CHAPTER 2

ANALOG MODULATION

© Muhammad Faizal Ismail JKE, PPD, UTHM

 Topics

2.1 Principles of Amplitude Modulation (AM)

2.2 AM Analysis

2.3 Single Sideband AM

2.4 Principles of Frequency Modulation (FM)

2.5 FM Analysis

2.6 Radio Receiver

2.7 Advantages & Disadvantages of Analog Modulation

 Why we Need Modulation?

• It is because modulation makes the information signal

more compatible with the medium.

• Modulation = Impressing information at low frequency

onto a higher frequency signal.

• A technique for transmitting information efficiently from

one place to another.

• Simplest form of modulation is the amplitude

modulation (AM).
 2.1
Principles of
Amplitude Modulation
 2.1 Principles of Amplitude Modulation

• Definition:
• Amplitude of carrier frequency change proportionately to the
value of the modulation signal.
• Advantages: • Disadvantages:
• Simple modulator circuits • Poor performance due to
• Cheap :low-quality form of noise
modulation used for • Inefficient use of transmitter
commercial broadcasting power.
of audio & video signal.
• Application:
• 2 way radio communications, broadcasting, aircraft comm. &
citizen band (CB) radio.
 2.1 Principles of Amplitude Modulation

 AM modulators are nonlinear Information, Vm(t)

devices
◦ 2 input and 1 output: modulating VAM (t)
signal and carrier signal. AM
Modulator

 Several types of amplitude

modulation Carrier, Vc(t)
◦ Double Side Band Full Carrier
(DSB-FC) Figure 2.1: Block diagram of
◦ Double Side Band Suppressed Amplitude Modulation
Carrier (DSB-SC)
◦ Single Side Band (SSB)

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2.1 Principles of Amplitude Modulation

Figure 2.2 AM signal with the envelope

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2.1 Principles of Amplitude Modulation

AM in action

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 2.1 Principles of Amplitude Modulation

Derivation of AM Equation
• AM begins with carrier vc , → a sine wave with frequency
ƒc & amplitude Vc:
vc =V csin 2πf ct

• Modulating signal: Remember :

Modulating signal uses the
vm = Vm sin 2πf mt
peak value of the carrier as
• Then AM is: a reference point
Venv = Vc + vm
Venv = Vc + Vm sin 2π f mt [m = Vm / Vc ]
Venv = Vc + mVc sin 2π f mt

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 2.1 Principles of Amplitude Modulation

• Where m (modulation index) is defined as Vm/Vc, hence:

Venv = Vc (1 + m sin 2π f mt )

• The voltage resulting AM wave envelope at any instant is:

v = Venv sin 2π f c t
= Vc (1 + m sin 2π f mt ) • sin 2π f c t

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 2.1 Principles of Amplitude Modulation

Using Trigo ID (sin a )(sin b) = 1 / 2[cos(a − b) − cos(a + b)]

v = Vc sin 2π f c t
m
+ Vc cos 2π ( f c − f m )t
2
m
− Vc cos 2π ( f c + f m )t
2

Vm V
v AM = Vc sin 2πf c t + cos 2π ( f c− f m )t − m cos 2π ( f c+ f m )t
2 2

Carrier LSB USB

This yield, the upper and lower sidebands – frequency

& amplitude.
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 2.1 Principles of Amplitude Modulation
AM FREQUENCY SPECTRUM &
BANDWIDTH
 AM modulators are non-linear device => non-linear
mixing occurs.

 Output envelope is complex wave made up of DC

voltage, carrier frequency, the sum (fm + fc) &
difference (fc – fm) frequencies.

 AM spectrum contains frequency component spaced fm

Hz on either side of the carrier.

 Figure 2.3 shows the frequency spectrum of AM wave.

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 2.1 Principles of Amplitude Modulation

Vc

Vm /2 Vm /2

fc - f m fc f c + fm

Bandwidth = 2fm

Figure 2.3: Frequency spectrum for AM wave

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 Spectrum Parameters
 Center frequency = Carrier Center frequency peak
amplitude:
frequency = V
fc c

 Upper and lower sideband

 Upper sideband freq. = voltages:
carrier freq. + modulating Vm
freq. VUSB = VLSB =
2
fUSB = f c + f m  Bandwidth = Maximum freq.
- minimum freq.
 Lower sideband freq. =
BW = f max − f min
carrier freq. - modulating
= f usb − f lsb
freq.
= ( fc + fm ) − ( fc − fm )
f LSB = f c − f m
= 2 fm
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 2.1 Principles of Amplitude Modulation

Example 1
Q. A carrier signal and a information signal below are
used to generate an AM signal.
a. Find the envelop and full AM signals.
b. Carier, LSB,USB and bandwidth

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 2.1 Principles of Amplitude Modulation

Example 2
Q. Modulating signal fm =3 kHz frequency and a carrier
frequency fc =1 MHz. What is the upper & lower
sideband frequency? Then find the bandwidth of the
modulated signal.

17
 2.1 Principles of Amplitude Modulation

Example 2
Q. Modulating signal fm =3 kHz frequency and a carrier
frequency fc =1 MHz. What is the upper & lower
sideband frequency? Then find the bandwidth of the
modulated signal.

A. 997 kHz, 1003 kHz, 6 kHz.

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 2.1 Principles of Amplitude Modulation

Example 3
Q. A 1.4 MHz carrier is modulated by a signal with
frequencies from 20Hz & 10KHz. Determine the
range of frequencies generated for the upper and
lower sidebands?

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 2.1 Principles of Amplitude Modulation

Example 3
Q. A 1.4 MHz carrier is modulated by a signal with
frequencies from 20Hz & 10KHz. Determine the
range of frequencies generated for the upper and
lower sidebands?

A. USB = 1.400020Hz, 1.410000Hz,

LSB = 1.390000Hz, 1.399980Hz

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 2.2
AM Analysis
 2.2 AM Analysis

MODULATION INDEX
• Modulation index, m is to determines the amount of modulation.
• For AM, it is defined as a measure which a carrier voltage is varied by
the modulating signal.
• For proper AM to occur (magnitude/voltage in osc.)
Vm ≤ Vc

Vm p− p Vm
• Modulation index, m= or in percentage ,
M= x100%
Vc p− p Vc
• There are 3 different types of amplitude modulation.
Under Over
Ideal
Modulated Modulated
m=1
m<1 m>1
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 2.2 AM Analysis

MODULATION INDEX
• m < 1 : under modulation
• Vm < Vc

• signal strength obtained at receiver is not 100% the same

as at the transmitter.

• No distortion to the signal, just reduced signal strength.

Figure 2.4 m < 1, under modulation.

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 2.2 AM Analysis

MODULATION INDEX
• m=1 : ideal modulation
• Vm = Vc
• Greatest output at the receiver without distortion
• maximum info signal amplitude transmission
• more info signal power is transmitted  producing stronger,
more intelligible signal
• hard to achieve. Modulating signal amplitude varies
randomly over a wide range – only the peak of the signal
will produce 100% modulation.

Figure 2.5 m = 1, ideal modulation.

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 2.2 AM Analysis

MODULATION INDEX
• m > 1 : over modulation
• Vm > Vc
• cause distortion
• negative peaks have been clipped off.
• The original shape of the signal is destroyed.

Figure 2.6 m > 1, over modulated AM

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• Modulation index can be calculated directly from the AM wave. Figure 2.7(a)
Measurement of modulation index using minimum & maximum value Figure 2.7(b) using
peak-to-peak value.

Vm Vmax − Vc
m =
=
15

10
Vm Vc Vc
Vmax Vmax − Vc = Vc − Vmin
5 Vmin
Vc Vmax − Vmin
Vm =
Amplitude (V)

0
2
Vmax + Vmin
-5
Vc =
2
-10

Or
Vmax = Vc + Vm
-15
0 0.5 1 1
time -3
x 10

Vmin = Vc − Vm
Figure 2.7(a) Measuring m using max and min value

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 15

10

Vmax p − p
5
Vmin p − p Figure 2.7(b) Measuring m
Amplitude (V)

using peak-to-peak value &

0
the form of trapezoidal

-5

-10

-15
0 0.5 1 1.5
time -3
x 10
Vmax − Vmin
m=
Vmax + Vmin B− A
m% = x100%
Vmax p− p − Vmin p− p B+ A
m=
Vmax p− p + Vmin p− p

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 2.2 AM Analysis

MODULATION INDEX

Example 4
A carrier signal with a peak voltage Vc of 2.0V is
amplitude modulated with a 10kHz sine wave. The
modulation voltage has an effective value of
750mV. Compute the following:

a. The percent modulation, m

b. The instantaneous voltage of the positive and negative

envelope when the 10kHz sine has completed 68µs of its
cycle.

c. Illustrate the resulting AM waveform

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 2.2 AM Analysis

MODULATION INDEX
Answers
a. Modulation index
Vm 1.414 x 750mV
=m = x100% = x100% 53.04%
Vc 2.0V

b. Voltage at t = 68µs
Venv= Vc + Vm sin 2π f mt
= Vc(1 + m sin 2π f mt )
= 2.0(1 + 0.5304sin 2π .10kHz.68μs)
=1.04V

Therefore the negative envelope is -2.08V

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 2.2 AM Analysis

Power for AM

• The equation of AM & the definition of modulation index can be combined

to show the amount of power in a carrier and total signal:

 m2 
PT = Pc 1 + 
 2 

PT = total transmitted power

Pc = carrier power
m = modulation index

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 2.2 AM Analysis

AM Power Transmission
• Power in AM is equal to the carrier power + the
sideband power.
• Total transmitted power, PT is equal to the sum of the
carrier power (PC) and both of the sidebands (PUSB,
PLSB)

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 2.2 AM Analysis

AM Power Transmission

• R correspond to the antenna

(which is a load) impedance &
dissipate power for a resistor is

• In the previous discussion, we

assume the impedance of the
antenna is unity (R = 1).

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 2.2 AM Analysis

AM Power Transmission

• Upper and lower sidebands power are equal,

therefore

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 2.2 AM Analysis

AM Power Transmission

• If m = 1,

• In practice, carrier signal will be modulated by several signals

simultaneously.

• The total modulation index or effective modulation index has to be

calculated.
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 2.2 AM Analysis

AM Power Transmission

• If m = 1 and Pc = 1 W,
𝑚𝑚2 𝑚𝑚2
𝑃𝑃𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝑃𝑃𝐶𝐶 + 𝑃𝑃 + 𝑃𝑃
4 𝐶𝐶 4 𝐶𝐶
12 12
𝑃𝑃𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 1 + 1 + (1)
4 4

𝑃𝑃𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 1.5 𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊

35
 3.2 AM Analysis

AM Power Transmission
Example 5
A 400 W carrier is modulated with index of 75%.
Calculate the total power in the modulated wave

Solution:

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 2.2 AM Analysis

AM Power Transmission
Example 5
A 400 W carrier is modulated with index of 75%.
Calculate the total power in the modulated wave

Solution:

37
 2.2 AM Analysis

AM Power Transmission
Example 6
An AM broadcast station’s peak carrier voltage of 2 kV has been
amplitude modulated to an index of 75% with a 2 kHz test tone. The
station broadcast frequency is 810 kHz. Compute the following:

1. The lower and upper sidebands frequencies, fLSB and fUSB

2. The peak modulation voltage, Vm
3. The peak lower and upper sideband voltages, VLSB and VUSB
4. The maximum signal amplitude, Vmax

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2.2 AM Analysis

AM Power Transmission
Example 6

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 2.2 AM Analysis

AM Power Transmission
For the trapezoidal pattern below, find;
Example 7
i. Modulation coefficient, m.
32V ii. Index modulation percentage, M.
iii. Modulating amplitude, Vm.
11V iv. Carrier amplitude, VC.
v. Upper and lower side amplitude, VUSB and VLSB.
-11V
vi. Frequency limit for upper and lower sideband
(fUSB and fLSB), if the carrier frequency, fC =100kHz
-32V and the modulating frequency, fm =5kHz.
vii. Bandwidth, BW.
viii. The total power of the AM wave, PT, if load
resistance RL = 10 Ω.
ix. Draw the output spectrum for this AM DSBFC
(Double Sideband Full Carrier).
40
 2.2 AM Analysis Example 7
AM Power Transmission
i. Modulation coefficient, m.
𝑉𝑉max − 𝑉𝑉min 32 − 11
𝑚𝑚 = = = 0.488
𝑉𝑉max + 𝑉𝑉min 32 + 11

ii. Index modulation percentage, M. = 48.8%

iii. Modulating amplitude, Vm.

𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 − 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 32 − 11
𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚 = = = 10.5𝑉𝑉
2 2

iii. Carrier amplitude, VC.

𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 32 + 11
𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐 = = = 21.5𝑉𝑉
2 2

iv. Upper and lower side amplitude, VUSB and VLSB.

𝑉𝑉𝑚𝑚
𝑉𝑉𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈 = 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = = 5.25 𝑉𝑉
2
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 2.2 AM Analysis Example 7
AM Power Transmission
v. Frequency limit for upper and lower sideband (fUSB and fLSB), if the carrier
frequency, fC =100kHz and the modulating frequency, fm =5kHz.

𝑓𝑓𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈 = 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐 + 𝑓𝑓𝑚𝑚 = 100 + 5 = 105 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

𝑓𝑓𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = 𝑓𝑓𝑐𝑐 − 𝑓𝑓𝑚𝑚 = 100 − 5 = 95 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

vi. Bandwidth, BW.

𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 2𝑓𝑓𝑚𝑚 = 2 5𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 = 10 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

vii. The total power of the AM wave, PT, if load resistance RL = 10 Ω.

𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐 2 𝑉𝑉𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈 2 𝑉𝑉𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 2 21.52 5.252 5.252
𝑃𝑃𝑇𝑇 = + + = + + = 25.87 𝑊𝑊
2𝑅𝑅 2𝑅𝑅 2𝑅𝑅 2(10) 2(10) 2(10)
21.5 V
vii. Draw the output spectrum 5.25 V
5.25 V

for this AM DSBFC (Double

kHz
Sideband Full Carrier). 95 100 105
BW=10 kHz
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 2.2 AM Analysis

AM Power Transmission
Figure below shows the trapezoidal shapes of
Example 8 AM transmitter output with a carrier frequency
20 MHz, and a modulating frequency 4 MHz.
Solve :
i. Modulation index , m.
ii. Carrier amplitude , Vc .
iii. Modulating amplitude , Vm .
12 V 26 V iv. Upper and lower side frequency amplitude,
VUSB and VLSB .
v. Frequency limit for upper and lower
sideband, fUSB and fLSB .
vi. Bandwidth , BW .
vii. Total power of the AM wave, PT if internal
resistance is 50 ohm.
viii. Sketch the output spectrum for this AM DSBFC
(Double Sideband Full Carrier). 43