
or two to react. It will be after two or three vehicles crossing the stop line when the traffic flow
will be at maximum rate. This brings about what is called starting loss. In the diagram, the
starting loss is estimated as the time from the actual start of green up to the point where the
line representing the maximum rate crosses the horizontal axis. The maximum flow rate
which corresponds to minimum headway is also known as the saturation flow rate. The value
of saturation flow rate depends on several factors – vehicle mix, condition of the pavement,
geometric characteristics of the road (width of the lane, gradient), direction of movement, etc.
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Figure 5.10: Saturation flow determination
5.2.4 Phase/Stage:
Phasing is a process by which right of way is given to movements in a logical manner with the
primary purpose of minimizing the number of conflicts. The number of conflicts at an
intersection depends largely on the geometry of the intersection and turning prohibition. It may
be observed that as the number of legs of the intersection increases, the number of conflicts
increases exponentially.
In planning for the appropriate phase pattern for a particular intersection, the major factors to
be considered are the traffic volume and any turning regulation/prohibition. Oftentimes, it is
the left turn movement which gives the problem at an intersection as it complicates and
increases the number of the required phases. Nevertheless, the basic principle is to minimize
the number of phases commensurate with safety.
Given the geometry of the intersection and a set of traffic volume, there are many possibilities of
developing phase patterns. The role of the traffic engineer is to find out the most appropriate one
to meet the requirements of meeting the traffic demand and providing safety to all road users,
including pedestrians, and cyclists.
3-leg 4-leg
Figure 5.11: Pedestrians and cyclists movements
Examples of Phasing diagrams :
2-Phase System 3-Phase System
Consider Leading Pedestrian Interval (LPI) to avoid conflict between right turning vehicles and
pedestrians
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Pedestrian Consideration
Aside from allowing pedestrians to move simultaneously with the vehicular traffic, the provision of
‘scramble’ phase can offer more level of safety to pedestrians. During this phase, vehicles in all
directions are required to stop to allow pedestrians to cross in all directions, including diagonally.
Figure 5.12: Scramble Phase
5.2.5 Lost Times
In the previous section, it has been said that the number of phases must be minimized
commensurate with safety. The major reason for this is that as the number of phases increases,
the amount of lost time also increases. The lost time is composed of the starting loss and the
all-red period as shown in the figure. It can be observed that for every phase, there is a
corresponding starting loss and all-red period.
The generally accepted value of starting loss is 2 seconds. The amount of all-red period
depends on the size of the intersection. Together with the yellow or amber period , they
compose the clearance interval or intergreen period. With the yellow or amber having a value
of 3 seconds, the all-red period must be long enough for the last vehicle crossing the road to
clear safely.
Intergreen = Yellow + All-Red
Figure 5.13: Lost times and intergreen period
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5.2.6 Cycle
A cycle is one complete indication of green, yellow and red. Its length is constant for a pre-time
or fixed time signals. It varies for traffic-actuated signals depending on traffic demand.
The fundamental relation between intersection delay and cycle length is shown.
Figure 5.14: Cycle and delay relation
Using either a long or short cycle will lead to long delay with very short cycle giving worse
results. The objective of signal timing is to minimize delay. There are other objective functions
– travel speed, fuel consumption, emissions, etc. but they are all related to delay. Improving
delay would lead to better speed, fuel savings and lesser emissions. The cycle corresponding
to least intersection delay is termed as the optimum cycle length. Webster’s formula is widely
used to estimate this cycle length. The equation is given by:
1.5L + 5
C =
opt
1− Y
Where: L – total lost time
Y – sum of critical y-values
5.2.7 Allocation of Green Times

After the cycle length is computed, the total green time must be allocated to the different
movements or phases. This is normally achieved by dividing it in proportion to the y-values. For
a particular phase i, for example, its green time is estimated as follows:
gi = (C − L)
5.2.8 Capacity of Movement or Approach
Given the amount of green time allocated to an approach or movement and its saturation flow
rate, the capacity of such approach or movement can be estimated as follows:
Capacity = s g
c
s – saturation flow rate
g – effective green
c – cycle length
5.2.9 Estimation of delay
The equation for the optimum cycle length was derived by minimizing the delay function
5- 16
obtained by Webster. Webster’s formula for delay consists of three terms. The first term is the
major component of the delay equation. It can be easily obtained by considering the area of
the triangle as shown in the figure. This is based on a D/D/1 queuing where both arrival (q) and
departure (s) patterns are assumed regular. The second term based on Allsop was obtained
by assuming an additional queue interposed between the arriving traffic and the signal. The
last term is a correction factor obtained from simulation.
Figure 5.15: Delay representation per cycle
Delay, D = area of triangle

qc2 (1−λ)2
D=
2 (1−λx)
Average Delay per Vehicle, d
d= = λ=
;
5.2.10 Timing Diagram
After all the signal parameters have been computed, it is better to produce the timing diagram
where all the numerical values are displayed. This is later applied to the signal controller. The
figure below shows a sample timing diagram for a two-phase signal system.
Figure 5.16: Timing diagram
5.2.11 Intersection Degree of Congestion, X
Although the Y-value gives the indication whether to continue with the computation or not, the
degree of congestion, X is often used as the measure of the performance of the intersection. For a
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given approach or movement, the degree of congestion of that approach or movement is the ratio
of the demand over capacity.
CY CY
X= =
g C−L
5.2.12 Pedestrian green time requirement
The following must be considered:
• Signal heads for pedestrians must be installed

• v = 1.1 meter/sec walking speed
• Green time: w/v + 5 to 10 seconds

where w – width of the carriageway, m.
5.2.13 Bicycle requirement
The following must be considered:
• It is advisable to install bicycle signal heads

• a minimum bicycle green time of 12 seconds and a maximum green time of 25 seconds.
• v = 15km/hr cruising speed (4.17 m/sec)
• Clearance interval of: 3 + w/v seconds ; w –calculated from the intersection entry (i.e.,
stop-line or crosswalk in the absence of a stop-line) to halfway across the last lane
carrying through traffic
• 0.80 to 0.997 sec headway
Illustrative example:
Consider the traffic volumes and saturation flow rates for the different movements at a 4-leg
intersection:
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Movement Approach Direction Volume, pcu/hr. Saturation flow rate, pcu/hr

1 North Through+Right 930 1800
2 South Through+Right 700 1800
3 East Through+Right 650 2000

4 West Through+Right 420 2000
Use yellow = 3sec and all – red = 2 sec.;

Starting loss = 2sec.
Phase pattern:
Phase Approach Volume, pcu/hr. SFR, y-value

pcu/hr
1 East 650 2000 0.325
West 420 2000 0.210
2 North 930 1800 0.517

South 700 1800 0.389
Estimation of Cycle Length:

Critical y-values:
Y – value = 0.325 + 0.517 = 0.842
Lost time, L:
L = 2×starting loss +2×all-red = 2×2 +2×2 = 8sec.
The optimum cycle length is:
1.5L + 5 1.5 8 + 5
Cop = = = 107.37
1− Y 1− 0.842
say 110 sec.
Allocation of Green Times

gi = (C − L)
Total usable or effective green, g:
g = C – L = 110 – 8 = 102 sec.
This effective green is allocated as follows:
For Phase 1:
y1 0.325
g1 = g= 102 = 39
Y 0.842
For Phase 2:
y2 0.517
g2 = g= 102 = 62.6
Y 0.842
Or
g2 = g − g1 = 102 − 39 = 63
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Check on pedestrian and cyclist requirements:

Pedestrians:
• w=12meters. (width of carriageway)
• Pedestrian walking speed = 1.1 m/s.
• Time to cross = 10.9 sec + 5 sec approx. 16 sec. OK
Cyclists:
• w=12m + 6m (from stop line) + 1.8m (length of bicycle) = 19.8m.
• Clearance interval = 3 + 19.8/4.17 = 4.57 sec.

• Green time for cyclists >= 12 + 4.57 = 16.57 sec. OK
5-20
6 MODULE 6: CORRIDOR AND SUB-AREA TRAFFIC

MANAGEMENT
6.1 Planning for Corridor Traffic Management
Corridor
A corridor is a broad geographic band connecting population and employment centers and served
by various transportation modes, within which passenger and freight travel, land use, topography,
environment, and other characteristics are evaluated for transportation purposes. (Source: Vermont
Corridor Management Handbook, Vermont agency of Transportation, 2005 )
The length of a corridor ranges from just hundred meters within the city to several kilometers going
beyond LGU boundaries.
Source: JPT
Figure 6.1 Corridor example
Sub-area
To control the traffic network effectively, and reduce complexity of traffic control, it is necessary to
divide the traffic network to some sub-areas which are the units of traffic coordination control. The
urban road network is so huge and complex that different traffic areas may be in different traffic
conditions at the same time.
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Source: JPT
Figure 6.2: Sub-area road network (a)
Source: JPT
Figure 6.3: Sub-area road network (b)
Intersection/Point
Area Segment along the corridor

Source: JPT
Figure 6.4 Segment along the Corridor Example
If the traffic guidance and control of the whole road network are unified, first, the signal data
calculation system will be too slow or even unable to complete the calculation due to the excessive
amount of data. Second, once one part of the control system fails, the whole system will break
down.
Planning for Traffic Management within Corridors
Transportation within corridors plays a key role in mobility but is more than just moving people and
goods. Transportation within corridors is a lifeline for communities, often linking neighborhoods,
businesses, and jobs. The city’s transportation needs can be most effectively addressed at the
corridor level rather than on a piecemeal basis.
Contexts for Corridor TSMO Planning

(Source: Vermont Corridor Management Handbook, Vermont Agency of Transportation, 2005 )
The Vermont Agency of Transportation provides a comprehensive discussion on corridor planning

termed as Transportation System Management and Operations (TSMO). The figure below shows
he context of TSMO.
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Source:Vermont Corridor Management Handbook, VermontAgency of Transportation, 2005
Figure 6.5 Transportation Systems Management and Operations
The contexts for corridor TSMO planning can be understood in the simple terms of:
• Why?
• Who?
• When?
• Where?
The WHY provides the primary motivation for considering TSMO strategies within the corridor.
• critical to mobility and economic activity throughout the corridor
• specific corridor is identified as an area requiring significant improvements or corrections
• result of growing concerns about congestion, safety, air quality, reliability, or other
recurring problems within a corridor
• high-crash locations along a corridor and identify geometric or capacity improvements
The WHO forTSMO planning for corridors establishes responsibility for planning and implementing
TSMO strategies within a corridor
• if the corridor of interest is within a single jurisdiction, responsibility may lie with a single
agency within the jurisdiction, but, even in this case, there are likely to be other agencies
and jurisdictions that are affected by decisions made with respect to the corridor of
interest, thus communication and coordination with these agencies and jurisdictions is
important to the success of the TSMO improvements in the corridor.
• The WHO in TSMO planning for corridors also reflects the capacity and experience of the
responsible agency or agencies
The WHERE of TSMO planning for corridors is critical both to identifying key entities responsible
for planning and implementing TSMO strategies and tactics and to determining who will benefit or
be otherwise affected by TSMO strategies and tactics considered for the corridor.
The WHEN of TSMO corridor planning considers both the point at which TSMO planning takes
place and the timeframe forTSMO strategies and tactics. TSMO corridor planning is most effective
when integrated into the planning process for a new facility or when an existing facility is expanded
or undergoing major renovation.
6-3
6.2 Objectives of corridor traffic management
There are tradeoffs among different goals and objectives. Depending on what we want to achieve,
an objective tree can be developed as shown below:
Figure 6.6 Objective Tree for corridor-based transportation systems management and
operations
When planning for traffic management for a corridor, it is very important to develop our vision, goals,
objectives, and strategies.
6.3 Establishing a Vision and Goals for the Corridor
o The vision is a concise statement that paints a picture of the desired future for the
corridor – from both a land use and a transportation perspective
o The goals support the vision, and lay out desired long-range outcomes to be
achieved by the corridor plan
Corridors serve multiple functions. The vision and goals may acknowledge the need to balance
competing desires. For some small-scale corridor planning efforts, having a statement of vision and
goals will be sufficient to move ahead with defining strategies. For larger efforts, it may be helpful
to develop a set of more specific objectives and quantitative performance measures that back up
the vision and goals.
6.4 Impacts to Consider in Corridor Studies
It must be recognized that there are positive and negative impacts of any traffic management
changes we would want to introduce to the corridor. These are:
a) Mobility and Accessibility

• Travel time and delay for all roadway corridor users;
6-4
• Access to jobs, services, other activities for transportation-disadvantaged; and

• Access for recreation and tourism uses.
b) Safety
• Bicycle and pedestrian safety.
• Motor vehicle safety
c) Economic Development
• Impacts on local property values and business sales;
• Local and citywide business attraction and expansion; and
• Local, citywide, and regional freight mobility.
d) Environment
• Loss of productive agricultural and forest land;
• Loss of important habitats (wetlands, forests, prime wildlife habitat, endangered species
habitat);
• Habitat connectivity and wildlife movement (land and water);
• Stream alteration and water quality; and
e) Quality of Life
• Noise and vibration;
• Air pollution;
• Aesthetic and visual impacts;
• Impacts on recreational areas and open space; and
• Historic and archeological resources.
f) Secondary and Cumulative Impacts

• Transportation-induced growth patterns and related secondary impacts; and
• Cumulative impacts of past, present, and future transportation, land use, and other actions.
6.5 Types of Corridor Management and Improvement Strategies
There are different strategies we can adopt depending on the level of improvements we want
to introduce to the corridor:
a) Minor Roadway and Operational Improvements

• Improved signage and markings;
• Signals and other intersection controls;
• PT stops
• bicycle signals; pedestrian signals;
• Off-road safety improvements (e.g., guardrails, vegetation clearance);
• Drainage systems and maintenance practices to reduce environmental impacts, improve
water quality, etc.;
• On-street parking restrictions;
• Designated truck routes;
• Intelligent transportation systems (ITS) strategies such as traveler information and incident
response; and
• Seasonal and special event controls (e.g., traffic officer).
b) Major Roadway Improvements

• Lane additions at intersections;
• Bicycle lanes
• Pedestrian sidewalk and other facilities
6-5
• PT loading/unloading bays
• Roundabouts;
• Medians and channelization;
• Shoulder widening;
• Horizontal and vertical curve realignment;
• Climbing lanes;
• Passing lanes; and
• New general-purpose lanes.
c) Zoning and Land Use

• Land use and zoning provisions to encourage concentrated development;
• Designation of specific planning areas within town plans with guidelines for development,
resource protection, and access management;
• Designation of scenic view corridor;
• Site plan review requirements for developments along the corridor;
• Subdivision regulations that encourage pedestrian connectivity and internal street connections
to reduce traffic volumes on main roads;
• Provisions to allow for shared parking among adjacent uses;
• Growth management tools, such as development phasing and infrastructure concurrency
requirements;
• Overlay districts to protect critical resources; and
• Performance standards for new developments.
d) Access Management
• Driveway consolidation;
• Turn restrictions and medians;
• Intersection spacing; and
• Local street infrastructure.
e) New Facilities
• New/expanded interchanges;
• Bypasses; and
• Intermodal facilities.
f) Alternative Mode Improvements and Travel Demand Management

• Signs and markings (pedestrian crossings, bicycle lanes);
• Sidewalk improvements;
• Off-road bicycle/pedestrian paths;
• Transit service improvements;
• Travel demand management programs, such as rideshare programs
and employer transit subsidies;
• Rail capacity and service improvements; and
• Intermodal facility and access improvements (passenger, freight).
g) Modal Connectivity Improvements

• Park-and-ride lots;
• Bike racks on buses; and
• Shuttle services.
6.6 Performance measures
The success of traffic management improvements along the corridor may be gauged by adopting
6-6
key indicators or performance measures. The table provides various performance measures
depending on the objective. Illustrative targets corresponding to its performance measure are also
indicated.
Table 6.1 Example of Performance Measures depending on the Given Objective
Considering pedestrian safety along the corridor for instance, goals, objectives, strategies
and performance measures are defined in the figure below.
Figure 6.7 Example of Objective Tree considering Safety along the Corridor
When travel time efficiency along the corridor is desired, the goals, objectives, performance
measures, and strategies are defined. Moreover, it is also important in traffic management planning
to identify data needs and their sources.
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Table 6.2 Example of Data Needs – Reduce Travel Time
Source: Vermont Corridor Management Handbook, Vermont Agency of Transportation, 2005
This table is intended for traffic management planning intended to improve bicycle and pedestrian
accessibility and efficiency within the corridor.
Table 6.3 Example of Data Needs – Improve Bicycle and Pedestrian Accessibility
6.7 Evaluating Transportation Systems Management and Operations Strategies
Numerous methods and tools are currently available to evaluate TSMO strategies as part of corridor
planning
• (1) travel demand models; They are useful for generating traffic origin-destination patterns
or volumes for input into simulation models
• (2) sketch-planning tools; intended to provide quick analysis using generally available
information and data. They are typically spreadsheets or simple databases that are based
on built-in assumptions of impacts and benefits for various strategies. provide a quick
order-of-magnitude estimate with minimal input data
• (3) analytical/deterministic tools; typically implement existing and accepted procedures
6-8
• (4) simulation models, Agencies use simulation tools to analyze operations of both traffic
and transit to conduct needs assessments, alternatives analysis, and environmental
impact studies. A key advantage of these tools is their ability to simulate conditions, such
as incidents, and analyze conditions under multiple scenarios.
At present, traffic simulation is widely used as a tool in evaluating different strategies or

scenarios.
6.8 Use of Road Space
There is always not enough space to accommodate all potential road users along a corridor. The
table shows the current allowed or tolerated use of road space within a typical LGU. Most of these
informal activities are not supposed to be happening on the road.
Table 6.4 Example of Road Space User
Source: Responses from training participants
Table 6.5 Informal Use of Road Space

Informal Use (indicated red in previous table)
mobile vendor carts, ambulant vendors, Kapihan,

ihawan/bbq
illegal terminals, jeepney terminals
illegal parking
barangay outpost, electrical posts, telecom box,
Water meter obstruction
utility installer,
construction (sand, gravel, etc.), Construction

workers barracks, debris, bulok na sasakyan
Burol sa kalye, outdoor mass, , tents, carinderia,
laundry area, car wash

basketball courts, children playing, , Zumba
Source: Responses from training participants
6-9
National Transport Policy, 2017
The National Transport Policy and its implementing rules and regulations clearly stated the giving
of priority to people mobility over vehicle mobility. And that public transport and shared transport
modes will have priority over private modes in the use of roads. Moreover, active transport or
nonmotorized transport such as walking and cycling have to be promoted through development of
open spaces, sidewalks, bike lanes, and other facilities. Public mass transportation in urban areas
shall be given priority over private motor vehicles in the use of road space.
The NTP also establishes the hierarchy of urban public transport services. High-capacity mode for
high demand corridors and low-capacity mode for low demand corridors.
Presently, there are many activities, practices and regulations which need to be discussed in
relation to traffic management. Some of these issues are related to:
• Vendors
• On-street parking
• Truck ban
• PUV/PUJ stops
• Dedicated lanes (PUV, bicycle, MC, truck,…)
• One-way traffic
a) Vendors
The city of Surakarta in Indonesia was able to solve the sensitive issue of illegal street vendors
through an empowerment program. The relocation of street vendors has been done with great
consideration of the local culture and humane methods.
Source: UCLG Committee on Social Inclusion, Participatory Democracy and Human Rights
Figure 6.8: Example of Empowerment Program – Relocation of Street Vendors
b) On-street parking along corridors

If off – street parking cannot be provided, proper on-street parking management along corridors is
necessary specially at commercial areas with high economic and parking activity.
If parking is not well served and properly managed, it can disrupt traffic flow and cause congestion.
The DILG MC #2019 – 121 was issued to recover or reclaim public roads which are being used for
6- 10
private end.
Source: DILG
Figure 6.9: DILG MC #2019 – 121 Recover or Reclaim Public Roads
The LGU of Quezon City has defined what illegal structures or road obstructions are, and therefore,
should be cleared.
Source: Quezon City Website

Figure 6.10: Information Campaign of LGU of Quezon City on Illegal Structures or
Road Obstructions
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c) Truck ban along corridors

Large trucks are often perceived as slow moving and occupy a large amount of road space,
thus hampering the smooth flow of traffic, especially during peak-periods.
Based on a study by Castro, Kuse, and Hyodo, ban-exempt smaller trucks are now used in
place of banned larger trucks in transporting freight from the ports. And the effect of the truck
ban has been to worsen congestion during peak hours due to the increase of small freight
vehicles.
Source: A STUDY ON THE IMPACT AND EFFECTIVENESS OF THE TRUCK BAN SCHEME IN METRO MANILA,
Castro, J, Kuse, H.Hyodo, T.,https://www2.kaiyodai.ac.jp/~hyodo/047.pdf
d) PUV loading/unloading along corridors

For Public utility Vehicles loading/unloading along corridors, some rules of thumb are being followed.
• Stops should be placed at a distance of at least 30 meters from an intersection.
• Stop sections for major stops should be at least 30 meters long.
However, the location of PUV stops have to be carefully studied. Locating stops after the
intersection may cause negative effects on the operation of the intersection such as:
• Blockage of right turn from other direction
• Blockage of path of through from other directions
• Long queue of jeepneys may result to double-stopping to avoid being caught in the
intersection
Jeepney/Bus Stop
After Intersection
Legend:
Jeepney/Bus
Car(Other Vehicles)
Source: Sigua, R., Uncontrolled Loading/Unloading of Public Utility Jeepneys
Figure 6.11.a: Locating stops after the intersection
Similarly, stops located before the intersection may cause the following effects:
• Blockage of through and right turn traffic
• Reduction of approach capacity by one lane almost 100% of the time
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Jeepney/Bus Stop
Before Intersection
Legend:
Jeepney/Bus
Car(OtherVehicles)
Figure 6.11.b: Locating stops before the intersection
Traffic simulation can help assess the pros and cons of these different scenarios.
e) Dedicated lanes along corridor

Following the guidelines of the NTP, sharing of road space gives priority to public transport and
highly considers provision of facilities for active transport, that is, for walking and cycling.
f) One- way conversion of corridor
One-way streets operate best in "pairs," separated by a block to no more than one-quarter mile
(400m.) (https://safety.fhwa.dot.gov/saferjourney1/library/countermeasures/13.htm)
When planning for one – way conversion of a corridor, there is a need to consider impacts on other
streets or on the road network as the problem may just be transferred somewhere. One –way roads
tend to create speeding problems. Redesign or traffic calming measures may be required to
address this.
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7 MODULE 7: TRAFFIC SIMULATION AS A TOOL IN TRAFFIC

MANAGEMENT
7.1 INTRODUCTION
7.1.1 General Approaches to Finding Solutions to Traffic Problems
Transportation planners, and traffic engineers and managers can usually apply any of the following
three general approaches or methods.
Analytical approach – writing mathematical expressions and procedures using such equations to
represent the traffic process and then manipulating them to determine parameters that may be
used arrive at a state or condition that manifests improvement in traffic flow.
Trial and error approach – involves a change in the real-world or actual traffic situation and applying
corrections or adjustments if the initial implementation turns out badly, until the acceptable
improvement in traffic condition is attained. It can also be called the heuristic approach.
Simulation – the imitation of the operation of a real-world process or system over time using a
software or computer application. Scenario analysis is performed after recreating the real-world
traffic network and flows to find the best or appropriate improvement schemes that shows the best
improvement in traffic condition.
There are pros and cons in choosing which approach to use. The analytical approach uses classical
mathematics to derive a solution. Being highly theoretical and based on established physical and
empirical laws, solutions are robust and can be generally applied in many situations, if not all.
Results are highly reproducible, meaning, repeating the same analytical experiment will yield the
same solution. It is also the least costly and least time-consuming. Its weakness is its lack of realism
because results are derived from a theoretical model of the situation that usually over-simplifies the
real-world traffic situation, which is usually complex. Trial and error approach offers the most
realistic assessment of the situation because traffic improvement schemes are implemented on the
ground, in the real-world. Real world experimentation also means very high cost in terms of time
and resources. It scores least in generality of results and reproducibility because the implemented
improvements are usually applied locally, and the solution in a road section or local road network
may not be the same for another. Simulation (analysis using traffic simulation software) offers a
good compromise or trade-off between the other two approaches. It helps the traffic manager arrive
at the best or most appropriate traffic improvement scheme after having tested as close to reality
as possible various candidate scenarios using the computer model, without implementing costly
real-world experimentation.
7.1.2 Levels of Analyses (Analytical Contexts) Related to Traffic Management
There are also different analytical contexts related to traffic management. Planning level may be a
short-, medium-, and/or long-term study to produce local transportation plans such as master plans,
congestion management plans, ITS strategic plans, and others. Design task seeks to produce
preliminary design or analysis to determine the best option for implementation. It includes, for
instance, the analysis of roadway features to operate at the desired level of service. However, it still
excludes the full design projects that require detailed geometric design, pavement design, etc. The
last type is the operations analysis or construction, which is similar with design projects but focused
on determining the best approach for optimizing or evaluating existing transportation or traffic
systems.
7.1.3 Traffic Analysis Tools
There are several tools designed to assist transportation professionals in evaluating the strategies
that best address transportation needs of their jurisdictions. Several tools are usually available for
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various purposes, such as to:

• Improve decision making
• Evaluate and prioritize planning and operational alternatives
• Improve design and evaluate time and costs
• Reduce disruption to traffic
• Present market strategies to stakeholders
• Operate and manage existing roadway capacity, and
• Monitor performance
7.1.4 Categories of Traffic Analysis Tools
Sketch-planning tools are used for project evaluation without in-depth engineering analysis. The
analytical procedures are relatively simple, making use of simplified analysis technique and highly
aggregated data. The outcome is usually good enough for budget preparation and project proposals.
Examples of such tools or programs are HDM4 and Highway Capacity Manual (or HCM) quick
estimate methods.
Now you may be familiar with CUBE, EMME, PTV Visum, and Strada. These are tools or computer
programs categorized as travel demand models. Embedded in such software are mathematical
models that predict future travel demand, origin-destination (or OD) patterns, mode choice, and
route choice. These are useful in town or city or even regional transportation planning. The analysis
leads to the determination of benefit and impacts of major highway or public transport system
improvements.
The third category of tools are Highway Capacity Manual (HCM) based analytical tools. These
are computational templates, spreadsheets, or software that implement procedures of (or similar
with) the US HCM Manual. They are used to evaluate the operation performance or level-of-service
of specific transportation facilities, for example intersections, highway arterials, public transport
terminals, and other facilities or components of the transport network. These tools predict capacity,
density, speed, delay, and queueing. Examples of these tools are SIDRA (used for intersection
design and evaluation), the HCS or Highway Capacity Software (used for capacity and level-of-
service analyses), and the DPWH Planning Manual.
Design & analysis of signalized intersections is always a major consideration in highway traffic
engineering, and there are traffic signal optimization tools to be used for such. These tools are
used to develop optimal signal-phasing and timing plans for isolated signal intersections, arterial
streets, and traffic signal networks. They include capacity calculation, cycle length determination,
split optimization, and coordination of intersections along an arterial or in a network of traffic signals.
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Figure 7.1 Categories of Traffic Analysis Tools
The last category is the traffic simulation tool, and this is further divided into three sub-categories.
These are macroscopic, mesoscopic, and microscopic simulation tools. The similarity is that they
try to imitate or model traffic flowing through roads sections and junctions forming the road network
that is to be studied or analyzed. They differ, however in how traffic flow is conceptualized and
measured.
Macroscopic traffic simulation is based on the theory of traffic stream wherein traffic is described
by the fundamental formula Q = VK. Traffic stream in a road section is characterized by volume,
speed, and density (Q, V, and K, respectively), and these would change from road section to road
section, as traffic flows into the network, depending on factors and controls in the network. Thus,
simulation is done on a section-by-section traffic stream rather than individual vehicles. Because of
this macroscopic representation, they require lesser demand on computational processing
compared to microscopic simulation. Macroscopic models usually do not have the ability to analyze
transportation improvements in as much detail compared to microscopic models. TRANSYT-7F is
an example of a macroscopic traffic simulation program.
Mesoscopic traffic simulation models are sort of a hybrid of Macroscopic and Microscopic
models. The unit of traffic flow is individual vehicle, but their movement follows the approach of
macroscopic models and is governed by average speed on the travel link. Travel simulations take
place in an aggregate level and does not consider dynamic speed-volume relationships. They are
less accurate than microscopic tools, but superior as planning analysis tool. An example of a
mesoscopic traffic simulator is the DYNAMIT series.
Finally, the microscopic traffic model provides the most realistic imitation of traffic flow, and
fundamentally simulates movement of individual vehicles based on theories of car-following, and
lane-changing behavior. Vehicles enter the transportation network at random and their movement
are tracked and updated over a fixed time interval, say every second, or even a fraction of a second.
Upon entry, each vehicle is assigned a destination, a vehicle type, and a driver type. Examples of
microscopic traffic simulators are PTV VISSIM, CUBE DYNASIM, SUMO, and LOCALSIM.
The table below shows a cross-tabulation of the 3 analytical contexts, namely, planning, design,
and operations/construction, with the type of analytical tools or methodologies. As we can see,
traffic microscopic simulation is more appropriate for design and operations analysis. It is therefore
useful in our task of identifying appropriate road facility design and operations that would solve
traffic bottlenecks as part of traffic management.
Table 7.1 Analytical Tools/Methodologies
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(Source, FWHA, 2004)
7.2. TRAFFIC MICROSCOPIC SIMULATION (OR TRAFFIC MICROSIMULATION)
7.2.1 Definition
Microsimulation is the (imitation, or replication,) or modeling of individual vehicle movements on a

second or sub-second basis for the purpose of assessing the traffic performance of highway and
street systems, transit, and pedestrians. A computer software or program is required to do this, and
there are several programs or software available that analysts can use.
7.2.2 Advantages and Guiding Principles
What are the advantages of using microsimulation as a tool in doing traffic studies? First,
real-world traffic problems are usually complex, and microsimulation allows modeling and analysis
of complex transportation system under congested conditions, which may not be possible using
other analytical techniques, where simplification is sometimes done. Secondly,
microsimulation allows “what if” scenarios, thus the analysis of alternatives could provide valuable
information on the performance of several potential improvements. And thirdly,
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by analyzing the proposed strategies using computer simulation first, traffic managers could do
away with costly trial-and-error implementation of traffic management schemes.
The analyst must be guided by some basic principles before embarking on a simulation activity.
The first principle is that the purpose, needs, and scope of work must be clearly identified. Is the
objective of the analysis to find solution to eliminate bottlenecks or is it to enhance safety? Is the
purpose to improve traffic signalization only, or is it to look for other intersection control strategies?
What is the extent of the study area or road network to be investigated? Which road users or vehicle
types must be considered?
The selection of the proper tool (or software) is essential. Make sure that the purpose, needs, and
scope of work are within the capabilities of the software chosen. For example, if the objective is to
find traffic management solutions to enhance pedestrian or bicycle traffic, the chosen software must
include among its features the simulation of pedestrian and bicycle facilities.
There seems to be a notion that the simulation will produce traffic data or will find solutions to traffic
problems on its own automatically by simply running the simulation and producing the traffic flow
animation. Input data is very important in simulation. If input traffic data is not adequate and good,
the result also will not be good nor reliable.
Many traffic simulation software developed in other countries normally considered the local traffic
conditions of the developer, say in the US, India, or elsewhere. This means that the default settings
or parameters used to describe some basic driving behaviors like car-following, lane-changing, and
driver aggression might be different on our local context. It is important to calibrate the simulation
model to local conditions.
The output of the simulation are values of traffic performance measures such as delay, queue length,
or volume-to-capacity ratio, for varying traffic scenarios. The analyst must understand that the
calculated values from a particular software may be different from calculated values using other
analytical techniques, like using the HCM. The analyst should be keen on how the values are
defined and calculated and thus can give proper inference when comparing the results.
7.2.3 Basic Steps or Tasks in Performing Traffic Simulation
Regardless of the software used, the chart below shows the basic steps or tasks in performing a
proper traffic simulation analysis.
The analyst start by defining the simulation problem and the project scope. After which we proceed
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to data collection which is a direct requirement to develop the base model. After successfully
creating the base model using the selected simulation software (for example VISSIM or
LOCALSIM), we need to perform calibration and validation of the base model. These tasks involve
tests that ensure the adequacy of the base model in replicating or matching the real-world traffic
condition. This is done by comparing the output of simulation runs using the base model and
comparing them with observed or actual performance measure data. Model parameters in the base
model are adjusted as part of the calibration and validation process until the validation/calibration
criteria are satisfied. After this process we can declare that we have a calibrated and validated base
model, and only then can we proceed to the most important step which is scenario or alternative
analysis. This basically is an experimentation of different strategies to solve the traffic problem and
comparing the quantifiable outcome after each run. It also necessitates modification of the base
model to reflect the proposed strategy so that a simulation run could be performed as if the
proposed improvement was implemented. After comparing the results, we can draw our conclusion
& recommendation and present the Final Report.
7.2.3.1 Project Scope and Problem Definition
In the first step, we define the purpose of our simulation project, identify the influence area, and
select which software to use. For large scale simulation project, it is wise to estimate required
manpower time and costs for proper project scheduling and programming. Take note that the
number of simulations and the duration of computer simulation runs can be significantly large if the
study area is large or involves several highways and intersections, and if there are many
improvement schemes to evaluate.
Let us take as illustration a small simulation project involving one major intersection along EDSA:
the EDSA-Quezon Avenue intersection. The purpose of this simulation exercise it to improve traffic
flow at the intersection by proposing several traffic signal adjustments to minimize the delays
experienced by road users. The scope of road network to be modeled is the intersection itself with
about 200 to 300m of the intersection legs or the approaches to the intersection. The intersection
is controlled by traffic signal and there are 12 traffic movements from all intersection approaches.
7.2.3.2 Data Collection
Data collection task involves gathering information that are necessary input to create the base
model using the simulation software. Traffic volume is he most fundamental traffic data that is
needed. A base map and supplementary road inventory survey of the study site is necessary to
correctly build the road network geometry of links and intersections for the computer base model.
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Additional traffic data must be collected depending on the identified measure of performance that
will be measured in the simulation runs. For example, if the performance of the alternative schemes
is to be evaluated using travel time or delay as measure of traffic performance, then a travel time
and delay survey must be performed and collected. Such data will be used for calibration and
validation.
To illustrate using our sample simulation project, the following figures show data and information
shown that were gathered in preparation for the base model development. The traffic signal phasing
pattern, the duration of green, red, and yellow times per phase of the traffic signal, and other
pertinent information about the intersection control. We note that traffic signal has a 4-phase pattern,
the observed existing cycle time is 220 seconds. The green times are longer along the approaches
along EDSA at 65 sec, and right turns area always allowed. Additionally, 2-sets of traffic data were
collected: the peak hour traffic volume count, and the peak hour travel times for each of the 12
traffic movements into the intersection.
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7.2.3.3 Base Model Development
With all pertinent traffic data and information on the study site gathered, we are now ready to
proceed to Base Model Development. For clarity, let us define what we mean by “model” in the
context of traffic simulation. A particular traffic “model” is described as a specific combination of
modeling software and analyst-developed input and parameters for a specific application. A single
“model” may be applied to the same study area for several time periods, and several existing and
future improvement alternatives. Base model development task is re-creating, or rendering the local
network of roads, vehicles, traffic demand, driver behaviors, mode choice and route choice in the
form of a computer model using a selected simulation software. The person that performs this task
must make sure that he or she implements quality assurance protocols by checking and re-
checking possible errors. This can be done by reviewing the parameter inputs, and the video of
traffic flow animation of several trial simulation runs. The developer could check errors by asking
questions like: Do the vehicles in the simulation seem to travel too fast, or too slow? Are there
unusual or erratic vehicle movements? Do vehicles stop or slow down at locations where they are
expected to? Does computer animation resemble local driving behaviors such as propensity for
lane changing or non-lane-based driving? Does the simulated traffic signal operate in the same
ways as in the real-world condition? or, Is the vehicle mix in the computer simulation the same as
the existing vehicle mix?
Below is a screenshot of the base model created for our sample simulation project. It shows the
computer imitation of a simple road network of the EDSA-Quezon Avenue intersection operating at
peak-hour traffic volume. It also resembles the current traffic signal phasing and timing design. The
LOCALSIM software was used in creating this base model.
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(Presented with animation in the lecture slide deck.)
7.2.3.4 Calibration and Validation
Calibration and Validation are necessary steps to make sure that the base model developed is
adequate for scenario analysis. These tasks are similar in that they seek to check if the simulation
output satisfactorily resembles the existing traffic network, flows, and general driving behaviors. But
there is a difference as we shall see in the definitions shown.
Calibration can be defined as the process where the analyst selects the model parameters that
cause the model to best reproduce field-measured local traffic operations conditions. Validation
can be defined as the process where the analyst checks the overall model-predicted traffic
performance for a street/road system against field measurements of traffic performance, such as
traffic volumes, travel times, average speeds, and average delays. Model validation is performed
based on field data not used in the calibration process. Validation is directly related to the calibration
process because adjustments in calibration are necessary to improve the model’s ability to replicate
field-measured traffic conditions.
Thus, during calibration and validation the analyst tries to adjust or tweak model parameters, as
needed, to replicate more accurately the real-world conditions. Examples of these parameters may
be values that affect car-following and lane-changing performance such as driver politeness factors,
or values related to average traffic flow characteristics such as maximum, minimum, and average
acceleration and speeds, or other parameters that may significantly affect traffic flow operation.
These set of parameters may vary, depending on the specific simulation software selected.
Especially for validation, the analyst needs to compare the simulated measures of performance (or
measures of effectiveness) with observed field data. Do simulated and observed volumes and
speeds match? Are congestion points or bottlenecks in the right places?
The ability of the base model to replicate field-measured traffic conditions can be measured using
goodness-of-fit indices. Thus, in calibration and validation, the analyst would also ask the question:
“Is the calculated value for the goodness-of-fit index within allowable range?”
For illustration, the validation process performed for our sample simulation project is discussed
below. The traffic data selected as measure of performance is the travel time. Travel time survey
was conducted with six trial runs in the field resulting in the tabulated average values of travel times
for all 12 movements entering the intersection. The numbers in the last column are the observed
values. The goodness-of fit index used is the Thiel’s Indicator (or capital U), and the formula to
compute this index is shown. We need the simulated travel time values (or x) and observed travel
time values (or y) to calculate the value of U. In the formula also, N is the total number of ordered
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pairs. If U is equal to or less than 0.2, we say that we have an acceptable (or satisfactorily accurate)
replication
In the table shown, the second column shows the simulated travel times for each of the 12
movements. These are the travel time values calculated by the software during computer simulation
runs. The third column on the other hand shows the observed travel times determined from the field
survey. The rest of the table are just additional columns to facilitate the computation of the Thiel’s
indicator, U, according to the equation for U. It turns out that the calculated U is 0.1788 which is
less than or equal to 0.20. Therefore, we say that the replication is acceptable. This mean that we
can now consider our base model validated, and we can further use the base model for scenario
analysis.
To visualize the accuracy level of the match, the graph on the right side of the figure above can be
drawn, and it is a plot of the simulated travel time values on the x-axis versus the observed travel
time values on the y-axis. A perfect match would show all data points perfectly aligned along the
diagonal line. In the case of our simulation analysis, we see that majority of the points are quite
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near the diagonal except for 2 data points.
Now that the base model had been satisfactorily calibrated and validated, the analyst can now
proceed to the next major task.
7.2.3.5 Scenario or Alternatives Analysis
Scenario analysis or alternatives analysis seeks to investigate “what if” situations and to see the
resulting effect on traffic flow conditions given these situations. In other words, it is virtual
experimentation of possible traffic improvement schemes. The alternative scenarios typically
consider (1) varying levels of traffic volume, such as the situation in the future when traffic volumes
are forecasted to increase, and/or (2) proposed improvement schemes. To perform scenario
analysis the base model is reconfigured to incorporate the scenario to be tested. Simulation of the
base case and the alternatives are performed, and the resulting values of selected measures of
effectiveness (MOE) or measures of performance are compared to see if there is significant
improvement between the base case and any of the alternative scenarios.
Below is a discussion that illustrates scenario analysis for our sample simulation project. The goal
is to experiment and test by computer simulation, which alternative solution will best alleviate traffic
congestion. The figure below shows the base case or the “do nothing” case. Here, traffic is
managed using a traffic signal, where we see that the “GO” indication is rotated following a specific
sequence: first for vehicles coming from the south, then east, then north, then west, and then the
cycle repeats. The total duration for this sequence is 4 minutes. We call this the cycle time. Vehicles
stopped by a red light must wait, and can form long queues, and this becomes the cause of
undesirable delay and congestion. In this base case, the level of delay is found to be undesirable.
The analyst wants to improve flow by trying to reduce average vehicle delay. A possible solution to
improve the flow (Scheme 1) is to change the sequence of allocating the “GO” indication. Since
there are many left turners from EDSA, an exclusive “GO” signal for the left turners is included.
However, for this scheme, the animation manifested no significant change in the flow; long lines of
waiting vehicles were still observed.
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Another alternative is to modify the cycle time (Scheme 2). Cycle time that is either very long or
very short can cause additional delay. Here, the cycle time is reduced from the original 4 minutes
to only 3 minutes while keeping the original sequence. Now a slight improvement was observed
through the animation; there are shorter queues waiting for “GO”, and lesser waiting times.
7.2.3.6 Final Report
After performing scenario analysis, the analyst can now report the conclusion and recommendation
as part of the Final Report. The final report includes technical documentation of all tasks performed
in the simulation project. The tasks in our flowchart can serve as our rough outline for the Final
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Report. Of course, the Final report should show summary result tables, and whenever possible, it
is advisable to use video clips of the traffic animation of the simulation in the presentation of the
final report.
Going back to our sample simulation project, the analyst observed improvements in the decreased
cycle time scenario (Scheme 2) when the animation of traffic was viewed. To objectively concretize
this conclusion, a result table showing a comparison of the simulated average travel time, and
average delay is presented as part of the Final Report. For this simple simulation project, the
analyst therefore recommend reducing the cycle time because it resulted in significant travel time
and delay reduction compared to the base or “do nothing” case.
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7.3 Traffic Simulation as a Tool in Traffic Management
(REVIEW) TASKS IN A TRAFFIC SIMULATION PROJECT
Below is a quick review of the traffic simulation tasks or steps learned in Part 1.
Figure 7.1 Traffic Simulation Process (Tasks)
The process starts with definition of the problem, scope, and objective. Then we collect traffic data
and all needed information about study area or road network. With the set of pertinent information
gathered, we then develop or build the base model using our selected traffic simulation software.
An iterative Calibration and Validation step follows, to make sure that the output of simulation runs
or executions of our base model adequately replicates or matches the actual situation on the field.
After successfully validating our base model, we proceed to the main evaluation task which is the
scenario analysis, hoping to find the best or optimum traffic management solution to solve the traffic
problem. The simulation project culminates with documentation of result and recommendation in
the final report.
7.3.1. BASE MODEL DEVELOPMENT
Let us take a closer look at base model development. This is the step where we build or create our
virtual road network and input all necessary information and parameters to establish or base case
or base scenario. It is assumed, of course, that we have already selected the traffic microsimulation
software that we will use in building the model.
7.3.1.1 Basic Components of a Traffic Simulation Model
What exactly is a base traffic model? It is always easier to build something if we know the
components. Regardless of the software used, we will need information and data on these basic
components to build the base model. Road sections are referred to as links, while intersections
orjunctions are referred to as nodes. The real-world road network is rendered in the computer as
a network of links and nodes. When configuring a link or road section using the simulation software,
attributes of the road section are needed, such as the number of lanes, the lane widths, and
curvature; for software that could render in 3-dimensions, vertical gradients may be needed as well.
Likewise, in configuring nodes or intersections, the intersection geometry is needed. Information on
the allowable movements into the intersection is also needed so that intersection conflicts could be
defined.
For vehicles and traffic demand, traffic volume or count, and vehicle type mix or composition is
needed. For traffic volume, peak-hour counts are usually used, but it is also possible to use non-
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peak hour counts or shorter duration counts such as 15-min counts, depending on the purpose of
the analysis and the capability of the software selected. The vehicle dimensions and attributes (like
maximum and minimum acceleration) may be needed if the software allows customization of
vehicle types.
Another basic component is related to user or driver behavior, specifically, those behaviors that
could be technically quantified as parameters because they can affect traffic flow. Some behavioral
parameters that may be needed are speed distribution, politeness or aggression factors that define
lane-changing and car-following behavior, gap acceptance which is necessary at unsignalized
intersections, and others. These parameters are usually the ones tweaked or adjusted in the
calibration and validation step to make simulated traffic flow and vehicle movements close to reality.
Without detailed information on these behavioral parameters, the analyst would normally resort to
using the default values embedded by software developers.
The next basic component is information on traffic controls. For intersections, controls could be
yield- or stop-controls, traffic signal, or roundabout. There may be other controls in place like turn
restriction or entry restrictions. For traffic controls in basic road sections, there could be one-way
streets, entry regulation, exclusive lanes, U-turn, road or lane closures, transit stops, parking
controls, and others. All these supplementary information are needed to create the computer replica
or model of the global and local traffic flows observed in the actual road network. When we say
global, we refer to the entire road network, whereas when we say local, we pertain to specific road
sections and intersections.
The last in our list of basic components is the specification of measures of effectiveness to be
used for performance evaluation. This component is not a tangible part of the traffic model, but it
affects how the analyst shall configure the software to be able to provide the required statistical
output of simulation runs. These output statistics are essential for calibration and validation (where
we compare simulation output and field-observed traffic data) and also would be very important
much later when performing scenario analysis as away of evaluating the performance of candidate
traffic improvement alternatives. Later in the lecture, we shall see the typical measures of
effectiveness (MOEs) used in simulation studies. (Measures of effectiveness or MOEs are also
called measures of performance or performance measures. These phrases can be used
interchangeably in this lecture.)
7.3.1.2 Selection of Software for the Simulation Project
All the information, data, and parameter values from each basic component, put together, defines
the traffic simulation model for a particular study site; and all this information will eventually be used
in creating the base model using the selected traffic simulation software.
There are a number of commercially available traffic microsimulation software packages that could
be selected and some are even open-source. The analyst needs to make sure that the purpose,
needs, and scope of work, and even the size of the road network to be modeled can be handled by
the features provided by the selected software. It will also be an advantage to choose a software
that can explicitly replicate the local driving behavior in the study area, because it helps simplify
and minimize the calibration task.
The simulation shown here is a sample base model for the EDSA-Quezon avenue intersection
operating during peak-hour and controlled by a traffic signal. This was sample simulation project
described in Part 1.
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Figure 7.2 Select Tool to use to create base model
This model is created using LOCALSIM, a locally developed traffic microsimulation model funded
by the DOST. This is the default software for the illustrations and examples in this course.
LOCALSIM explicitly models Filipino driving behavior, and provides animation display of the
simulated traffic flow. Other features of LOCALSIM are:
• Conflict area management – to simulate conflicting traffic streams, especially at
intersections
• Traffic control systems – which facilitate the modeling of basic traffic flow regulations like
transit stops, exclusive lanes, intersection control, speed control zone, etc.
• Customizable Traffic demand – which allows flexibility in setting simulation time intervals
(for example 15-minute periods, or hourly, or several hours), and allows variation of traffic
volume input per interval
• Traffic routing options – which allows either static routing or the more flexible dynamic
routing which is may be helpful in situations where drivers are expected to make detours to
reach their destinations, and finally
• Capability to calculate and report several measures of performance or measures for
evaluation of scenarios.
7.3.1.3 Performance Measures or Measures of Effectiveness (MOE)
Typical evaluation parameters and measures of effectiveness can be produced as output by any
traffic simulation software. The list includes basic measures for evaluation of overall or global
network performance, namely: vehicle kilometers travelled, vehicle hours travelled, mean or
average system speed, and overall system delay. Once the simulation run is completed, these
values will be calculated by the software for all vehicles that travelled along the entire road network
during the simulation period (e.g. 1 hour) and shall be reported at the end of the run.
Other usual measures of performance as shown on the list below can be calculated and reported
for specific road sections and intersections for local-level or link specific performance evaluation.
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Figure 7.3: Common evaluation parameters or Measures of Effectiveness (MOEs)
In traffic flow analysis, measures of performance may vary depending on the transport facility being
evaluated. To illustrate, in the analysis of intersections the usual measures are shown in the table
below. For unsignalized intersections, we can evaluate the traffic performance by measuring the
reserved capacity or queue length; and for signalized intersections, it is common to use delay,
degree of congestion, or queue length.
Given this illustration, the modeler-analyst needs to check the available features of the selected
software, particularly, what measures of performance are being calculated and reported, so that
proper analysis and evaluation could be performed.
7.3.1.4 Performance Measures in LOCALSIM
The default software for the discussions in this course is LOCALSIM. After each simulation run of
a traffic scenario in LOCALSIM the following information can be reported: (1) global summary
showing overall simulation duration, average speed, and travel time,
Link-specific travel time and travel speed (2) road section LOS or level-of-service using volume-to-
capacity ratio, (3) summary of traffic signal cycles and timing for all signals in the network
Also, using the “survey zone” feature of LOCALSIM, the analyst can further customize the output
to include calculated speed, volume, density, cumulative vehicle count, and stop light delay at
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desired locations anywhere in the road network. This is very useful if the analyst wants to know the
traffic condition at specific points of interest.
The set of available measures of performance that are reported can vary from software to software.
So, it is important for the modeler to know and study the documentation and features of the
candidate or selected simulation software to be used.
7.2. CALIBRATION AND VALIDATION
Calibration is the process where the analyst selects the model parameters that cause the model to
best reproduce field-measured local traffic conditions. Validation is the process where the analyst
checks the overall model-predicted traffic performance for a road system against field
measurements of traffic performance, such as traffic volumes, travel times, average speeds, and
average delays. Model validation is performed based on field data not used in the calibration
process.
Recall that the calibration and validation tasks follow right after base model development. If a
modeler had successfully created a base model, such as the one shown, simulation using the base
model might seem to be working well, but we are not yet sure if the simulation result really replicates
the real-world base case road traffic conditions, or if the calculated performance measures such as
delay, speed, or queue lengths would match the observed or actual field-collected data. In other
words, the base model shown is not going to be ready for alternatives analysis unless calibration
and validation had been performed.
Figure 7.4 Base Model for EDSA – QAve Intersection
So, the calibration/validation task boils down to the comparison of simulation output with observed
field data. After running some pilot runs of the base model, we ask questions like: “do simulated
volumes, speeds or travel times match the field-observed values? We can do a visual validation
using the animation and ask: “are congestion points or bottlenecks in the right places? Lastly we
can ask, “are calculated values of goodness-of-fit indices within the allowable target range?
There are several ways to perform these calibration and validation tests.
7.3.2.1 Scatter Plot
One of the simplest methods, aside from visually checking the animation output, is the use of a
scatter plot. The simulated and observed values of some performance measure are tabulated and
a scatter plot is produced to visualize the match.
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As shown below, the table on the right shows the simulated and observed average travel times in
seconds for all the 12 movements entering the intersection during the peak hour in the base model
created. “Simulated value” means the value calculated and reported by the computer software after
the simulation run of the peak hour; and “observed value” means measurement observed on the
field obtained from a field traffic survey during the traffic hour under investigation (usual, peak
hours).
Figure 7.5 Calibration and Validation Process
The graph in the middle shows the scatter plot, where the table values are plotted in an x-y
rectangular graph with simulated values on x-axis and observed values on the y-axis. For visual
validation, we check if the points are close to the diagonal line or the diagonal line of perfect
calibration. If all points lie on the diagonal line, it means that all simulated values perfectly matched
the observed values. However, allowing for some errors, we want our points to be at least very
close to the diagonal line. In the graph shown, we see that the points are quite close enough to the
diagonal line, but we also see a couple of data point quite far. This means that for those 2
movements, the simulated travel times are quite far off from the field-observed travel times.
One advantage of the scatter plot is that it helps to immediately spot problematic data points.
The scatter plot provides a simple test but can be subjective because visual validation can be
subjective. Thus, it would be better to supplement this test using some quantitative goodness-of-fit
index to ascertain if the degree of match is satisfactory.
7.3.2.2 Percent Error (PE)
The percent error or PE is a very common and simple index to quantify the degree of discrepancy.
In the formula shown, we simply get the difference between simulated and observed values, then
divide the difference by the observed value and express the quotient in percent.
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PE(Percent Error)
-
= %
Wisconsin
DOT freeway
model calibration
criteria
Copyright Reserved (UP-NCTSFI 2021)
17
Figure 7.5 Percent Error
Values calculated by goodness offit indices are compared with established calibration range targets
or criteria. The table shown on the right part of the figure above is an example of the prescribed
calibration criteria for freeways in the US.
In the table we see a couple of instances where the percent error is used as a criterion to determine
calibration acceptance. Referring to the 3rd line of the table, to test calibration acceptance for
individual link flows, we see that the percent error of simulated versus observed hourly traffic
volume should be within 15%. At the bottom of the table, we can see the calibration target for travel
times: the simulated versus observed travel time should be within 15% error for calibration
acceptance.
Looking at the rightmost column of the table, we additionally see that there is calibration acceptance
of the base model if more than 85% of the cases register percent errors within 15%. For example,
if there are 100 road sections in the study area, the percent error should be within 15% for at least
85 of those road sections.
7.3.2.3 GEH Index
The GEH index orGEH statistic is used only for checking simulated versus observed traffic volumes.
Thus, it is not to be used for other performance measures like speed, travel time, delay, and others.
The GEH value is calculated using the formula shown on the figure below and is easy to calculate;
with m representing simulated values, and c representing observed values. For calibration criteria,
the model is accepted and deemed validated if the calculated GEH for the link and intersection
traffic volumes is less than or equal to 5 for at least 75% of the measurements.
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Source: Traffic Simulation Case for Guidelines by Joint Centre of European Commission, 2014, p.95
Figure 7.6 Example Calculated GEH of link and Intersection Traffic Volume
For an example of validation test of traffic volumes in a simulation model using GEH, imagine a
base simulation model of a small road network with a total of 8 entry and exit road sections. In the
table shown below, the field-observed volumes can be seen on the 6th column. Three simulation
trial runs using the base model are performed using the observed volumes as input values. The
output volumes after the simulation runs were recorded and shown in the 2nd , 3rd and 4th columns.
The 5th column shows the average volumes for the 3 trials and are taken as the simulated values
for the GEH calculation. Applying the formula for GEH and recalling that m stands for simulated
value and c stands for observed value, we can calculate the GEH for each of the road sections.
These values are in the 7th column of the table. Recall that the calibration criteria states that the
model is accepted and deemed validated if the calculated GEH of the link and intersection traffic
volume is less than or equal to 5 for at least 75% of the measurements.
Applying this criteria and looking at the last column, we see that some road sections passed and
some failed, and only 3 out of 8 (or only 37.5%) of the measurements passed. Thus, the overall
assessment is that the calibration failed, or was NOT GOOD.
Figure 7.7 Example Validation of Traffic Volumes using GEH
7.3.2.4 Theil’s Indicator, U
Another index that we can use is the Theil’s indicator or U, and it is calculated using the formula
shown. In the given equation x stands for simulated values, and y stands for observed values. The
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Theil’s indicator, unlike the GEH which is used only in testing traffic volumes, can be used to check
values of other performance measures like speed, travel time, delay, and other.
For calibration target, the model is accepted if the calculated Theil’s indicator for all movements is
less than or equal to 0.2
Figure 7.8 Calibration Target using Theil’s Indicator
For a quick example refer to the figure below. A table similar with the earlier example shows
simulated and observed traffic volume for a base model network having 8 road links. The 2nd column
shows the xor simulated traffic volumes and the 3rd column shows they or observed traffic volumes.
The rest of the table are just additional columns to facilitate the computation of the Thiel’s indicator,
U. The calculated U is 0.3588 which is greater than 0.2 and does not satisfy the criterion for passing,
and thus, the base model calibration fails.
The Theil’s indicator is a global index; and it means that it tests the performance of the entire system.
Observe that in the example, only one value for U was calculated for the entire base model.
Figure 7.9 Example Validation of Travel Time using Theil’s Indicator
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7.3.2.5 Standard Statistical t-test
Other than the earlier indices discussed, the analyst could also use the standard statistical t-test of
difference between means, which requires the calculation of the t-statistic. This slide is just
presented here for completeness of information on other options we can use to test if simulated
values match the observed values. You are encouraged to refer to statistical books and resources
to review or learn how this standard statistical test is performed.
Figure 7.10 T-Statistic Formula
The goodness-of-fit indices presented and corresponding criteria are used for calibration and
validation. Take note that calibration and validation can be performed at the global level, meaning
for the entire system or whole network, and /or at the local level of for specific links or intersection
only, recall that the Thiel’s indicator is a global indicator while the GEH can be used as both global
and local index.
7.3.3 SCENARIO OR ALTERNATIVES ANALYSIS
Scenario or alternatives analysis is the process wherein we perform virtual experiments using
computer simulation to see and evaluate the performance of candidate traffic management
improvement schemes. The number of scenarios can vary depending on the type and purpose of
project projects. The following are some examples of scenarios analyzed for two illustrative case
studies.
7.3.3.1 Illustrative Case Study 1
The first example is a simulation project of the Macarthur Highway/Roxas Ave/1st Street junction in
Clark City. The two junctions situated near each other form a bottleneck and poses perennial traffic
congestion problem in the area. The aim of the simulation project is to recommend geometric
improvement for the small road network to reduce conflicts and eliminate bottlenecks.
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Figure 7.11 Sample 1 Case Study
There are 3 intersection design scenarios prepared for simulation: Case 1 is the “do nothing” or the
base case, Case 2 is geometric transformation into a (circular) roundabout, and Case 3 is a second
geometric option to modify the network into a use a “square” roundabout. Three models for each
case were created and the simulations were performed using VISSIM.
Figure 7.12 Intersection Design Scenarios
Below is the result of scenario analysis. Observe that there were several measures of performance
chosen, six in all, based on the reportable measures in VISSIM. The performance measures used
were, namely: average delay time per vehicle, average number of stops per vehicle, average speed,
average stopped delay per vehicle, total delay, and total travel time.
Based on the tabulated results, the square roundabout showed the best performance values across
all measurements, i.e., this improvement scheme showed the least delay and least number of stops
and highest speed.
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Figure 7.13 Scenario Analysis Results
It was not described how many runs were performed for each alternative, but for a proper scenario
analysis, several runs must be made so that we can report as output the average value of
performance measures for each run. We also observe that the confidence interval was not included,
but it is advisable to do so. (The topicon number of repetitions and confidence intervals is discussed
in the last part of this lecture.)
7.3.3.2 Illustrative Case Study 2
The second case study is a traffic simulation project for a small road network in Zamboanga City
consisting of three adjacent intersections along a main highway near the old airport and a big
shopping mall at the city center. For reference, please take a look at the intersection numbering.
Intersection 1 is on the leftmost and it is controlled by a traffic signal, followed by intersection 3,
and then intersection 2 going eastward; these 2 intersections are unsignalized. The objective of the
simulation project is to recommend possible improvement schemes to reduce the congestion levels
in that local road network.
The simulation software used was LOCALSIM and in these slides, each scenario is compared with
the base case on the left. There were three candidate improvement scenarios tested, thus a total
of four scenarios, including the base case or “do nothing” case had to be created using the software.
Figure 7.14 Sample Case Study 2
The first scenario is atraffic control strategy, and that is to implement no left turns at all intersections.
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(The scenario figures presented below have corresponding animation videos in the lecture slide
deck.)
Figure 7.14 Sample Case 2 - Scenarios
For the entire simulation project, the performance measure used was only average travel time.
Below is the summary of results for the NO LEFT TURN scheme.
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Figure 7.15 Summary of results for the No Left Turn Scheme
The second improvement scenario is a geometric improvement to widen the east-west arterial
spanning the three intersections from 4 to 6 lanes.
Figure 7.16 Sample Case Study 2 – Second Improvement Scenario
Below is the result of analysis for ROAD WIDENNG.
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Figure 7.17 Summary of results for the Road Widening
The third and last scenario requires modifications in the road network to provide a roundabout
movement at the intersections.
For Intersections 1 and 3, the roundabout is not a conventional roundabout, but the improvement
scheme calls for the construction of a road section, to enable a counter-clockwise one-way
roundabout movement that combines the two adjacent intersections. The screenshot on the right
is a hypothetical road network that included the new road section on the north/top side that needs
to be constructed for this improvement scenario.
Figure 7.18 Sample Case Study 2 – Modification in the Road Network Scenario
The rightmost intersection, Intersection 2, is designed as a typical roundabout.
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Figure 7.19 Sample Case Study 2 – Modification in the Road Network Scenario – Typical
Roundabout
Below is the result of analysis for the roundabout scenarios.
Figure 7.20 Summary of results for the Rounabout
Some additional pointers we learn from this example:

1. Sometimes we do not need several performance measures, just a single appropriate
performance measure may be sufficient; of course, this also depends on the objective of
the analysis and the type of road facilities involved
2. Aside from building the base model, we observe that there is a need to build additional
models for each scenario, especially when the improvement schemes call for geometric
improvements or modifications in the road network.
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7.3.4 INITIALIZATION, STATISTICAL REPORTING OF SIMULATION OUTPUT, AND

NUMBER OF REPETITIONS
7.3.4.1 Exclusion of Initialization Period
When running a simulation, you may notice with the help of animation, that the virtual road network
is empty at the start of simulation, and it takes some time to populate the network with running
vehicles.
The graph below clearly shows that there is a start-up time or warm-up period before the inputted
traffic flow is achieved in the simulation. Since there are less than the expected number of vehicles
flowing during the start-up period, the calculated network performance measures could be affected,
and thus affect the accuracy of results. Note that most performance measures are also directly
related to the volume of vehicles inside the road network.
The modeler-analyst must be aware of this initialization period, and if the simulation software used
does not already include a feature that deals with this, then adjustments must be made to exclude
the initialization period. Some rules of thumb to help address this are as follows:
• Allow a warm-up period of 15 to 20 minutes.

• Alternatively, you can choose a warmup period that is equal to at least twice the estimated
travel time at free-flow conditions to traverse the length of the network. For example, if a
freeway being modeled is 8.1 km (5 mi) long, it takes roughly 5 min to traverse its length at
the free-flow speed, so the warmup period is set at 10 min.
• Simulation period in the model runs should incorporate this warm-up period. To implement
a 15 to 20 min warm-up period for example, you can set the simulation period of 75 to 80
mins to simulate a peak 1-hour period; but performance measures shall be collated only
during the final 60 min.
7.3.4.2 Experimentation and Output Analysis
The scenario analysis performed in a simulation project is basically a series of experimentations,

and each experiment is expected to generate numerical output. These numerical values are
calculated sums, averages, and/or variances of the performance measures; for example, average
speed, total delay, variance of speeds, total vehicle-kilometer, etc. therefore
We also must understand that traffic flows are stochastic or has a random nature, thus simulation
of traffic produces performance measures that contain random variation. This simply means that
every time we run a simulation, even with the same model input, a different result is reported,
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because of the random nature. Each replication or simulation run results in a different value.
Therefore the output values of performance measures reported in final reports or results table must
be the averages of values from several trial runs or replications.
This highlights the importance of proper analysis of output In order to report sound statistical
inferences or conclusions.
7.3.4.3 Statistical Confidence for Reporting Simulation Output
Since random variation is inherent in simulation, the analyst cannot be certain that the performance
measure reported is going to be exactly equal to a particular numerical value. To properly report
the results, we must apply the concept of statistical confidence and confidence intervals.
Confidence interval is the numerical range that has a probability of including the true value of the
performance measure. In statistical jargon, this probability is expressed as 1 – “alpha”. Thus, we
say that (1 – alpha)% is the level of confidence for the interval.
For example say that the level of confidence is 95%, then (1 – alpha)% is 95% or 0.95.
Correspondingly, since (1 – alpha)% is 0.95, therefore alpha is equal to 0.05. Also “alpha”/2
equals .025, and (1 – alpha/2) equals 0.975. These number may be confusing but they will be useful
references when reading statistical tables as we shall see in an example later on.
The figure below illustrates confidence interval and level of confidence or probability of including
the true value within the interval. The curve is the probability curve and the total area under the
curve is equal to 1. In the illustration, the interval with x-bar (or average value) at the center is the
confidence interval with 95% level of confidence because the area bounded by the ends of that
interval and the probability curve equals 0.95 or 95%.
To determine the upper and lower bound of the interval, we use the equation shown at the bottom
of the figure. (Where x-bar is average value of X which is at the midpoint of the interval, t is the t-
statistic with subscript “alpha/2”,s is standard deviation, n is the number of X values to be averaged,
and “alpha/2” is a subscript that refers to the confidence. This may be confusing for now, but shall
be explained through an example later.
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In reporting the average of a performance measure, we must properly report it with a statistical
confidence interval and level of confidence. For example, we should not simply say: “the average
time in queue is 6.74 sec”. We should say: “the average time in queue is 6.74 sec plus/minus 4.44
sec, with 95% confidence level” or “the average time in queue is between 62.96 and 71.84 sec,
with 95% confidence”. In the last statement, the confidence interval is 62.96 to 71.84, and the
confidence level is 95%.
So how do we determine the confidence interval? If X is some performance measure (say, time
delay) the confidence interval is defined by a lower bound value and an upper bound value, with
the average value of X (or X-bar) at midpoint of the interval. The interval’s lower bound value is (X-
bar – h) , while the interval’s the upper bound value is (X-bar + h). We know the value of X-bar,
which is the average value, but what is h, or the “half-width”?
The formula for his shown on the boxed slide below. If we ignore the subscriptsoft for the meantime,
we shall realize that it is a simple formula. The half-width h is simply equal to t times s divided by
square root of n. In the equation, s stands for standard deviation and n is number of replications or
simulation runs. The variable t with the subscript is the t-statistic which can be determined from
standard statistical tables.
An example in determining the confidence interval for a given confidence level to report the value
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of a simulation output is given below.
Example: Confidence Interval

, . = 2.78 (for 95% level of confidence)
Replicatio Average time
n number, in queue, Xi 3.57
i ℎ = (2.78)
5
1 63.2
ℎ = 4.44 ( for 95% level of confidence)
2 69.7
3 67.3 Thus, the confidence intervals for mean
4 64.8 average time in queue is:
5 72.0 [62.96, 71.84] (for 95% level of confidence)
= 5 = 67.4 “the average time in queue is
= 3.57 6.74 sec plus/minus 4.44 sec,
62.96 71.84 with 95% confidence level”
OR “the average time in queue
( + ℎ , −ℎ)
67.4 is between 62.96 and 71.84
ℎ = sec, with 95% confidence”
,
A particular traffic improvement scenario for a given road network is simulated, and 5 replications
or runs were performed. The performance measure used for evaluation is average time in queue,
and let’s call it X. There were 5 trials, so n = 5, and the table shows the resulting average time in
queue for each of the 5 runs or replications.
The X-bar (or average of X) is 67.4. (We just take the average of the 5 values in the second column.)
We also calculate the standard deviation s of the values in the second column and it is equal to
3.57. To determine the confidence interval, we calculate h using the formula shown (it is equal to t
time s divided by square root of n.
Example: Confidence Interval

, . = 2.78 (for 95% level of confidence)
Replicatio Average time
n number, in queue, Xi 3.57
i ℎ = (2.78)
5
1 63.2
2 69.7 ℎ = 4.44 ( for 95% level of confidence)
3 67.3 Thus, the confidence intervals for mean

4 64.8 average time in queue is:
5 72.0 [62.96, 71.84] (for 95% level of confidence)
= 5 = 67.4 “the average time in queue is
= 3.57 6.74 sec plus/minus 4.44 sec,
62.96 71.84 with 95% confidence level”
OR “the average time in queue
( + ℎ , −ℎ)
67.4 is between 62.96 and 71.84
ℎ = sec, with 95% confidence”
,
We know s and n already, but how do we get t? The subscripts will help us determine the value of
t using a statistical table. The subscripts oft are (n – 1) and (1 – alpha/2), which have the values 4
(called “degrees of freedom”) and 0.975 (for 95% confidence interval), respectively. Now remember
the subscripts as we pick out the t-statistic from a standard statistical table. The subscripts were 4
and 0.975. Looking at the table shown below, we locate 4 in the row headings and locating 0.975
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in the column headings we arrive at this value of 2.775 or rounding-off, 2.78 for t.
Referring back to the calculation in the previous figure, h equals 2.78 times 3.57 divided by square
root of 5 which is equal to 4.44 noting that this is for a 95% level of confidence.
Recall that X-bar is 67.4, thus upper bound (X-bar + h) equals 71.84, and the lower bound (X-bar
– h) equals 62.96.
Therefore the proper way to report the result is as follows:

“The average time in queue is 6.74 sec plus/minus 4.44 sec, with 95% confidence level” OR “the
average time in queue is between 62.96 and 71.84 sec, with 95% confidence”
Exercise: Try determining the confidence for a 99% confidence level.
This is the exercise with the answers.
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7.3.4.4 Number of Repetitions or Replications
Due to the stochastic nature or inherent randomness of traffic flow, every time we run a simulation
program with the same model input, a different value of the performance measure will be outputted.
Therefore, the output value of the performance measure reported for each scenario must be the
average of the results from several replications or repeated simulation runs. The more repetitions,
the more confident we will be that the average value calculated for the performance measure is
within the statistical confidence interval or margin of error.
In scenario analysis, several replications or repetitions must be performed for each scenario so that
the comparison of results among scenarios will be sound.
To help us determine the number of runs to be performed, we can follow this procedure.
• Step 1, we must decide on the acceptable range of allowable error that we would adopt.
Let’s call this plus/minus h-asterisk.
• Step 2, we perform a pilot number of replications n. The prescribed rule of thumb, for
example, is 4 repetitions.
• Step 3, compute the sample standard deviation s of the performance measures gathered
from the pilot runs.
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• Step 4, calculate the half-width h using the formula for h shown, and check if it is less than
or equal to the adopted allowable error h*, and
• Step 5 If the calculated half-width h is still greater than the adopted allowable error, calculate
the required number of repetition n using the formula for n shown, and repeat from step
number 2. Otherwise, we can end and that means that we have already performed a
sufficient number of runs.
Another method isto use the table below that came from one of our references (FHWA, 2004). The
table gives us the minimum no. of repetitions needed to obtain the desired confidence interval (or
allowable error) shown in the last column, given the desired confidence interval on the first column
and the desired level of confidence on the second column. The first step is to determine our desired
range which can be obtained by dividing our desired confidence interval CI by the standard
deviation s. Step 2 is to use the table.
For example, if the standard deviation in the delay is 1.5 s and the desired confidence interval is
“3.0 s at a 95-percent confidence level”, then based on the table, we shall need eight repetitions to
estimate the mean delay to within ±1.5 s. Note that confidence interval CI divided by standard
deviation s in this example is 3 divided by 1.5 or equal to a value of 2 for the first column.
Concluding Note
We must remember that the soundness of the result and conclusions from a simulation project
depends on key components, namely: the assumptions made by the modeler, the inputs that the
modeler provided, and the consideration of local conditions in the modeling exercise. So, please
be mindful of these, and consider them well in your simulation projects. To quote, “a good traffic
modeler can create a good traffic model out of most modeling systems, and a bad traffic modeler
will always create a bad traffic model out of the best system available.”
References:
• Traffic Analysis Toolbox Volume 1, FHWA, July 2004

• Traffic Analysis Toolbox Volume 3, FHWA, July 2004
• US-HCM 2016
• J. Banks, Handbook of Simulation: Principles, Methodology, Advances, Applications, and
Practice. 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
• Traffic Simulation lecture notes by Dr. Ricardo D. G. Sigua
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• Traffic Simulation lecture notes by Dr. Hilario Sean O. Palmiano

• UPNCTSFI, Zamboanga TTMP, 2020
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8 MODULE 8: TRANSPORTATION IMPACT ASSESSMENT

8.1 Definition
Transportation impact assessment (TIA) is an evaluation of the potential effects that a particular
development’s traffic will have on the transportation network in its impact area. Previously, called
traffic impact assessment, ‘traffic’ was changed to ‘transportation’ to represent a wider coverage of
the transportation system rather than be limited to traffic as implied. The magnitude of studies will
vary depending on the following:
• Type of development, which may refer to residential, commercial, industrial, recreational,

institutional or other as well as mixed;
• Size or density of development, which may refer to high, medium or low density of
development; and
• Location of development, which may generally refer to the central business district or city
center, suburb, rural area
8.2 Usefulness
How is a TIA useful? It generally answers or attempts to answer the following questions pertaining
to a proposed development or project:
1) What are the transportation improvements needed to serve the traffic generated by the new
development?
2) How much will the improvement cost be and who will pay for them?
3) Will the new project have impact on traffic on any existing residential streets and how will
those impacts be mitigated?
4) Will the new development aggravate any existing safety hazards or create new ones and,
if so, how can those hazards be corrected?
5) Can the proposed development be served by public transportation?
6) Is the design of the development friendly towards bicyclists and pedestrians who need to
access the development or who need to pass through or by the development?
7) Is the on-site parking sufficient or is there an opportunity to share parking with other
adjacent uses?
8) How many driveways are needed, what design should each driveway have and is there a
long enough throat for each driveway that is clear of parking spaces and other cross aisle
traffic?
9) If any driveway is proposed to be signalized, is the traffic signal really needed and can on-
site circulation handle the traffic that will be queuing to wait for a green light?
8.3 Applications of TIA
ATIA is typically employed in situations when there is a proposed development that is perceived to
generate trips that will have a significant impact on transportation. The National Center for
Transportation Studies (NCTS) identified the following situations:
• When a specified amount of area is being rezoned.
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• When development contains a specified number of dwelling units or area (e.g., square
meters or hectares of Gross Floor Area (GFA) or Gross Leasable Area (GLA) as may be
applicable).
• At the judgment or discretion of the staff (i.e., local government staff in-charge).
• When development will occur in a sensitive area (i.e., area that is already congested or an
area where there is high-accident or road crash incidence).
• When financial assessments are required and the extent of impact must be determined.
It is appropriate for the following local processes:
a) Zoning and rezoning application -

b) Land subdivision application
c) Environmental assessment (i.e., EIA)
d) Site plan approval / building/construction permits
e) Special-purpose districts
f) Development agreements
g) Changes to general and / or specific plans
h) Annexations
TIA can also be employed to determine the potential impacts of infrastructure projects, traffic
schemes and special events. For example, a proposed overpass or interchange may be evaluated
based on its impacts on transport and traffic. A proposed number coding scheme or truck ban along
certain streets may also be evaluated using TIA methodology. TIAs may also be used for recurring
events like the religious processions or festivals/fiestas.
8.4 Thresholds
8.4.1 Zoning Thresholds
A TIA may be required if a proposal falls under the certain clauses of a Zoning Ordinance such as
those that may refer to deviations. The assessment as to whether a project falls under this clause
simply entails the comparison of the proposal with the allowed uses and land use intensities in the
zone where it is located.
For this purpose, the Zoning Administrator or similar official may provide the following information
for the zone in consideration:
• List of Allowed Land Uses

• Land Use Intensity Control (LUIC) ratings
The project proponent, in turn, provides the basic information on the project as follows:
• Project location
• Project classification according to the latest Housing and Urban Land Use Regulatory Board
(HLURB) Guidelines
• Total land area of project site
• Total floor area of buildings in square meters
• Resultant floor to area ratio (considering all buildings within the project site)
• Percentage of land occupancy
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8.4.2 Project Size Thresholds
A Zoning Administrator or similar official may prepare a list of Significantly Sized Projects (SSP)
with the corresponding thresholds. The project proponent shall, in turn, submit information that
corresponds to the required threshold criteria. Proposals within the list of SSP’s and exceed the
specified threshold criteria shall be required to conduct TIA regardless of conformance with the use
or land use intensity provisions of the Zoning Ordinance. Examples of thresholds for the most
common type of projects are as follows:
• Residential: 48 dwelling units1

• Office: 8,000 square meters gross floor area (GFA)2
• Commercial: 1,333 square meters gross leasable area (GLA)3
The above values are based on peak hour trip generation rates developed by the National Center
for Transportation Studies for local conditions. These thresholds may be expanded and refined
should there be trip generation rates specific to a city or municipality (i.e., based on local studies)
and for specific types of developments that are developed and adopted by the LGU.
8.5 Barriers
There are a number of barriers to the implementation of TIA. These may be classified according to
the following:
• Institutional – TIA is not required by law at the national level. Its requirement for qualified
projects is dependent on the Environmental Impact Assessment Review Committee
(EIARC) of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources Environmental
Management Bureau (DENR-EMB) or LGU ordinance/requirement. This issue will be
addressed in more detail in a succeeding section of this module;
• Unavailability of suitable standards – local standards and unit rates, e.g., threshold trip
generation, parking generation vs. Building Code minimum parking are generally
unavailable. Many studies, for example, often use trip generation rates from the Institute of
Transportation Engineers (ITE), which are derived from experiences in the US and Canada,
and which may not be suitable for Philippine situations;
• Lack of knowledge – capacity building is needed among TIA preparers or consultants as
well as for evaluators. Still very few can prepare or conduct TIA’s as they should be and not
simply the preparation of traffic management plans; and
• Budget limitations – there are perceived costs associated with TIA (e.g., data
collection/survey, simulation, etc.) that are often not considered in the preparation of project
costs.
1 Residential trip generation: AM Peak – 0.76 vehicle trips/hour/dwelling unit inbound; 1.21 vehicle trips/hour/dwelling unit
outbound. PM Peak – 1.15 vehicle trips/hour/dwelling unit inbound; 0.92 vehicle trips/hour/dwelling unit outbound. The
higher combination of inbound and outbound trip rates will produce the lower threshold, which is adopted.
2 Office trip generation: AM Peak – 0.009 vehicle trips/hour/square meter GFA inbound; 0.0014 vehicle trips/hour/square meter
GFA outbound. PM Peak – 0.004 vehicle trips/hour/square meter GFA inbound; 0.0085 vehicle trips/hour/square meter GFA
outbound. The higher combination of inbound and outbound trip rates will produce the lower threshold, which is adopted.
3 Commercial trip generation: AM Peak – 0.036 vehicle trips/hour/square meter GLA inbound; 0.029 vehicle trips/hour/square
meter GLA outbound. PM Peak – 0.036 vehicle trips/hour/square meter GLA inbound; 0.039 vehicle trips/hour/square meter
GLA outbound. The higher combination of inbound and outbound trip rates will produce the lower threshold, which is
adopted.
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8.6 Study Extent
The following guide questions will help local government officials and planners determine the scope
of a TIA for proposed projects:
a. What components of a full site TIA are needed to address issues associated with the site,
proposed development and nearby transport system?
b. How detailed an analysis is needed for the trip generation forecast? What modal split should
be considered?
c. How large should the study area be and what is the influence area of the project?
d. Are traffic counts needed?
e. How should adjacent developments be considered in the study?
f. How should planned or programmed transport improvements be considered in the study?
g. Should the various stages of multi-phased development be analyzed individually?
h. What horizon years should be used?
i. Which trip distribution and assignment methods should be used?
j. Which roadway sections and intersections and driveways should be analyzed?
k. Which capacity analysis technique should be used?
l. To what extent will non-automobile modes of travel, such as walking, bicycling and transit,
be affected?
m. Are other analyses needed, such as crash, sight distance, weaving, gap and queuing
analyses?
n. What types of improvements should be considered?
o. What portion of the improvements are the responsibility of the developer?
p. How detailed should the recommendations be?
q. What are the potential funding sources to implement the recommendations?
The answers to these guide questions should be found in the TIA report to be submitted to LGUs.
These serve to determine the extent of transport impact studies that needs to be undertaken.
8.7 Typical Scope or Work
The scope of work for the conduct of TIA includes but is not limited to the following:
• Transportation improvements;
• Road geometry;
• Traffic safety;
• Site circulation and parking;
• Transportation facilities related to public transport, bicycle and pedestrian travel;
• Transportation Demand Management;
• Neighborhood traffic and parking management; and
• Funding for countermeasures.
Box 1 shows an example Table of Contents for a typical TIA report. Note that the report may be
simpler or expansive depending on the project type and magnitude. That is, a 5 storey office
building may have a simpler, more straightforward report compared to a commercial complex or
mixed use development spread over several hectares of land.
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Box 1. Example Table of Contents

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
1.2 Scope of the Study
2. THE STUDY AREA

2.1 Location
2.2 Accessibility
2.3 Impact Area
3. DATA COLLECTION
3.1 Preliminary Surveys
3.2 Secondary Data
3.3 Traffic Counts
3.4 Travel Time Survey
4. BASELINE TRAFFIC
4.1 Identification of Critical Movements
4.2 Base Traffic
5. TRIP GENERATION
5.1 Background
5.2 Trips Produced and Attracted by the Development
5.3 Traffic Assignment
6. ESTIMATION OF FUTURE TRAFFIC

6.1 Background
6.2 Future Traffic Without Development
6.3 Future Traffic With Development
7. ANALYSIS OF TRAFFIC
7.1 Background
7.2 Road Capacity Analysis
7.3 Intersection Analysis
7.4 Project Site Traffic Analysis
7.4 Parking Requirements
8. RECOMMENDATIONS
8.1 Traffic Engineering and Management
8.2 Public Transport Facilities
8.3 Pedestrian Facilities
8.4 Internal Circulation
8.5 Parking
ANNEX A - Processed Traffic Counts Data
ANNEX B - Travel Time and Delay Data
Note: Other annexes or appendices may be included depending on the project
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8.8 Study area
Proposed
fastfood
resturant
Survey location Suggested additional survey location
Figure 8.1 Example survey station locations for a proposed fast-food restaurant
Proposed
school
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Figure 8.2: Example survey station locations for a proposed school
Proposed
mall
Figure 8.3: Example survey station locations for a proposed mall
8.9 Time Elements in TIA
There are two (2) time elements for impact assessment – the planning period and analysis period.
The planning period refers to the horizon years starting from the anticipated completion date of the
proposed development. The planning period may be set at ten (10) years. Five (5) years may be
too short considering certain projects may have phased development or takes time for full
occupancy or operation to be realized. Meanwhile, twenty (20) years may be considered too long
Time periods to be analyzed typically include the following:

• AM and PM street peak (weekday/week-end)
• AM and PM site peak (weekday/week-end)
• Noon peak (weekday/week-end), when applicable
8.10 Data Collection
Typical surveys conducted for impact assessment include the following:
a. Traffic counts – these are classified vehicle traffic counts and ideally includes all types of
vehicles. Truck types may be simplified unless there is a need to adopt the comprehensive
truck classifications used by the DPWH. Typical counts would be over 16 hours (e.g., 6:00
AM to 10:00 PM). However, in some cases, peak hour counts may be sufficient.
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b. Travel speed surveys – these are surveys to determine travel speeds or travel times to and
from a proposed development along the alternative routes identified in the study. Data may
be used to determine whether there will be significant reduction in speeds (or increased
travel times) once the proposed development is completed and operational.
c. Inventory surveys – these are road facilities inventory surveys to collect information such
as number of lanes, road width, sidewalk width, channelization, traffic signs, pavement
conditions and markings, etc. These may also include the locations or stops, stations or
terminals.
d. Public transport surveys – these include inventories of public transport services and
facilities. Among the data to be collected are information on existing and proposed public
transport routes, occupancies and capacities, and terminal and stops in the vicinity of the
proposed development.
6,000
5,500
5,000
Bicycles
4,500
Motorcycles
traffic volume (veh/hr)
4,000
Tricycles
3,500
Large Trucks
3,000
Medium Trucks
2,500
Buses
2,000
Jeepneys
1,500 Passenger Cars
1,000
500
-
hour of day
Figure 8.4: Example volume count data
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Intersection: Montreal - New York

Date: April 2, 2004 (Friday)
Time : 6pm to 7pm
To Ermin Garcia
Montreal
private cars, pick- motorcycles, total

jeepney, fx buses trucks
up, taxi tricycles (veh/hr)
0 0 0 0 28 28
35 1 0 1 223 260
New York New York

To EDSA To Annapolis
3 0 16 1 16 36
3 1 0 0 63 67
0 0 0 0 43 43
8 0 0 0 2 10
11 1 0 0 108 120
38 1 16 2 267 324
Montreal
To Aurora Blvd.
Figure 8.5: Example intersection counts data
Figure 8.6: Example inventory of an intersection
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Figure 8.7: Example route survey outputs
8.11 TIA and Traffic Management Plans
A traffic management plan is only one part of the TIA. This is usually part of the recommendations
based on the traffic analysis performed on estimated future traffic with the development. How can
the plan be effective if its formulation skips critical steps or components of aTIA such as calculations
of future traffic using, for example, the four-step model of travel demand forecasting?
Most traffic management plans outside a TIA are just characterizations or descriptions of current
traffic, i.e., without the development. This may be one of at least two traffic management plans that
can be provided by aTIA. One for during the construction phase and another during the operations
phase of a project, when the completed project will actually be generating trips and traffic.
Most traffic management plans that are not part of a TIA contains qualitative yet generic
recommendations. Since there should be data collection (e.g., traffic surveys), trip generation
calculations, estimation of future traffic and various analysis involved in the TIA, it is expected that
aTIA will be evidence-based and recommendations are based on sound calculations such as those
that lead to the determination of road and intersection level of service.
Most traffic management plans that are not part of a TIA pass on the responsibility for mitigating
negative impacts to local authorities (e.g., MMDA, LGUs, etc.).
Figure 8.7 and 8.8 shows example illustrations of traffic management plans. Typically, these should
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show map or site plan, vehicle and pedestrian traffic circulation, potential or existing conflicts. In a
TIA report, there can be several traffic management plans. For example, there can be one for the
construction phase, another for when a proposed development begins operations, and another for
further in the future that will already account for forecasted traffic.
Figure 8.7: Example traffic management plan illustrations
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Figure 8.8: Example traffic management plan illustrations
8.12 Institutionalizing TIA
8.12.1 Purpose of Institutionalization of TIA
The purpose of the institutionalization of transport or traffic impact assessment is to make the
conduct of TIA mandatory for development proposals or zoning changes that produce significant
transport/ traffic impacts. The keyword here is significant. Thus, not all development proposals will
be considered in the conduct of traffic impact assessment. The TIA requirement criteria or the
threshold values were discussed in other modules.
8.12.2 Land Use and Transportation Interaction
The development proposal is land use in character. The relationship of land use and transport is
summarized in Figure 9. The land use will generate demand, trips. Travel is really the interaction
of two land uses: the origin – the land use which produces trips and destination – the land use
which attracts the trips. These trips address the transportation needs and affect community growth.
Interaction of two land uses, creates demand. As a result, transportation facilities are developed
providing higher accessibility of the area and an increase in land value. In effect, it is beneficial to
use transport decisions as a tool to accommodate planned growth.
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Figure 8.9: Land Use and Transportation Interaction
8.12.3 Two Ways of TIA Institutionalization
There are two (2) ways of TIA Institutionalization:

1. Through the EIA System
2. Through LGU Ordinance
In the Philippines, TIA is already part of the EIA system. TIA is already required for subdivisions and
condominiums. Under Presidential Decree No. 957, application for subdivision development permit
requires the submission of TIA.
a. Through the EIA System
Environmental Impact Assessment or EIA is a formal process which consists of identifying and
predicting the impacts/consequences of proposed projects/programs on the bio-geophysical
environment on man’s health and wellbeing, and interpreting as well as communicating
information about such impacts in a manner which can be utilized by planners and decision-makers.
The Philippine Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) System was formally established in 1978
with the enactment of Presidential Decree no. 1586. The institutionalizing of its implementing rules
and regulations was completed four years later. A number of laws have been passed through the
years aimed at strengthening, expanding and refining the existing systems and procedures.
The Department of Environment and Natural Resources was given the task of administering the
EIA system through the Environmental Management Bureau and its regional offices.
Projects with potentially significant environmental impacts were categorized either as

environmentally critical or located in environmentally critical areas. Projects under the first category
had to undergo full-scale EIA studies while those in the latter category were submitted to Initial
Environmental Examinations.
Government entities were given mandates to establish their own environmental units, integrate
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environmental concerns in their planning and project cycles and assist in expediting the review
process. A detailed procedural manual issued in 1992 discussed the step-by-step procedure in the
preparation and review of Environmental Impact Statements.
The EIA Policy also states that no person, partnership or corporation shall undertake or operate
such declared environmentally critical project or area without first securing an Environmental
Compliance Certificate (ECC) issued by the President or his/her authorized representative.
The document issued by the DENR Secretary or the Regional Executive Director that based on the
representation of the proponent and the EIS/IEE preparers, as reviewed and validated by the EIA
Review Committee:
a. The proposed project or undertaking will not cause a significant negative environmental
impact
b. The proponent has complied with all the requirements of the EIA system
c. The proponent is committed to implement its approved Environmental Management Plan
in the EIS or mitigation measures in the IEE
The real value of the EIA Process is in the reduction of adverse environmental impact as a result
of incremental decision making before a proposed action reaches final decision-making on whether
it should be allowed to proceed or not:
• To aid the proponent/applicant on environmental considerations prior to starting

construction works on the project
• To aid agencies in considering EIA results in their decision making for their respective
permitting system
b. Through LGU Ordinance
Purpose of Ordinance
To require all developers or owners of industrial, commercial, residential, recreational and similar
establishments to submit a Transport Impact Assessment (TIA) as a pre-requisite in the issuance
of Development Permit.
Examples
Requirement for TIA under the Traffic Code of Davao City
• All major commercial, industrial, housing and condominiums, institutional developments,

including government institutions and other similar developments, as may be determined by
the CTTMO, shall submit a transportation/traffic impact assessment to the CTTMO for
evaluation and recommendation of approval to the City Transport and Traffic Management
Board as preliminary documentary requirement in the application of Building Permit;
• The transportation/traffic impact assessment shall be prepared, signed and sealed by a

transportation engineer or planner certified by the EMB and the NCTS or the licensed
environmental planner duly recognized by the PRC
Sample Contents of a TIA Ordinance
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• When TIA is required

• Scope of TIA
• Qualifications of TIA Preparers
• Implementation of mitigating measures or payment of Impact Fee
• Application Fee
• Penalty
• Implementing Organization
• Funding
c. Comparison between the implementation Through the EIA System and Through an
Ordinance
• Ordinance can be comprehensive while there are limitations under the EIA system, e.g.,
some development proposals do not fall under the EIA System;
• Preparers of EIS may lack expertise in the conduct of TIA;
• Evaluators of EIS may not be too knowledgeable in the TIA system; and
• Ordinance has flexibility in the treatment of mitigating measures.
Needed Reforms for Effective TIA Implementation
1. Passage of a comprehensive traffic code

2. Public transport regulatory changes
3. Creation of local transport and traffic management organization
8.13 Conclusions
The TIA provides an opportunity to address potential transport and traffic problems. In fact, the TIA
provides an opportunity to revisit design (e.g., access and egress, driveways, parking provisions,
etc.) particularly if the TIA was undertaken with a preliminary or draft design already available for
reference. It is common that the assessment was required or commissioned after a site plan or
more detailed planning/design has already been accomplished.
TIA can be an effective tool provided that:

• There is appreciation of the value of TIA in terms of mitigating potential transport and traffic
problems once a proposed development is implemented and operational;
• It is understood that benefits outweigh costs;
• A participatory approach is employed in determining the scope of work and the issues to be
addressed by the study;
• There is capability to conduct (i.e., preparer) and evaluate (i.e., LGUs) TIAs; and
• An effective monitoring mechanism is in place to determine whether proposed
countermeasures, both soft and hard solutions, are implemented should the expected
negative impacts to transport and traffic manifest in the future.
8- 15
References
• Environmental Management Bureau (1996) DAO 96-37: Environmental Impact

Assessment Procedural Manual, Department of Environment and Natural Resources.
• Regidor, J.R.F. (2005) “Analyzing Impacts of Transportation Infrastructure and
Policies on Traffic Flow in Metro Manila Using Advanced Tools and Techniques,”
Philippine Engineering Journal, Vol. 24, No. 1, 11-23.
• Tiglao, N.C.C., Regidor, J.R.F., and Teodoro, R.V.R. (2005) “An Assessment of the Truck
Ban and UVVRP, and Their Effects on the Freight Forwarding Industry,” Proceedings
of the First Conference on Transportation Logistics (T-LOG 2005), Furama Riverfront,
Singapore, August 27-29.
• Regidor, J.R.F. (2004) “Public Participation in the Traffic Assessment Process,”
Proceedings of the JSCE-PICE-NCTS Joint Seminar on Sustainable Urban Transport
Systems, Makati City, pp. 65-69.
• Regidor, J.R.F., and Teodoro, R.V.R. (2003) “Assessment of Traffic Impact Components
in a Typical Environmental Impact Study (EIS) in the Philippines,” Proceedings of the
Symposium on Environmental Issues Related to Infrastructure Development, Japan
Society for the Promotion of Science, Core University Program on Environmental
Engineering Symposium, pp. 145-156.
• Regidor, J.R.F., and Teodoro, R.V.R. (2003) “Institutionalizing Traffic Impact
Assessment in the Philippines: Some Issues and Challenges,” Journal of the Eastern
Asia Society for Transportation Studies, Vol. 5, pp. 3192-3205.
• Regidor, J.R.F., and Felias, H.A., Jr. (2003) “Impact Assessment of Infrastructure
Projects in Metro Manila Using Micro-Simulation Tools,” Journal of the Eastern Asia
Society for Transportation Studies, Vol. 5, pp. 1075-1085.
• Japan International Cooperation Agency (2002) Capability Building for the
Implementation of Traffic Impact Assessment in the Philippines, Final Report, U.P.
National Center for Transportation Studies Foundation, Inc.
• Japan International Cooperation Agency (2001) Formulation of Guidelines for the Traffic
Impact Assessment (TIA) of Urban and Regional Development Projects, Final Report,
U.P. National Center for Transportation Studies Foundation, Inc.
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9 MODULE 9: ROAD SAFETY

9.1 Key Areas Towards Improving Road Safety
Improving road safety in any locality, region, or country requires improving three key areas as
shown in Figure 9.1.
Source: Sigua, R.G.
Figure 9.1: Key Areas Towards Improving Road Safety
9.1.1 Data Collection/Information Systems
The data collection/information systems, which generally contain the road crash database, can
provide a comprehensive picture of what is happening at present and will be able us to know how
effective our future actions will be. Information system tells:
• how big the problem is;
• how fast it is growing; and
• what its main features are.
The information system should be able to provide answers to the following basic questions:
• Who were involved or who were the victims?
• When did it happen?
• Where did it happen?
• Why did it happen?
Currently, there are several agencies which have initiatives on the development of Data
Collection/Information Systems.
a. Crime Information Reporting and Analysis System (CIRAS) Enhanced e-Blotter

System by PNP
The system was initially called the e- blotter, which was a stand-alone customized single
database. It was launched in September 2011 to serve as a more efficient electronic blotter
system across the country. It was installed in the existing desktop of the police units/stations
and was utilized by the Police Stations to enter blotter/incident reports directly to the system.
In May 2015, a web-based CIRAS (enhanced e – blotter) was developed and pilot tested
in NCRPO in June 2015.
b. Online National Electronic Injury Surveillance System (ONEISS – DOH, 2008)

Based on the Online National Electronic Injury Surveillance System (ONEISS) of the
Department of Health, all government and private hospitals and infirmaries must report
injuries that have been managed by their facility to the said system.
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As of 2020, there are 2,175 government and private hospitals/ infirmaries. Of this number,
1,772 or 81.5% hospitals and infirmaries have training on the use of ONEISS.
c. Metro Manila Accident Reporting and Analysis System MMARAS (MMDA 2005)
Data sources of the MMARAS database are from the following:

• road crash reports from the Police Traffic Precinct blotter book are copied and
transferred to the TEC – RSU road crash form;
• road crash records of MMDA Command Center (Metrobase) that were reported thru
radio, concerned citizen calls and captured by CCTVs.
d. Data for Road Incident Visualization Evaluation and Reporting (DRIVER) System
(DOTr 2018)
The DRIVER System has the following features:

• Web-based interface;
• Companion android application for data entry;
• Automated reporting based on the most common reports across agencies;
• Custom search and filter tools; and
• Statistical tools for identifying high-incident areas over time, predicting likelihood
of incidents throughout the day and week, and tracking infrastructure
interventions.
The DPWH used to have the TARAS or the Traffic Accident and Reporting System, but its use was
terminated in 2014. Currently the DPWH relies on IRAP for the assessment of the roads within its
jurisdiction.
The Philippine Statistics Authority (PSA) also provides information on road – related mortality.
Road crash statistics
Based on MMARAS database for 12 years (2005 – 2016), a total of 957,348 incidents were
recorded in Metro Manila. The average annual number of fatalities was 400. Table 9.1 shows the
breakdown of road crash fatalities over the period of 12 years. Motorcycle riders are included in the
‘Driver’ category.
Table 9.1. Breakdown of road crash fatalities
Source of data: MMDA MMARAS
The involvement of the different road users is shown in Table 9.2. Pedestrians and MC riders
continue to be the most vulnerable road users in Metro Manila
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Table 9.2. Mode Interaction
Road crash locations

It is surprising to note that most fatal incidents happened along mid-blocks rather than at
intersections or junctions (Table 3). With prior information that most of the victims are pedestrians
and motorcycle riders, this could be indicative of:
• Lack of pedestrian facilities; poor visibility at night
• Uncontrolled lane splitting behavior of motorcycles
Table 9. 3: General road crash locations
Considering the incidents happening at intersections, it is also surprising to note that most of these
happened at intersections with traffic lights (Table 4). This could be indicative of the following:
• Low compliance (beating red lights; ignoring signals)
• Inadequate clearance intervals
Table 9.4: Type of control and road crash incidence
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The following figures show different heat maps for fatal incidents involving the most vulnerable road
users, namely the pedestrians and the motorcycle riders.
Incidents involving cars and pedestrians happened mostly along major wide roads such as
Commonwealth Avenue and EDSA while incidents involving trucks and pedestrians happened
along designated truck routes such as R10, C3, Bonifacio Ave, etc.
Source: MMDA MMARAS, Luo, C.Y.
Figure 9.2: Pedestrian Fatal Road Crashes
As for motorcycle riders, most of self – crash incidents happened along major roads and almost
90% happened at nighttime.
Figure 9.3: MC Alone Fatal
Similar to pedestrians involved in crashes with trucks, fatal incidents happened at designated truck
routes.
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Figure 9.4: MC versus Trucks (Fatal)
Fatal Crashes involving motorcycles and cars happened mostly along major roads.
= Source: MMDA MMARAS, Luo, C.Y.
Figure 9.5: MC versus Car (Fatal)
Why did it happen? The database showed that entries for the answer to this question were few.
Nevertheless, available information such as shown in Figure 6 would tell that human error is the
major cause of road crashes with speeding as the main culprit.
Source: Jacaban, PNP-HPG

Figure 9.6: Causes of Road Crashes(2013)
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Based on international studies, speed has serious consequences when a pedestrian is involved.
Faster speeds also increase the likelihood of a pedestrian being hit since motorists are less likely
to see and react to a pedestrian and are even less likely to be able to stop in time to avoid hitting
one.
Figure 9.7 shows that even at the speed of 30kph, there is about 5% chance pedestrian’s death
if hit by a motor vehicle. At 60kph, that probability of fatal crash is about 90%.
Source: U.K. Dept of Transport
Figure 9.7: Pedestrian’s chance of death if hit by a motor vehicle
9.2 Road Safety Action Plans

Since 2005, the Philippine government has crafted its own National road Safety Action Plans, the
first one was in 2005 as part of the ADB – ASEAN Regional Road Safety Program; the second one
was in response to the call of UN for a decade of action on road safety from 2011 to 2020; the third
one was an update to this plan for the period 2017 – 2022.
Source: Sigua, R.G.
Figure 9.8: Philippine Road Safety Action Plans
9.2.1 The Safe System Approach
The Philippine Road Safety Action Plan (PRSAP) 2017-2022 provides a long-term vision for the
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improvement of road safety in the Philippines based on the Safe System approach and a Vision
Zero, which envisions a Philippine Society with zero deaths on the road.
Guiding Principles:
• People make mistakes.
People will commit errors on the road, but these should not lead to death or injury.
• People are vulnerable. There is a limit to the impact that the human body can tolerate.
• Road safety is a shared responsibility. Those who design the roads and those who use
the roads are both responsible in preventing road crash deaths or injuries from
happening.
• All parts of the system must be strengthened. Even if one part fails, the road user must be
still protected.
The road system is designed to anticipate and accommodate human error and is based on the
vulnerability of the human body.
Four Core Safe System Pillars:

• Safe road users who are competent and follow traffic laws;
• Safe vehicles that have technology to help prevent crashes and safety features that
protect road users in the event of a crash;
• Safe roads that are self-explaining and forgiving of mistakes to reduce the risk of crashes
occurring and to protect road users from fatal or serious injury should a crash occur;
• Safe vehicle speeds that suit the function and the level of safety of the road to ensure that
crash forces are kept below the limits that cause death or serious injury.
Source: PRSAP 2017
Figure 9.9: Safe system 4 pillars
9.2.2 Strategies for improving road safety for specific vulnerable road users
This section discusses the different strategies in improving the road safety of vulnerable road users.
Table 9.5 is intended for pedestrians. Depending on the extent of challenges facing the pedestrians,
strategies are listed to meet the four key objectives. It may be observed that the strategies revolve
around the 3 ‘E’s, namely, engineering, enforcement, and education.
a. Improving Pedestrian Safety
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Table 9.5: Strategies for improving road safety of pedestrians
Source: Sigua, R.G.
Exclusive phase for pedestrians
Aside from allowing pedestrians to move simultaneously with the vehicular traffic, the provision of
‘scramble’ phase can offer more level of safety to pedestrians. During this phase, vehicles in all
directions are required to stop to allow pedestrians to cross in all directions, including diagonally.
Figure 9.10: Scramble Phase for pedestrians
Pedestrian footbridges
Pedestrian overpass(footbridge) or underpass is oftentimes in the list of recommendations to

separate/eliminate conflicts between pedestrian and vehicular traffic. However, such
structure/facility creates difficulties to the physically challenged pedestrians.
Photo taken by author

Figure 9.11: Pedestrian footbridge
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Moreover, the location of pedestrian overpass/underpass must be carefully planned. A study

showed (Figure 9.12) that If the walking time to use an overpass/underpass is 50 percent longer
than crossing at street level, almost no one will use the overpass/underpass. (Moore and Older
(1965)
Source: Moore and Older, 1965

Figure 9.12: Utilization of Overpass/Underpass
b. Improving Motorcyclists’ Safety

Adopting the previous objectives/strategies table for pedestrians, similar table (Table 9.6) for
motorcyclists can be prepared.
Table 9.6. Strategies for improving road safety of Motorcycle riders
Source: Sigua, R.G.
On improving bicyclists’ safety, the reader is encouraged to identify strategies to achieve the
objectives as shown in the table.
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9.2.3 Road Safety Engineering
Focusing on engineering, 2 major approaches must be considered towards improving road safety,
namely: road crash reduction through blackspot identification and analysis and road crash
prevention through the conduct of road safety audit.
Source: DPWH
Figure 9.13: Road safety engineering coverage
In any Road Safety Program, both reduction and prevention strategies are indispensable.
Blackspot or black spot refers to hazardous or accident-prone location; a place on a road where
accidents frequently occur. Blackspot analysis is a valuable tool for:
• Identification of hazardous locations; and
• Programming of road improvement activities.
Recognizing that such incidents are indeed preventable, instead of using the term ‘accident’, which
connotes an unforeseen event or one without an apparent cause; a misfortune or mishap, esp. one
causing injury or death, the term ‘road crash’ is now considered as the more appropriate term.
Road Crash Prevention
Road Safety Audit (RSA) is a formal and systematic road safety assessment or ‘checking’ of a road
or a road scheme. It has the greatest potential and is most cost-effective when applied to a road or
traffic design before it is built. RSA approach is hinged on the principle that prevention is better than
cure. Table 9.7 shows the audit criteria based on the current DPWH RSA Manual.
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Table 9.7: Audit Criteria based on DPWH Road Safety Audit Manual (2004)
Source: DPWH.
Qualifications of Road Safety Auditors based on the DPWH Road Safety Audit Manual
RSA must be performed by a team of people who have sufficient experience and expertise in the
areas of road safety engineering, accident investigation and prevention, traffic engineering and
road design. Having a team offers the following advantages:
• Diverse backgrounds and different experience of people in the team;
• Cross fertilization of ideas which can result from discussions; and

• Advantages of having more knowledge available.
Successful Road Safety Auditor must have experience in road safety engineering and an aptitude
for road crash investigation and prevention techniques.
The experience of a Road Safety Auditor should also be linked with an understanding of:
• Traffic engineering and traffic management;
• Road design and construction techniques; and
• Road user behavior
At present, these requirements of the DPWH Road Safety Audit Manual cannot be fulfilled due to
a lack of qualified (internal and external) experts. There is therefore a need for more RSA
practitioners at the DPWH in charge of national roads; at the local government units in charge of
local roads; and in corporations/agencies operating the expressways.
Road crash reduction
Figure 9.14 shows the general process flow of conducting blackspot studies.
9- 11
Source: Sigua, R.G.
Figure 9.14: General process flow of conducting blackspot studies
Blackspot Definition
The current DPWH Accident Blackspot Investigation Handbook (2004) has the following criteria for
identifying blackspots for road sections:
“Average of 3 major accidents per year per kilometer of road length over the past 2 to 3 years”
For intersections or short segments of 500 meters, the same number of accidents/road crashes is
used.
The Handbook was used in conjunction with the Traffic Accident Recording and Analysis System
(TARAS) Database.
9.3 Funding and Support for Road Safety

The last key area is funding and support for road safety. Road safety is only one of the many
competing demands for our scarce resources, but it is essential that it is not overlooked in
developing plans and policies. Road safety is everyone’s responsibility, and it is not enough to rely
on the government alone. It is important to tap the resources of the private sector as well.
9.4 Assessment of Road Safety

The state of road safety of a country or a region is normally gauged by the frequency of occurrence
of accidents. Key indicators are number of accidents (fatal, injured, or property damage) and
accident rates. The rates are normally used instead of actual numbers for comparison studies.
This section provides discussion on some tools to assess road safety situation of an area or region,
as well as specific locations such as intersections or road sections.
Accident rate per 100,000 population
One measure of accident rate is per 100,000 population like the one utilized in the health sector.
For instance, if a certain town, city, or region has N accident occurrences in 1 year and has a
population P, then:
Ap = 根100,000
The following figures and table show such rates are used for the purpose of comparing road safety
9- 12
situations.
Source: WHO
Figure 9.15. World fatality rates
Source: PSA, 2017
Figure 9.16: Number of road deaths and death rate per 100,000 population
9- 13
Table 9.8. Fatality rates in ASEAN and selected countries (2013)
Source: WHO
Accident per registered vehicles
Another measure of accident rate is per 10,000 registered vehicles. Again, if there are N accidents
in one year and the number of registered vehicles for the same year is V, then:
Av = 根10,000
For specific locations, such as intersections or road segments, the following rates may be utilized:
Accident Rates for Intersections
When analyzing traffic accidents at intersections, the total entering traffic volume usually in AADT
is considered. The equation below is used to compute the accident rate per million entering vehicles
(mev). The factor of 1,000,000 is applied for convenience to obtain values of Ai within 2 to 3 digits.
1,000,000 根 N
Ai =
365 根 T 根V
where: N – total number of accidents in time T

T – time frame of analysis, year
V – AADT or annual average daily traffic
Road Crash Rates for Road Sections
For segments of highways, accident rates are computed based on total vehicle-kilometers of travel.
The equation below is used to compute the accident rate per 100 million vehicle-kilometer (mvk).
Again, the factor of 100 million is applied for convenience.
100,000,000 根 N
As =
365 根 T 根V 根 L
9- 14
where: N – total number of accidents in time T

T – time frame of analysis, year
V – AADT or annual average daily traffic
L – length of section in km.
9.5 Identifying hazardous locations or blackspots

There are several methods of identifying blackspots or hazardous locations. Two methods will be
discussed based on statistical analysis.
Classic Statistical Method
The method assumes that the number of accidents at locations of interest follows a standard normal
probability distribution. The method flags a location as hazardous if it satisfies the following
inequality:
Xi > X + K 根 S
where: Xi - accident frequency or rate at location i
X - mean frequency or rate for all locations under consideration
K – constant corresponding to a certain level of confidence
S – sample standard deviation for all locations.
Table 9.9 provides a guide on the appropriate values of K for a given level of confidence.
Table 9.9: Commonly used levels of confidence and K values.
Level of K values
Confidence, %
90 1.282
95 1.645
99 2.327
Rate Quality Control Method
This is a variation of the classic statistical method. Instead of a normal distribution, the method
assumes that the number of accidents at a set of locations follows a Poisson distribution. Also, the
method applies only to rates and not frequencies. It compares the rate of a particular location to
the mean rate at similar locations rather than at all locations.
The method flags a location as hazardous if it satisfies the following inequality:
( Y )0.5 1
Yi > Y + K 根||（ )|| +
Vi 2Vi
where: Yi - accident rate observed at location i

Y – mean accident rate for all locations with characteristics
similar to those of location i
V – volume of traffic at location I, in the same units as the
accident rates are given
K – same as in classic method
9- 15
9.6 The Role of Enforcement in Road Safety

Based on WHO report, the following have been identified as key risk factors (Source: Road Safety:
Basic Facts, WHO)
Motorcycle helmets
Seatbelts
Drink & driving
Speed
Child restraints
Mobile phones
Some of the facts are enumerated based on the effects of the above-mentioned key risk factors:
• Drinking and driving, with BAC level of over 0.05 g/dl greatly increases the risk of a crash
and the possibility that it will result in death or serious injury.
• Wearing a seatbelt can reduce fatalities among front-seat passengers by up to 50% and
among rear-seat car passengers by up to 75%.
• Wearing a standard motorcycle helmet correctly can reduce the risk of death by almost
40% and the risk of severe injury by over 70%.
• Child restraint systems decrease the risk of death in a crash by about 70% for infants and
up to 80% for small children.
• In high income countries, speed contributes to about 30% of road deaths, while in some
low- and middle-income countries speed is the main factor in about half of road deaths.
Based on studies in different countries, enforcement has shown to be very effective in addressing
the key risk factors.
• Drinking and driving: enforcement through random breath-testing checkpoints is highly
cost-effective and can reduce alcohol-related crashes by approximately 20%.
• When helmet laws are enforced, helmet-wearing rates can increase to over 90%.
• Public awareness campaigns, mandatory seatbelt laws and their enforcement have been
highly effective in increasing the rates of seatbelt wearing.
• Mandatory child restraint laws and enforcement are effective in increasing the use of child
restraints.
When planning for an awareness campaign or for stricter enforcing of the lawas part of the activities
of a safety program, Table 9.10 provides information which may help in the preparation prior to
implementation.
Table 9.10: Preparation prior to implementation.
Source: Sigua, R.G.
9- 16
Post assessment is necessary to determine whether measures introduced are effective. For
instance, compliance rate must increase; the number of apprehensions must decrease; and overall,
the number of road crashes by severity must also decrease.
9- 17
TECHNICAL REPORT NO. 2: QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY TO MMDA AND LGUs
10 MODULE 10: TRANSPORTATION PLANNING CONCEPTS

Module 10 consists of 3 parts. In the first part, we will discuss key ideas on transportation planning
including the nature of urban transportation problems and the need to conduct responsive
transportation planning in order to achieve sustainable transportation.
In the succeeding sections, we will cover key concepts and standard practices in travel demand
forecasting and review the tools and techniques currently employed in the application of the so-
called Four-Step Model which is a standard approach and methodology in the conduct of travel
demand forecasting.
10.1 Challenges facing Urban Transport
First, we need to understand the fundamental challenges that cities face in terms of urban
transportation. Cities have high concentrations of economic activities and hence need to be
supported by transport systems in order for these economic engines to work efficiently and
effectively. We need to realize that urban transport problems arise when there is poor urban
circulation. It is also important to recognize that there is a growing complexity of cities for which the
transport system needs to address increasingly.
Key urban transport problems include the following:

1. Traffic congestion and parking difficulties – this is the most prevalent transport problem and
is linked with the diffusion of the automobile
2. Public transport inadequacy – many public transport systems are either over or under used
with both cases creating problems of crowdedness on the one hand and low patronage on
the other
3. Difficulties for pedestrians – intense circulation and the lack of consideration of pedestrian
movements create serious problems in cities
4. Environmental impacts and energy consumption – pollution has greatly lowered the quality
of life in urban areas and dependence on petroleum has
5. Loss of public space – the construction of roads for vehicle as well as large-scale mall
developments have greatly reduced available green space for parks and open spaces
6. Accidents and safety - growing circulation in urban areas has been linked with a growing
number of accidents and fatalities
7. Land consumption - over-reliance on some forms of urban transportation can lead to
wasteful use of limited land area
We can relate car and public transport through a vicious cycle where an increase in car ownership
leads to reduced demand for public transport as depicted in Figure 1. Car dependence is a critical
issue that we must address in the context of Metro Manila and other key cities. In fact, the use of
personal mobility has extended to the alarming increase in the use of motorcycles.
Figure 10.1. Car and Public Transport Vicious Cycle
10- 1
We can also appreciate the negative impact of over-reliance on road building in the famous black
hole theory of road investment. The right perspective is not to dismiss the role of road investments
per see but to situate road infrastructure as part of a holistic strategy to curb car dependence and
promote use of public transport systems.
Figure 10.2: Black Hole Theory of Road Investment
We should understand the land use and transport systems are inter-connected. Transport systems
affect traffic conditions which in turn affect the land use system. On the other hand, land uses give
rise to trip generation that utilize the transport system. We can simulate changes in the transport
sector, for example, an improvement in the transport network. On the other hand, we can simulate
changes in the land use sector, perhaps through a land development project from a subdivision or
even a condominium development.
Figure 10.3: Land use and Transport Interaction
10-2
Figure 10.4: Changes in the Transport System
Figure 10.4: Changes in the Land Use System
The challenges in integrating land use and transport are:

a) Weak integration of the social dimensions of urban planning in existing systems;
b) Weak coordination mechanisms among local governments and the higher planning
authorities
• Effective land use planning has two components: long term comprehensive planning to
deal with metropolitan scale issues and site or locality specific plans.
c) Lack of integrated planning models that are capable of addressing air pollution, transport
and health issues as decision-support tools for a comprehensive planning process.
• There is a need for good data but also for models that are not overly data-hungry.
• Scope for development of ‘sketch planning’ methods
d) Lack of effective urban development management is required to manage the
implementation of land use/ transport plans and policies.
• Significant technical capacity, preferably at a local level, is required to provide
responsive urban management.
e) Lack of timely provision of infrastructure
• Transport is a useful instrument for structuring land uses within an appropriate planning
framework.
In rejecting the former paradigm of building capacity, transport planners have turned increasingly
to managing both demand and the transport system. Building roads has produced a car-oriented
society in which the other modal alternatives have little opportunity to co-exist. Car ownership is
beyond the ability of the transport planner to control directly and the question remains if it should.
But car use and ownership is affected by land use and density, both elements that planners can
affect. High population densities, in particular, favor walking, bicycling and public transit use.
Managing the demand for travel is made up of a large number of small interventions that
cumulatively can have impact of car use, but in particular improve the livability of cities. A sample
of well-practiced and successful interventions includes:
10-3
• Park and ride

• Traffic calming
• Priority lanes for buses, and high-occupancy vehicles
• Alternate work schedules
• Promoting bicycle use
• Car sharing
• Enhancing pedestrian areas
• Improving public transit
• Parking management
According to the Brundtland Commission, Sustainable Development is ”Development which meets

the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs“. As such, a sustainable city must offer to its population a suitable urban environment,
employment, food, housing and transportation without compromising the welfare of the future
population of that city.
As transport planners and engineers, we should actively pursue sustainable transport in our
respective practice and spheres of influence. Based on the vision of sustainable development, we
envision cities that provide a suitable urban environment including transportation systems that meet
the needs of the present population without compromising the welfare of future generations. There
are 3 dimensions of sustainability that we should be concerned about:
There are 3 dimensions of sustainability that we should be concerned about:
• Intergenerational equity
• Social equity
• Spatial responsibility
Figure 10.5: Sustainable Transport
Another effective way of visualizing the interdependencies among various land use and transport
factors is through systems dynamics where negative feedback (‘vicious cycle’) and positive
feedback (‘virtuous cycle) loops are identified and evaluated.
10-4
Figure 10.6: Dynamics of Urban Transportation
Travel Demand
Travel demand occurs as a result of thousands of individual travelers making individual decisions
on how, where and when to travel. These decisions are affected by many factors such as family
situations, characteristics of the person making the trip, and the choices (destination, route and
mode) available for the trip. Travel demand models refer to a series of mathematical equations that
are used to represent how choices are made when people travel.
Models are important because transportation plans and investments are based on what the models
say about future travel. Models are used to estimate the number of trips that will be made on a
transportation systems alternative at some future date. These estimates are the basis for
transportation plans and are used in major investment analysis, environmental impact statements
and in setting priorities for investments.
10.2 Transportation Planning
Transportation Planning is the functional area within transportation engineering that deals with the
relationship of land use to travel patterns and travel demands The planning, evaluation, and
programming of transportation facilities, including roadways, transit terminals, parking, pedestrian
facilities, bikeways, and goods movement.
The objectives of transportation planning are:

• Improve coordination between land use and transportation systems
• Provide cooperative interaction between planning, design, and operation of transportation
services
• Maintain a balance between transportation-related energy use and clean air
• Encourage alternative modes of transportation that enhance energy efficiency while
providing high levels of mobility and safety
Transportation planning at various levels should be aligned and harmonized to ensure consistency
and complementarity of strategies.
10-5
Figure 10.7: Alignment of Various Transportation Plans
There are seven (7) steps involved in functional transportation planning, namely:
1) Goals and Objectives
2) Inventories
3) Forecasts
4) Network Planning
5) Analysis of Alternatives
6) Evaluation
7) Selection/ Implementation
Figure 10.8: Functional Transportation Planning Step 1 - Goals and Objectives
10-6
Figure 10.9: Functional Transportation Planning Step 2 - Inventories
Figure 10.10: Functional Transportation Planning Step 3 - Forecasts
10-7
Figure 10.11: Functional Transportation Planning Step 4 - Network Planning
Figure 10.12: Functional Transportation Planning Step 5 - Analysis of Alternatives
10-8
Figure 10.13: Functional Transportation Planning Step 6 – Evaluation
Figure 10.14: Functional Transportation Planning Step 7 – Selection/ Implementation
10.3 Travel Demand Forecasting
Travel Demand Forecasting is a multi-stage process, and there are several different techniques
that can be used at each stage. The basic steps are as follows:
1) Database Development
2) Trip Generation
3) Trip Distribution
4) Modal Split
5) Traffic Assignment
A Trip is a one-way movement from a point of origin to a point of destination. Home-based trips are
trips that either start from or end at the home. Trips from home to work are referred to as Home-
Based Work (HBW) trips. Trips from home to school are referred to as Home-Based School (HBS)
trips. Other types of trips coming from home are referred to as Home-Based Others (HBO). Finally,
trips that do not have home as its origin or destination are referred to as Non-Home Based (NHB)
trips.
Figure 10.15: Definition of a Trip
Trips captured in the conduct of Household Interview Surveys (HIS) can be classified based on:
• By Purpose (Work, School, Shop, Others)
• By Time of Day (AM, PM, peak, off-peak)
10-9
• By Person Type (income, car ownership, family size, accessibility, etc.)
The Origin-Destination (OD) is a collection of typical day trip activities of residents within the Study
Area.
Figure 10.16: Single Trip Entry
Figure 10.17: Constructing an OD Table
Travel Demand Models
Transport demand models refer to a series of mathematical equations that are used to represent
how choices are made when people travel. Travel demand occurs as a result of thousands of
individual travelers making individual decisions on how, where and when to travel. These decisions
are affected by many factors such as family situations, characteristics of the person making the trip,
and the choices (destination, route and mode) available for the trip.
Mathematical relationships are used to represent (model) human behavior in making these choices.
Models require a series of assumptions in order to work and are limited by the data available to
make forecasts. The coefficients and parameters in the model are calibrated using existing data.
Normally, these relationships are assumed to be valid and to remain constant in the future.
Travel demand modeling was first developed in the late 1950's. As the need to look at other
problems such as transit, land use issues and air quality analysis arose, the modeling process has
been modified to add additional techniques to deal with these problems.
Models are important because transportation plans and investments are based on what the models
say about future travel. Models are used to estimate the number of trips that will be made on a
transportation systems alternative at some future date.
10- 10
These estimates are the basis for transportation plans and are used in major investment analysis,
environmental impact statements and in setting priorities for investments.
Models provide forecasts only for those factors and alternatives which are explicitly included in the
equations of the models. If the models are not sensitive to certain polices or programs (i.e. policy
sensitive), the models will not show the effects of such policies.
Database Development
Generally, the development of database for use in travel demand forecasting involves the following
items:
a) Break the area that requires prediction of future travel demand into study zones that can
be accurately described by a few variables (Zoning Design);
b) Collection of existing socio-economic data for the study area;
c) Conduct of Person-Trip (PT) surveys to establish the present travel patterns, specifically,
person OD trips;
d) Conduct of other traffic surveys to calibrate the model for the base year (e.g. screenline
traffic counts); and
e) Conduct of land use surveys to establish land use development patterns
The zoning design requires considering the decision-making context, the schemes to be modeled,
and the nature of trips of interest in the study. The study area should have majority of origin and
destination trips inside it. The study area should be somewhat bigger than the specific area of
interest.
The Study Area will be comprised of zones. The zoning system is a way of aggregating trips into
manageable chunks for modeling purposes. The Traffic Analysis Zone (TAZ) is a basic unit of
zoning system where each zone is a point of origin and destination for trips.
The zoning criteria that are used in establishing the zone boundaries of Traffic Analysis Zones (TAZ)
are:
a) Zoning size must be such that aggregation errors are minimized
b) Zoning system must be compatible with other administrative divisions, particularly with
census zones
c) Zones should be homogeneous as possible in their land use and/or population composition
d) Zone boundaries must be compatible with cordons and screen lines and with those of
previous zoning systems
e) Shape of the zones should allow easy identification of centroid connectors
f) Zones do not have to be of equal size
g) Zone sizes must consider population distribution; that each zone may have similar
population (homogeneity)
10- 11
Figure 10.18: MMUTIS Zoning System - NCR
Figure 10.19: MMUTIS Zoning System - Outside NCR
Typical surveys that are undertaken in the development of a travel demand forecasting model are:
a) Infrastructure and existing services inventories
10- 12
b) Land use inventory

c) Household Interview Surveys (HIS)
d) Socio-economic information
The Household Interview Survey (HIS) is the most valuable source of data for travel demand
analysis and is certainly the most costly and time-consuming to conduct. The objectives of the HIS
or Person-Trip (PT) Survey are:
a) To capture the socio-economic profile of households in the study area; and
b) To establish detailed trip information of household members in the study area
10- 13
Figure 10.20: Household Information Form
10- 14
Figure 10.21: Member Information Form
10- 15
Figure 10.22: Household Information Form
10- 16
A Sampling design aims at ensuring that the data to be examined provide the greatest amount of
useful information about the population of interest at the lowest possible cost. The problem is how
to use the data (i.e.expand the values in the sample) in order to make correct inferences about the
population.
The greatest difficulties in the conduct of sampling surveys are:

a) How to ensure a representative sample
b) How to extract valid conclusions from the sample
Common sampling methods that are employed in the conduct of HIS are:
a) Simple random sampling
• Simplest and basic method
b) Stratified random sampling
• Subdividing the population into homogeneous strata (with respect to the stratifying
variable)
• Then, random sampling is conducted inside each stratum using the same sampling
rate
c) Choice-based sampling
• Stratifying the population based on the result of the choice process under
consideration
• Fairly common in transport planning with the advantage that data may be produced
at a much lower cost
• Drawback is that the sample may not be random and the therefore the risk of bias
in the expanded values
Sources of errors from household surveys include:

a) Sampling error
• Always present in dealing with samples
• Does not affect the expected values but influences variability and confidence level
b) Sampling bias
• Caused by mistakes either when defining the population of interest or when
selecting the sampling methods
• May be avoided or eliminated by taking extra care during sampling design and data
collection
One critical aspect in survey planning is the determination of sample size. There is no
straightforward or objective answer to the calculation of sample size in every situation. It must be
produced by the analyst after careful consideration of the problem at hand. There is a trade-off
between sample size and overall survey cost.
If the sample size is too small, the degree of confidence on the data will be very low. On the other
hand, if the sample size is too big, the degree of confidence on the data will be very high but the
survey cost will be impractically high.
10- 17
Figure 23. Trade-off between Sample Size and Cost
The number of samples may be computed by

CV2 Z 2
n=
E
CV = /µ
where CV is the coefficient of variation, E is the level of accuracy (expressed as a proportion) and
Zc is the valued of the standard normal variate for the confidence level (c) required.
The types of errors encountered in household surveys, include:

a) Measurement Errors
• Errors in getting base year data
b) Sampling Errors
• Models must be estimated using finite data sets
c) Specification Errors
• Phenomenon being modeled is not well understood or due to simplifications
d) Transfer Errors
• Spatial and temporal transfers
e) Aggregation Errors
• Arise basically out of the need to make forecasts for groups while modeling needs
to be done at the individual level
• Types: Data aggregation, Aggregation of alternatives, Model aggregation
Overview of the Four-Step Model
The Four-Step Model is a sequential process for generating travel demand forecasts with the
following steps:
a) Trip Generation
• Calculate the number of trips starting in each zone for a particular trip purpose
b) Trip Distribution
• Produce a table of the number of trips starting in each zone and ending up in each
other zone
c) Modal Split
• Complete the allocation of the various trips among the available transportation
systems (bus, train, pedestrian, and private vehicles)
d) Traffic Assignment
• Identify the specific routes on each transportation system that will be selected by the
travelers
10- 18
Figure 10.24: Four-Step Model
The key objective of the four-step model is to determine the future traffic volumes on the road
network under various assumptions of road and land use changes.
The total traffic volume in the future will be composed of the following components:
a) Existing traffic;
b) Traffic due to natural increase;
c) Traffic due to proposed development;
d) Traffic due to other developments
Figure 10.25: Objectives of Four-Step Model
Trip generation is the first step in the conventional four-step transportation planning process, widely
used for forecasting travel demands. It predicts the number of trips originating in or destined for a
particular traffic analysis zone.
Trip generation uses trip rates that are averages for large segment of the study area. Trip
productions are based on household characteristics such as the number of people in the household
10- 19
Figure 10.28: Trip Distribution
Mode choice analysis is the third step in the conventional four-step transportation planning model.
Trip distribution's zonal interchange analysis yields a set of origin destination tables which tells
where the trips will be made; mode choice analysis allows the modeler to determine what mode of
transport will be used.
Figure 10.29: Modal Split
Mode choice is one of the most critical parts of the travel demand modeling process. It is the step
where trips between a given origin and destination are split into trips using transit, trips by car pool
or as automobile passengers and trips by automobile drivers.
A utility function measures the degree of satisfaction that people derive from their choices and a
disutility function represents the generalized cost that is associated with each choice.
The most commonly used process for mode split is to use the 'Logit' model. This involves a
comparison of the "disutility" or "utility" of travel between two points for the different modes that are
available. Disutility is a term used to represent a combination of the travel time, cost and
convenience of a mode between an origin and a destination. It is found by placing multipliers
(weights) on these factors and adding them together.
10-21
Figure 10.30: Choice Model
Disutility calculations may contain a "mode bias factor" which is used to represent other
characteristics or travel modes which may influence the choice of mode (such as a difference in
privacy and comfort between transit and automobiles). The mode bias factor is used as a constant
in the analysis and is found by attempt to fit the model to actual travel behavior data.
Generally, the disutility equations do not recognize differences within travel modes. For example, a
bus system and a rail system with the same time and cost characteristics will have the same
disutility values. There are no special factors that allow for the difference in attractiveness of
alternative technologies.
Once disutility are known for the various mode choices between an origin and a destination, the
trips are split among various modes based on the relative differences between disutility. The logit
equation is used in this step.
A large advantage in disutility will mean a high percentage for that mode. Mode splits are calculated
to match splits found from actual traveler data. Sometimes a fixed percentage is used for the
minimum transit use (percent captive users) to represent travelers who have no automobile
available or are unable to use an automobile for their trip.
Trip assignment, traffic assignment or route choice concerns the selection of routes (alternative
called paths) between origins and destinations in transportation networks. It is the fourth step in the
conventional transportation planning model.. To determine facility needs and costs and benefits,
we need to know the number of travelers on each route and link of the network
Figure 10.31: Traffic Assignment
10-22
Once trips have been split into highway and transit trips, the specific path that they use to travel
from their origin to their destination must be found. These trips are then assigned to that path in the
step called traffic assignment.
The process first involves the calculation of the shortest path from each origin to all destinations
(usually the minimum time path is used). Trips for each O-D pair are then assigned to the links in
the minimum path and the trips are added up for each link. The assigned trip volume is then
compared to the capacity of the link to see if it is congested. If a link is congested the speed on the
link needs to be reduced to result in a longer travel time on that link.
Changes in travel times mean that the shortest path may change. Hence the whole process is
repeated several times (iterated) until there are equilibrium between travel demand and travel
supply. Trips on congested links will be shifted to uncontested links until this equilibrium, condition
occurs. Traffic assignment is the most complex calculation in the travel modeling sequence and
there are a variety of ways in which it is done to keep computer time to a minimum.
The Bureau of Public Roads (BPR) function is the most commonly-used function for relating
changes in travel speed to increases in travel volume. The BPR function is specified as follows:
where:
Tf = final link travel time
To = original (free-flow) link travel time
alpha = coefficient (often set at 0.15)
V = assigned traffic volume
C = the link capacity
beta = exponent (often set at 4.0)
Traffic assignment models usually compute the shortest path based on generalized travel cost on
the network. In transport economics, the generalized cost is the sum of the monetary and non-
monetary costs of a journey.
Monetary (or "out-of-pocket") costs might include a fare on a public transport journey, or the costs
of fuel, wear and tear and any parking charge, toll or congestion charge on a car journey.
Non-monetary costs refer to the time spent undertaking the journey. Time is converted to a money
value using a value of time figure, which usually varies according to the traveller's income and the
purpose of the trip.
The generalised cost is equivalent to the price of the good in supply and demand theory, and so
demand for journeys can be related to the generalised cost of those journeys using the price
elasticity of demand. Supply is equivalent to capacity (and, for roads, road quality) on the network
10-23
11 MODULE 11: WRAP-UP SESSION

11.1 Objectives of the Workshop:
1) Evaluate how the training modules have addressed prevalent challenges in traffic
enforcement experienced by the participating LGUs and NGAs;
2) Solicit recommendations on technical topics and follow-through support to strengthen
traffic enforcement efforts
The template below may be used for Item #1:

Traffic Management Issue Training Module/s that were Strategy/ies that were used
useful to address the issue based on the module/s
Time allocation:
Time Activity
9:00 – 9:15am Discussion of workshop mechanics
9:15 – 9:45 am Group discussion to finalize report
9:45 – 11:15 am Group presentation (each group is given 3-5 minutes each)
11:15 – 11:30am Free discussion
11:30 – 11:45am Synthesis and way forward
11- 1

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JAPAN INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION AGENCY (JICA)

THE PROJECT FOR COMPREHENSIVE TRAFFIC

TECHNICAL REPORT NO. 10

1 MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION TO STRENGTHENING OF THE TRAFFIC

1 MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION ON STRENGTHENING OF THE

2) Main Activities and Expected Outputs

Figure 1.1: Traffic Management Training Activities and Expected Outputs

Figure 1.2: Basic Procedure in Finding Solutions to Traffic Problems

1.2 Metro Manila Transportation & Traffic Issues and Concerns

Source: Sigua, R.G.

Figure 1.3: Driving Cycle for Metro Manila

Figure 1.4: Road Traffic Volume and V/C Ratio, 2012

Causes of Congestion: Main causes of congestion may be attributed to the following:

Source: Philippine Statistics Authority

Figure 1.5: Trends in Fatality Rates (per 100,000 population)

Table 1.3: Road Crash Locations IN Metro Manila (2005-2016)

Site No. of Road Crashes No. of Deaths

Rank Junction Control Number of Number of

This could be indicative of the following:

Source: MMARAS, Luo, C.Y.

Figure 1.6: Pedestrian vs Car Fatal Road Crashes

Source: MMARAS, Luo, C.Y.

Figure 1.7: Pedestrian vs Trucks, Fatal Road Crashes

Source: MMARAS, Luo, C.Y.

Figure 1.8: Motorcycle Alone (self-road crash) Fatal

Source:MMARAS, Luo, C.Y.

Figure 1.9: Motorcycle vs Trucks Fatal

Source: MMARAS, Luo, C.Y.

Figure 1.10: Motorcycle vs Car Fatal

1.3 Understanding the Problem

Figure 1.21: Major Elements of a Road System

(i) Adequate road infrastructure exists.

Figure 1.32: Motorcycle vs Car Fatal

Figure 1.43: Candidate Traffic Bottlenecks in Metro Manila

The bottleneck locations are broken down as follows:

Table 1.5: Traffic Bottleneck Locations in Metro Manila

3) Government Bodies in the Philippines Involved in Transportation and Traffic

4) Traffic Management at the LGU Level

Table 1.7: Traffic Management Unit/Office in Metro Manila

5) Major Causes of Traffic Congestion on Local Roads

(i) Reduction of lanes caused by pedestrians jaywalking at locations other than

(a) Issues at inter-agency Level

(b) Issues at Intra-agency Level (within MMDA)

1.4 Addressing Congestion

Figure 1.54: Traffic Demand versus Traffic Supply

In addressing congestion, either supplied is increased or demand is decreased, or both.

Source: Sigua, R.G.

1) Lowering the Demand

Increasing the supply/capacity is a very costly undertaking. As stated by an EST Champion,

Traffic management is a term used to embody the activities undertaken by an agency to

Source: Sigua, R.G.

Figure 1.65: Key Objectives of Traffic Management

3) Strengthening LGU Capacity on Traffic Management

Source: Sigua, R.G.

(iii) Geometric design

Source: Sigua, R.G.

Figure 1.87: General Coverage of Traffic Operation and Control

Source: Sigua, R.G.

Figure 1.98: General Coverage of Traffic Studies

Figure 1.109: General coverage of geometric design

Source: Sigua, R.G.

Figure 1.20: Major tasks in road safety

Source: Sigua, R.G.

Figure 1.21: General coverage of traffic planning