Contents

Section 1: Fundamentals of Hardware and Software...............................................................................1

Objective 1.1: Describe a general-purpose computer system.................................................................1

Objective 1.2: Explain the functions of the major hardware components of a computer system...........2

Objective 1.3: Outline the functions and uses of primary storage devices..............................................4

Objective 1.4: Manipulate units of storage.............................................................................................5

Objective 1.5: Compare the types of secondary storage media w.r.t. portability, speed and capacity.. .6

Objective 1.6: Use terms associated with storage devices......................................................................6

Objective 1.7: Explain the uses of various input devices and media......................................................15

Objective 1.8: State the types and functions of output devices............................................................20

Objective 1.9: Describe how data are stored and manipulated within the computer...........................25

Objective 1.10: Interpret the hardware specifications of a computer system.......................................33

Objective 1.11: Distinguish between system programs and application programs...............................35

Objective 1.12: Explain the functions of the Operating Systems...........................................................38

Objective 1.13: Distinguish among multitasking, multiprocessing and multiprogramming...................38

Objective 1.14: Explain the different types of processing modes..........................................................39

Objective 1.15: Distinguish between types of user interface................................................................40

Section 1: Fundamentals of Hardware and Software

Objective 1.1: Describe a general-purpose computer system.

Content: Major functions of systems: input, processing, output, storage

Notes: The major functions of a general-purpose system

The major functions of a general-purpose system are:

 Input: involves obtaining data for processing

1
  Processing: involves the manipulation of data to produce information. Manipulation
means multiplying, adding, subtracting, dividing, sorting etc.
 Output: involves sending information to users.
 Storage: involves keeping the data on electronic storage.

Objective 1.2: Explain the functions of the major hardware components of a computer
system.

Content: CPU, CU, ALU; main memory, secondary storage, input and output devices

Notes: The major hardware components of a computer system

The major hardware components of a computer system are shown in the diagram below.

CPU

CU
Input devices Output devices

ALU

Main Memory

Secondary Storage

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The CPU is also called the processor. It takes raw data, follows a set of instructions (programs)
and converts it into information. The CPU consists of two smaller units known as the control
unit (CU) and the arithmetic and logic unit (ALU).

Control Unit (CU)

2
This is the main part of the CPU. It directs and coordinates all activities within the CPU. It
determines the sequence in which instructions are executed. The CU executes an instruction by
performing the following steps:
1. Fetching the instructions from memory
2. Decoding the instructions
3. Fetching the data required by the instructions from memory
4. Sending the data and instructions to the ALU for processing
5. Sending the data to memory after processing

Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)

The ALU performs all the arithmetic and logic functions in a computer. The arithmetic
operations include addition (+), subtraction (-), multiplication (*) and division (/).

The logic functions are comparisons, such as

1. Equal to (=) 6. Greater than or equal to (>=)

2. Not equal to (≠) 7. AND
3. Less than (<) 8. OR
4. Greater than (>) 9. NOT
5. Less than or equal to (<=)

much cheaper than primary storage and is

Main Memory unlimited since you can have as much of it as
Main memory is also called computer you can afford. The most commonly used
memory, immediate access storage (IMAS/IAS) auxiliary storage devices are magnetic storage
or primary storage. This unit of memory is (tapes and disks), optical storage (CD ROM,
directly accessible to the CPU. It holds data CD-R, DVD-ROM, DVD-R and DVD-RW and
and instructions that the computer is solid state memory (flash memory and USB
processing at the time. drives).

Secondary Storage Peripheral Devices

Secondary storage is also called auxiliary
storage, backing storage or disk storage. These
devices are used to store data and instructions
when they are not being processed. Secondary
storage is more permanent than main
memory, since data and instructions are not
lost when the power is turned off. It is also
Peripheral devices are any device controlled or
monitored by the CPU. It includes both input
and output devices.
Input Devices
Input devices are any device that is used to put
data and instructions into the computer.
Some commonly used input devices are

3
keyboard, mouse, joystick, digital camera,
scanners, barcode readers and magnetic
strips.
Output Devices
Output devices are any device that is used to
get information out of a computer. Some
commonly used output devices are VDU or
monitor, printer, plotter, speakers and
multimedia projector.
Objective 1.3: Outline the functions and
uses of primary storage devices.
Content: PROM, EPROM, RAM, ROM
Notes: Primary Storage
This is a group of silicon chips that resides on
the computer’s motherboard (main circuit
board). Primary storage consists of two types
of memory chips: RAM and ROM chips. A
memory chip is an integrated circuit (IC) made
up of millions of transistors and capacitors.
RAM
This chip is used to hold data and instructions
(programs) temporarily while processing is
taking place using that data and program. It
also holds the data that results from
processing – data that is waiting to be output
or stored in a secondary storage device. RAM
is volatile i.e. it is temporary and changeable. If
the power is turned off or the computer is
rebooted (started up again) all the information
held in RAM will be lost.
ROM
This chip holds data and instructions necessary
for starting up the computer when it is
switched on. It is used to store system-level
programs such as the BIOS (Basic Input Output
System) program.
Variations of ROM
Programmable ROM (PROM)
This type of ROM can be programmed only
once using special equipment. It is useful for
companies that want to make their own ROMs
from software they write themselves. If they
change their code they can create new PROMs
without requiring a ROM manufacturer.
Erasable programmable ROM (EPROM)
This type of ROM can be erased and
reprogrammed, which makes it more useful
than a PROM. EPROM chips are programmed
in the same way as PROM chips. Data is erased
from this chip by exposing it to ultraviolet light
of a specific frequency for a specified period of
time.
Objective 1.4: Manipulate units of storage.
Content: Bistable devices, bit, byte,
kilobyte, megabyte, gigabyte, terabyte, word,
word size
Notes: Units of Storage
Memory is made up of bistable devices.
Bistable means the components that make up
memory can be set to one of two states either
on or off. These two states are represented
4
using binary digits- 0 for off and 1 for on. As
such, the smallest unit of storage of memory is
called a binary digit (bit). The amount of data
and instructions that can be stored in primary
storage or secondary storage media is
measured in bytes.

Byte
A byte is made up of a combination of 8 bits
and has the capacity to represent one
character i.e. a letter, a number, a symbol, a
punctuation mark or a blank space.

Word
A word is the amount of bits the computer can
process in one operation.

Word size
A word size or word length is the number of
bits in a word.

5
Larger Units of Storage

Name Sym Number of bytes Equ Objective 1.5: Compare the types of
bol al secondary storage media w.r.t. portability,
to speed and capacity.

Kilobyt KB 1024 102 Objective 1.6: Use terms associated with

e 4 storage devices.
byt
es
Content: Magnetic tape, floppy disk, hard
Megab MB 1048576 102
disk (fixed head, moving head,
yte 4
external), optical disks (CD,
KB
DVD), flash drive, flash memory
Gigaby GB 1073741824 102 cards, sequential access, direct
te 4 access, sectors, tracks,
MB read/write head; device
interfaces such as : SCSI, IDE,
Teraby TB 1099511627776 102 SATA
te 4
GB Notes: Secondary Storage Media

Petaby PB 1125899906842624 102

te 4 Secondary storage devices are chosen for a
TB particular use based on their:
 Storage capacity (how much data the
Exabyt EB 115292150460684697 102 device can store)
e 6 4  Access speed ( the time needed to
PB locate the data and transmit it to the
CPU)
Zettab ZB 118059162071741130 102
 Portability ( ability to be easily
yte 3424 4
removed and used on another system)
EB
 Cost
Yottab YB 120892581961462917 102  Size (necessary for storage on shelves
yte 4706176 4 or portability)
ZB

6
Magnetic tape
A magnetic tape looks like an audiocassette
tape. Tapes may come in different sizes. It is
used mainly to backup hard disks because it
can store large amounts of data at a low cost.
Accessing data on a tape is very slow since
data is stored sequentially. Sequentially means
that data is retrieved in the order which it was
stored. As of 2008, the highest capacity tape
cartridges can store 1 TB of data. A tape drive
is used to read data from and write data to the
tape. The tape drive may be external or built
Track
into the system unit.
Magnetic disks (Floppy disk, Hard disk)
All magnetic disks provide direct access to
stored data. This means that you can go
directly to specific piece of data without
having to access any other either before or
after the data you want.
Floppy disk
This is also called a diskette. It is a removable,
flexible plastic disk, coated with a
magnetisable material. The disk is held in a
plastic case, usually 3.5 inches by 3.5 inches in
dimension. The plastic case protects the disk
from dust and grease. The floppy disk is used
to store and transfer small amounts of data
between computers. A 3.5 inch floppy disk
holds up to 1.44 MB of data.
Data and information is written to or read
from the disk by a read/write head in the disk
drive held in the system unit. Data is stored on
both sides of a diskette on tracks and sectors.
Tracks are a set of numbered concentric rings.
The tracks are also divided into wedge shaped
Sector
pieces known as sectors, which are also
numbered. A sector is the amount of data that
can be read from or written to a disk by the
computer in one read/write operation.
Before data is stored on a floppy disk, it needs
to be formatted. Formatting means writing
electronic information on the disk so that the
computer can recognize the disk as a valid
storage device where data can be stored. Most
floppy disks are already formatted when they
are purchased. If a diskette is formatted after
data has been stored to it, the information will
be deleted.
Hard disk
A hard disk is a thin but rigid, inflexible disk
made of highly polished metal. The surface of
each side of the disk (also called platters) is
covered with a substance that can be
magnetized. As of April 2009, the highest
7
capacity HDDs is 2 TB. There are different cylinders. A cylinder is made up of all the
types of disk: moveable head, fixed head and tracks of the same number from all the disks
external. Moveable head hard disks have one that make up the hard disk.
read/write head per disk. Fixed head disks
have a read/write head for every track on the
disk.

The access time (time to get data) from a

spinning disk with one read/write head is a
combination of:

 Seek time – how long it takes the head

to get to the right track;

 Rotational delay or latency time – how

long it takes for the data to rotate
under the head; and

 Transmission time – the time taken to

read the data and transmit it to the
CPU.

Consequently, the access time for a fixed disk

is less than that of a moveable disk, since each
track has a read/write head and this eliminates
the seek time.

The external and removeable hard disks are

portable hard disks that are connected to the
system unit. External hard disks have very
large storage capacities, up to 1.5 TB currently.
They are used mainly by very large computers.
Hard disks are more reliable than floppy disks
since its platters are fixed and seal in a unit.
Hard disks can store much more data than
floppy disk and optical disks and access and
transmission of data is faster.
Optical Disks
Optical disks are disks that are read by laser
lights. They are made from plastic. The data is
stored on layers inside the plastic. CDs and
DVDs are the two main types of optical disks.
Compact Disc

Like floppy disks, a hard disk must also be

formatted before any data can be stored on it.
Formatting sets up the tracks, sectors and
8

A Compact Disc (CD) is an optical disc used to
store digital data. The physical dimension of a
CD is 12 cm or occasionally 8 cm in diameter.
CDs can hold up to 750 MB. They are three
types of CDs: CD-ROM, CD-R and CD-RW.
CD-ROM (read only)
This type of CD is used for:
 Storing multimedia (text, graphics,
sound and videos).
 Storing software packages for sale or
distribution e.g. application software
packages such as encyclopedias, word
processors, training programs, games
and graphics packages.
CD-R (recordable)
This type of CD is used for:
 Storing large volumes of data that does
not need to change e.g music CDs.
CD-RW (re-writeable)
This type of CD is used for:
 Storing large volumes of data that
change frequently e.g backups copies
DVD
"Digital Versatile Disc" commonly called “DVD”
is an optical disc storage media that can be
used for storing movies with high video and
sound quality. DVDs look like compact discs,
their physical dimensions are the same (12 cm
or occasionally 8 cm in diameter). DVDs are
encoded in a different format to CDs and they
have a much higher density (more data is
stored per unit area). Some DVDs are double
sided i.e. they can hold data on both sides.
DVDs can hold between 4.7 GB and 17 GB of
data. Three types of DVDs are the DVD-ROM
(read only), DVD-R (recordable) and DVD-RW
(rewritable).
9
 USB interface
USB Flash drive
USB Flash drives are storage devices which
consist of a small circuit board encased in a
plastic or metal casing built with a USB
interface. They are typically small, lightweight,
removable and rewritable. As of November
2006 to present, memory capacities for USB
Flash drives range from 32 MB up to 64 GB.
Flash drives are more compact, generally
faster, hold more data and may be more
reliable (due to their lack of moving parts)
than floppy disks.
Common uses
1. Personal data transport
The most common use of flash drives is by
individuals to transport and store personal
files such as documents, pictures and
video.
2. Computer repair
Flash drives are used to transfer
recovery and antivirus software to
infected PCs.
3. System administration
Flash drives are used by system and
network administrators, who load
them with configuration information
and software used for system
maintenance, troubleshooting, and
recovery.
4. Application carriers
Flash drives are used to carry
applications that run on the server
computer without requiring
installation.
Flash Memory Cards
These come in the form of a card shaped like a
stick of chewing gum, with dimensions 21.5 x
50 x 2.8 mm and storage capacities up to 64
GB. They are a special type of EEPROM that
can be erased and reprogrammed in blocks
instead of one byte at a time. They are used in
PDAs (personal digital assistants), laptop
computers, digital audio players, digital
cameras, mobile phones and video game
consoles.
Storage Device – Capacity, Advantages and
Disadvantages
10
Storage Storag Advantages Disadvantag  Small and files
Device e es very containing
capaci portable graphics)
 Easy to  Limited
ty
store shelf-life (2
Magnetic Up to 1  Easy to  Provides  Suitable years)
tape TB transport sequential for  Slow to
and store access to backing read/write
 Cheap data up small speeds
 Mostly stored files
used for  Limited  Data
backup or shelf-life (2 security
archives years) (e.g. you
 Must be can store
stored in a small files
suitable that you
environme don’t
nt (smoke, want
dust, other
temperatu computer
re and users to
humidity see)
must be Fixed Up to 2  Direct  Not
carefully hard TB access portable
controlled)disks  Fast data
 Difficult to transfer
update speeds
files  Vast
(cannot storage
make capacity
changes toRemovab Up to  Direct  computer
a record le hard 1.5 TB access must have
without disks  Fast data a USB port
writing transfer
over the speeds
entire  Vast
tape) storage
Floppy 1.44  Provides  Small capacity
disk MB direct storage compared
access to capacity to
data (unsuitable diskettes
stored for storing  portable

11
Optical CD:  Direct  Data on be placed Windows
disks up to access CD-ROMs in a 98 or older
8MB  Fast data cannot be pocket or operating
transfer changed on a key systems
DVD :
speeds  Access chain)
up to
 Vast times are  Large
17 GB storage slower storage
capacity than hard capacity
compared drives compared
to to
diskettes diskettes
 Portable  Highly
 Can be compatibl
cleaned e - ‘plug
easily and play’
with a (no
soft cloth software
 Unaffecte needed)
d by  Fast
magnetic access,
fields direct
Flash Up to  Physically  May need access
memory 64 GB very small special  Password
 Highly software protectio
portable to be used n
 High data with PCs  Disk write
transfer  Limited protectio
speed to storage n switch
PCs compared (prevents
 Large to CD or data from
storage DVD being
capacity accidental
compared ly written
to over)
diskettes
 Direct
access
USB drive Up to  Easy to  May not
Notes: Device Interfaces
256 GB use be easily
 Convenie read with These are connectors and cables used to
nt (small computers transfer data from the CPU to input, output
size – can using
and storage devices. There are different
12
standards or technologies used to design these A device controller is a part of a computer
devices. Three main standards used are:
1. SCSI
2. IDE
3. SATA
Small Computer System Interface (SCSI)
It is a set of standards for physically
connecting and transferring data between
computers and peripheral devices. SCSI is most
commonly used for hard disks and tape drives,
but can connect a wide range of other devices,
including scanners and CD drives.
SCSI Ribbon cables
Two SCSI
Connectors
Intelligent Drive Electronics or Integrated Drive the transfer of data between a computer and
Electronics (IDE)
This interface is used specifically for mass
storage devices, in which the controller is
integrated into the disk or CD-ROM drive.
system that interprets the signals going to, and
coming from the CPU processor. There are
many device controllers in a computer system.
Any device connected to the computer is
connected by a plug and socket, and the
socket is connected to a device controller.
Device controllers play an important role in
order to operate that device. It’s just like a
bridge between the device and operating
system.
IDE port connector
IDE motherboard
connectors
Serial Advanced Technology Attachment
(SATA)
This is a computer bus primarily designed for
mass storage devices such as hard disks drives
and optical drives.
A computer bus (often simply called Bus) is a
part of some computers used to transfer data,
13
signals or power between some of the
components that make up a computer.
Computer buses are used to:
 Link between the CPU and on-board
Memory.
 Link between multiple CPUs in a multi-
CPU system
 Link the Arithmetic logic unit to the
rest of the CPU
 Connect hard drives, graphics cards,
etc to the main system.
 Connect SATA, USB and Firewire.
SATA power cable
SATA
ports on a motherboard
Objective 1.7: Explain the uses of various
input devices and media
Content: Optical mark reader(OMR),
character readers(OCR, MICR), mouse,
joystick, barcode reader, document scanner,
light pen, touch terminals, Voice Data
Entry/voice recognition, graphics tablets, point
of sale(POS), keyboard, digital camera,
biometric systems, sensors, remote control,
sound capture, pointing devices, webcam
Notes: Input Devices
Optical Mark Reader (OMR)
OMR detects the position of marks on paper.
The marks must be made in pre-defined
positions. The OMR detects the intensity of
the light reflected from these marks. The
computer records the position of the marks
and analyses it determine the meaning of the
data e.g. right or wrong answer on a multiple
choice quiz. OMRs are used for correcting
multiple choice examinations, analyzing data
from surveys, counting election ballots and
validating lottery tickets.
Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)
MICR is mainly used by the banking industry to
read cheques. Cheques have the following
information encoded in them:
 The cheque number
 The bank branch number
 The customer’s account number
 The amount of money written on the
cheque
14
The amount is written using special magnetic text on the computer so that it can be
ink which contains iron oxide. The characters manipulated. It is great for archiving
on the cheque are written in a special font and books, documents etc
are recognized electronically as it passes
through the device. The MICR can only
recognize a specific font and a limited number
of characters.
Disadvantages of the OCR
Advantages of the MICR:
 OCR has difficulty understanding
 Documents are difficult to forge handwritten text if the letters are not
 Documents can still be read after being properly formed. OCR has difficulty
folded, soiled etc. recognizing unusual fonts.

Disadvantages of the MICR: Mouse

 MICR readers are expensive The mouse has a ball underneath, which rolls
 The system can accept only a few and determines the direction of the cursor,
characters and buttons which allow the user to make
selections. Some mice (plural of mouse) have a
Optical Character Recognition (OCR)
scroll wheel that allows you to scroll through
This is an optical scanner which utilizes special long documents. In addition to moving the
software to read characters from paper. The cursor, the mouse is used to select and open
shapes of different characters are detected by documents or programs, move icons from one
shining light on them from a photo-electric place to another on the screen, select options
device and sensing the patterns of reflected from a menu, position the cursor when
light. The reader software allows each preparing and editing documents, and for
character pattern to be compared with a set of drawing lines and sizing graphic objects such
stored patterns until the closest match is as pictures.
found. The match is then translated into text
Joystick
in the computer so that it can be manipulated
by the user. It is used in the legal service, This device is used to control movement of the
postal service, utility and financial companies cursor or other objects on the screen by
and by immigration officers at airports. operating a small lever. It is used mainly for
playing games, but it is also used with
Advantages of the OCR
scanners at hospitals.
 OCR is suitable for converting large
volumes of printed data into electronic

15
Barcode Readers
Barcodes are read by a scanner in which a
laser beam scans the barcode and the light is
reflected back into the scanner. The
information received by the scanner is sent for
processing. Barcode readers give fast error-
free data entry into the computer. It is a fast
method of recording the sales of items.
Barcode readers are used in supermarkets,
libraries, research, airports, postal services and
warehouses.
Document Scanners
These scan text and pictures into the
computer. There are many types of scanners: Touch Terminal
1. Flatbed scanner: the picture is placed
on a flat surface and the image is
captured, similarly to how a
photocopying machine works.
2. Handheld scanner: the picture is read
while the user drags the scanner over
it. The quality of the image provided by
this scanner is poor, but it is useful for
quick data capture.
3. Drum scanner: the document to be
scanned is mounted on a glass cylinder.
These are used in publishing industry
(magazines, books) to capture images
with high detail.
4. Sheet-fed scanner: the sheet that
contains the image is fed through
rollers and the picture is scanned as
the paper passes through.
Light pen
This is shaped like a pen and is connected to a
VDU/monitor. It allows you to point and make
selections more accurately on a screen. The tip
of the light pen contains a light-sensitive
element which, when placed against the
screen, detects the light from the screen and
enables the computer to identify the location
of the pen on the screen. Making selections
with a light is far more accurate than using
your finger to make selections on a touch
sensitive screen. They also allow you to draw
directly on the screen. However they are not
as accurate as a digitizing tablet and drawing
can become uncomfortable.
A touch terminal, also known as a touch
screen is a light-sensitive screen that detect
when a person touches it, as well as the area
of the screen that was touched. Various
options are displayed on the screen and the
user presses the one they want. Touch screens
are used on ATMs, microwave ovens, cash
registers, at airports, fast-food outlets, theatre
booking offices, etc.
Advantages of the Touch Terminal
 The user can select the option very
quickly.
 The user does not require any training
to use it.
Disadvantages of the Touch Terminal
 The system is expensive.
 It is limited to certain applications.
16
Voice Data Entry/voice recognition it to the screen. The drawings are made with
either a stylus (pen-like pointing device) or a
This type of system requires the use of a
puck (mouse-like device). Graphics tablets are
microphone. It accepts the spoken word as
used by architects, mapmakers, artists and
input data or commands. The computer is
designers to create sketches and drawings on
programmed to recognize certain patterns of
the computer.
speech. The microphone is used to code
human speech into a sequence of electronic Point of Sale (POS)
signals. These signals are compared to a set of
This is the combination of a barcode reader
stored patterns. If they match, the command
and computerized cash register. It is usually
or data being entered is accepted by the
found in retail outlets. The barcode reader
computer and processed. Voice commands
scans in information from the sale transaction
can be used to control machines or even enter
and this is recorded in a centralized computer
documents in a word processor. It is very
which is connected to the cash register. The
useful for physically disabled persons.
information collected can also be used for
Advantages of the Voice Data Entry stock control and sales analysis.

 No typing is required Advantages of the POS

 The system can be used remotely e.g.  Customers get quicker and more
by telephone accurate service, which improves
efficiency.
Disadvantages of the Voice Data Entry
 Supermarkets can get instant or
 Recognition of words is still relatively
continuous stock checks
slow since human speech can vary in
tone and emphasis of various parts of  Saves on paper
words and phrases.
Disadvantages of the POS
 The system is not suitable for use in
 Barcodes cannot be read by humans
noisy places.
Keyboard
 You may need to program (train) the
system to understand your particular This device is used to enter text data or
voice patterns. characters e.g. letters, symbols, numbers and
commands specific to a program.
Digitizing tablet
Digital cameras
This device looks like a small chalkboard. The
tablet detects and transfers drawings made on

17
This camera captures an image and stores it in Sensors
memory within the camera. The camera has a
Chemical or physical changes in humans and
sensor that converts the light into electrical
their environment can be converted to
charges. The processor in the camera converts
electrical signals using sensors that pass data
this information into digital data and stores it
to a computer, where it is analysed, stored
on a flash RAM card. The digital images can
and manipulated by specialized software.
then be uploaded from the camera to a
These sensors are useful in medicine,
computer where they can be displayed,
environmental planning and preservation,
manipulated or printed. The memory can be
weather reporting etc. Sensors can be used to
erased so that more images can be captured.
measure things such as heat, light, sound,
Unlike normal RAM memory the RAM card is
pressure, strain, acidity(pH), oxygen
non-volatile. The resolution of the camera is
concentration, humidity, pulse, water level,
measured in pixels. The more pixels a camera
water flow, speed, tilt or even a door or valve
has the greater the detail captured.
opening or closing.
Advantages of a Digital Camera
Remote Control
 Photos can be shown on a small screen
A remote control emits a beam of infra-red
on the camera, and resized and erased
light that carries data signals. They are used to
so that you can choose to store only
input data to televisions, stereo systems, VCRs,
the images that you want.
DVD players and by computers as a wireless
Disadvantages of a digital Camera means of communication.

 It is relatively easy to lose or erase the Sound Capture

camera’s memory card e.g. accidentally
Microphones are used for sound capture. All
passing it through an airport x-ray
modern computers contain built-in
machine.
microphones and sound cards to allow voice
Biometric Systems or music to be recorded. The sound card
digitizes the data into a form that the
Biometric refers to the science of identifying computer can understand.
an individual through their body
characteristics such as face geometry and Pointing devices
hand geometry e.g. fingerprints, iris or retinal
These devices are used by graphical operating
scans, vein and voice patterns. All these forms
systems such as Windows to show the
of identifying an individual can be input into a
movement of the pointer or the cursor, and
computer system set up for security purposes
enable the control and selection of objects on
allowing access to buildings and bank accounts
the display screen. This group of devices
etc.
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includes the mouse, trackball, pointing stick, Output devices are equipment used to get
touchpad, joystick, light pen, digitizing tablet information or any other response out of the
and touch screen. computer. If the output can be read by human
beings it is said to be human readable. If the
Webcam
output cannot be understood by humans it is
A webcam is a video capture device connected said to be machine readable. Examples of
to a computer or computer network, often output devices are display screens, speakers,
using a USB port or, if connected to a network, printers, video graphics card, audio card
Ethernet or Wi-Fi. Their most popular use is for (sound card) and plotters.
video telephony, permitting a computer to act
as a videophone or video conferencing station.
This camera is used to record and edit video There are two types of output:
images (i.e. moving or still images). The images
1. Softcopy output
are stored in a format that can be displayed on
2. Hardcopy output
a web page. Web cams are used in video
conferencing. It is also useful in security
surveillance. Softcopy output is temporary output e.g.
information displayed on a screen or in voice
or audio form through speakers. This kind of
output disappears when the computer is
Objective 1.8: State the types and
functions of output devices. switched off since the screen or the speakers
need the computer to work.

Hardcopy output is permanent output e.g.

Content: Visual display unit (VDU):
resolution, types, sizes; information printed onto paper or film. It is
printers: impact and non- tangible – you can hold it in your hands.
impact, types(character, line,
Softcopy output devices
page, laser, inkjet, dot matrix);
Characteristics: speed, quality, Display Screens
storage capacity; plotters; audio
output devices(speakers, Display screens (simply screens) are also called
headphones, earphones); monitors or Visual Display Units (VDU). These
microfilm, hardcopy, softcopy,
are used to output still or moving pictures.
human readable, machine
readable There are two types of display screens:

1. Cathode Ray Tubes (CRT): these

Notes: Output devices
screens looks like a standard television
set.

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 2. Flat Panel displays: these screens are
used mainly with portable computers
like laptops, in some desktop
computers and even in the latest
television sets. There are two (2) types
of flat panel display screens:
a. Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
b. Plasma Display
Screens can come in different sizes e.g. 14 inch
or 17 inch. They can be either colour or
monochrome. Monochrome means black and
white.
Images and text are formed by many tiny dots
of coloured light called pixels. A pixel is short Printers
for picture element. A pixel is the smallest unit
on the display screen.
The number of pixels determines the
resolution of the screen.
Resolution is the clearness or sharpness of an
image on a screen. The more pixels there are
on screen, the greater the resolution. Some
common resolutions are:
 VGA (Video Graphics Array) = 640 x 480
pixels
 SVGA (Super Video Graphics Array) =
800 x 600 pixels
 XGA/XVGA (Extended Graphics Array/
Extended Video Graphics Array) = 1024
x 768 pixels
 SXGA (Super Extended Graphics Array)
= 1280 x 1024 pixels
 UXGA (Ultra Extended Graphics Array)
= 1600 x 1200 pixels
A video graphics card is also called a video
display adapter. It determines the resolution,
number of colours, and speed with which
images appear on the screen.
Audio Output Devices
Speakers, headphones and earphones are
used to output sound. The quality of the sound
depends on the type of system used, the size
of the speakers and the computer’s audio
card. An audio card is used to process sound in
the computer.
Hardcopy output devices
One way of classifying printers is as:
 Character printers: these print one
character at a time similar to a
typewriter. They are slow.
 Line printers: They print a line at a
time. Multiple hammer-like keys
forming a line of text hit the page at
one time. They are much faster than
character printers and are used to print
large volumes. They print a limited
number of characters and do not print
graphics.
 Page printers: these print a whole page
at a time. They are therefore even
faster and deal with very large volumes
of printed output.
Another way of classifying printers is as:
1. Impact printers
2. Non-impact printers
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Impact printers use a printing mechanism
called a print head. They make their output by
pressing the print head against a ribbon, which
then hits the paper. The main types of impact
printers are dot matrix, daisy wheel and drum, Non-impact printers are faster, quieter and
chain or band printers.
Dot matrix printers (character printers)
Characteristics:
 Characters are formed from a matrix of
dots.
 The speed is usually 30 – 550
characters per second (cps)
 It is very noisy
 It is relatively fast
 The print obtained is usually poor.
 They are useful for low-quality carbon
copy prints or printing on continuous
sheets of paper e.g. invoices (bills).
 They are not good for printing shaded
graphics or photographs.
Daisy wheel printers (character printers)
Characteristics:
 It is very noisy
 Printing is slow (less than 90 cps).
 The text is generally crisp and clean.
 The size and font produced can only be
changed by using a different daisy, as
the characters on the wheel are fixed.
N.B. This printer is obsolete
Drum, chain or band printer (line printers)
Characteristics:
 They are fast (2500 lines per minute.
 They are used to print large volumes of
information.
produce better quality print than impact
printers. Unlike the impact printer, the
printing mechanism makes no contact with the
paper. The main types of non-impact printers
are laser printers, inkjet printers and thermal
printers.
Thermal printers (character printers)
There are two types of thermal printers:
 Direct Thermal printer: this printer
uses heated pins to form the
characters. These pins come into
contact with special heat-sensitive
paper to form darkened dots when the
pins reached a specific temperature,
thus shaping the characters. The pins
actually burn the dots into the specially
coated paper. Exposure to sunlight and
heat tends to darken the thermal
paper. The print quality is poor.
 Thermal wax transfer printer: the print
head of this printer melts a wax-based
ink from a transfer ribbon onto paper.
This printer does not require special
paper.
Thermal printers are used in portable
calculators, fax machines and some
ATMs (automated teller machines).
Inkjet printers (line printers)
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Inkjet printers produce their output by
spraying small droplets of ink at high speed
into paper, in a pattern. These printers can
print in both black-and-white and colour. They
used at home and small offices. The print
quality is good but not as good as the laser
printer. Inkjet printers can also produce both
text and graphics. They are cheaper than laser
printers.
Laser printers (page printers)
 Pen plotters: these use a mechanical
arm or rail that holds a pen which can
be moved across the page.
 Inkjet plotters: these work in the same
way as inkjet printers by spraying ink
onto the paper.
 Electrostatic plotters: these work in
the same way as laser printers.
COM (Computer Output on
Microfilm/Microfiche)

These use a process similar to that of a

photocopying machine. They are used in large
COM is a method that is used to store
companies or institutions such as schools.
computer documents by reducing them in size
They can also be found in modern offices. A
to fit on very small photographic sheets of
laser beam and dry powdered ink called toner
film. They are used to store large volumes of
produces a very fine dot matrix pattern. This
data. These sheets can be read using a special
pattern is transferred to the page and then
magnifying machine. Microfilm is a roll of film
fused onto it by heat and pressure. These
and microfiche is a rectangular sheet of film on
printers can print in black and white or colour.
which many frames/pages of information can
These printers can produce more than 40
be stored.
pages per minute (ppm). The print quality is
very good. Laser printers produce both text
and graphics. They are very expensive.
Notes: Computer Specifications

Use the following to guide you when required

Plotters
to interpret computer specifications:

CPU:
Plotters use different printing processes e.g.
 Types:
some work like an inkjet printer and others
o Make / Brand: Intel or
use the same method as laser printers. They
AMD
are used to produce documents with high
o Models: Pentium, Athlon,
quality graphics in a variety of colours e.g.
Celeron, Duron etc.
maps, architectural drawings and charts. They
can print on large sheets of paper. There are  Speed: Gigahertz (GHz) ranging from 4
three main types of plotters: GHz up

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  word size: How many bits it can Memory:
input/output and process at a time, 32-
 Types of Random Access Memory (RAM):
bit or 64-bit
o DDR: Double Data Rate
Hard Disk Drive (HDD): o DIMMs: Dual In-line Memory
Modules
 interface connector/controller:
o DDR3: Double Data Rate type 3
PATA Parallel ATA or SATA
o DDR2: Double Data Rate type 2
Serial ATA
o SDRAM: Synchronous Dynamic
 Capacity: Gigabytes(GB) ranging
Random Access Memory
from 80GB to 500GB
 Capacity: Gigabytes(GB) ranging
 Speed: Revolutions /rotations
from 2 GB up
per minute (rpm) usually
 Speed: Megahertz (MHz)
7200 rpm for desktops
ranging from 533 MHz and up
and 5400 rpm for
laptops

Objective 1.11: Distinguish between system programs and application programs.

Content: systems software: operating systems, translators, utilities; Application software:

general purpose, special purpose, custom written, customized, integrated
software

Notes: Software

Software is the name given to all programs that computers use to perform different tasks.

Types of software

There are two main categories of software:

1) Application software 2) System software

Application software:

Application software can also be referred to as Application packages. These programs are
developed to perform specific tasks or solve a particular problem. Application software includes

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entertainment software such as games, home or personal software such as CD-ROM
encyclopedias, productivity software such as word processing, spreadsheet packages and
graphics. Application packages can also be grouped as follows:

1) General purpose software

2) Integrated software
3) Specialized software
4) Customized software
5) Custom written or tailor-made software
General purpose software:

This is software that is not written for any specific business. It can be used to suit specific needs
e.g. a teacher can use a spreadsheet package to prepare students` end of term grades reports
and the same spreadsheet software can be used by a salary clerk to prepare pay sheets and
bills. General purpose software is also called “off the shelf” software. They are well tested and
are usually relatively cheap.

Three commonly used general purpose packages are:

1) Word processing packages

2) Spreadsheet packages
3) Database packages
Word processing packages:

These packages are also called word processors. They allow you to prepare documents such as
letters, reports, memos, books or any type of correspondence on a computer. Some popular
word processors available are Microsoft Word, Lotus Word Pro and Word Perfect.

Spreadsheet packages:

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These packages allow you to organize information into rows and columns so that it can be
operated on easily. It enables you to store numerical data. Some common spreadsheet
packages in use today are Microsoft Excel, Lotus 123 and Quarto Pro.

Database software:

These programs allow you to organize and store related data together, so that specific pieces of
information can be retrieved easily and quickly. Some common database packages in use today
are Microsoft Access, Oracle and MySQL.

Integrated Software:

An integrated software package offers many single purpose programs together as one. These
packages allow data to be transferred easily between the programs. A basic integrated package
may contain a word processor, spreadsheet, database, communication and graphics
presentation program. Examples of integrated software are Microsoft office, Microsoft works,
Lotus SmartSuite and ClarisWorks.

Specialized software:

This is software that is written for a specific task. These programs provide features for the
purpose for which they were designed e.g. AutoCAD which was designed specifically to draw
engineering and architectural designs.

Customized software

This is general purpose software which has been modified to meet the needs of its users
(company or individual) better. This is done by writing short programs called macros and adding
them to the general purpose software.

Custom written software:

This is software that has been created to meet the unique requirements of a particular
individual or company. It may be created by individuals within the company or given to a

25
software house to be created. A software house is a company that specializes in writing
software.

System software

These are programs that manage and support the resources and operation of the computer
system. They enable the running of application software and the management of the system
resources. System software includes operating systems, utility programs and language
translators.

Operating system (OS):

An operating system is a set of programs that controls the operation of a computer. The
computer cannot work without the operating system software. As soon as the computer is
switched on the operating software on the computer is activated and loaded into main
memory. The process of loading the operating system software into memory is called booting.
Some operating systems used in computers are Windows 7, Windows Vista, Windows XP, Linux,
UNIX and the Macintosh Operating System (e.g. MAC 0SX).

Language Translators

A translator is a program that translates one programming language instruction(s) into another
programming language instruction(s) without the loss of original meaning. Examples of
translators are interpreters and compilers.

Utility Programs

These allow a user to perform maintenance-type tasks usually related to managing the
computer, its devices, or its programs. Most operating systems include several utility programs
for managing disk drives, printer and other devices and media. Examples of utility programs
are:

Disk defragmenters can detect computer files whose contents are broken across several
locations on the hard disk, and move the fragments to one location to increase efficiency.
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Disk checkers can scan the contents of a hard disk to find files or areas that are corrupted in
some way, or were not correctly saved, and eliminate them for a more efficiently operating
hard drive.

Anti-virus utilities scan for computer viruses.

Objective 1.12: Explain the functions of the Operating Systems.

Objective 1.13: Distinguish among multitasking, multiprocessing and

multiprogramming.
Content: File management, memory management, security, device management,
input/output management, user interface, process management

Notes: Functions of the Operating Systems

The operating system has several functions:

1. Managing computer resources: it allows software and hardware to communicate with

each other and manages the use of input and output devices.
2. Managing files and memory: It keeps track of the locations where programs and data
are stored within the computer’s memory and on secondary storage devices. It is also
responsible for the copying, deleting, renaming and backing-up of files.
3. Maintaining security: It prevents unauthorized users from accessing a computer. A
register of all the users’ names and passwords are kept so that anyone who tries to
access the computer must have their username and password verified before they are
allowed to access the computer. It also keeps a record of who accessed the computer,
the length of time it was used by that user and what they did.
4. Managing tasks (processes): It allows the computer to facilitate multitasking,
multiprogramming and multiprocessing. Multitasking allows the computer to appear to
perform many tasks simultaneously (at the same time) e.g. you can play music and type
your IT project at the same time. Multiprogramming allows the computer to appear to
run more than one program at the same time, although at a specific time the CPU is

27
 dealing with only one instruction for one of the several programs being run.
Multiprocessing allows more than one program to run at the same time by linking two
or more computers or processors which can then work on different programs or
different parts of the same program at the same time.

Objective 1.14: Explain the different types of processing modes.

Content: Batch processing, real-time, on-line, time-sharing.

Notes: Processing modes

The OS also facilitates different processing mode that are selected based on its suitability for
the job to be performed. There are four modes of processing:

(1) Time –sharing: this mode is used in multi-access systems where a single CPU is
shared by several users using individual terminals. This method of processing makes
the user believe they have continuous access to the CPU when in fact each user is
given a time slice (small amount of processing time) in turn. This mode of processing
is used at universities where students and lecturers are allowed access to a central
CPU on a mainframe via different terminals throughout the campus.
(2) Batch processing: in this mode the programs and data are collected together in a
batch queue before processing starts. The program and data collected is called a job.
Usually jobs are stored during working time and executed when the computer is
least in use (during the night). This is done in this manner since it does not require
human interaction during processing, once the batch starts it continues until it is
done or an error occurs. This mode is suited for payroll processing, processing utility
bills and credit card billing.
(3) Real-time processing: in this mode the system is automatically updated when a
change or transaction is made. It is interactive, allowing the user and the system to

28
 be in constant communication with up-to-date information. This mode is suitable for
stock systems, airline booking systems, electronic funds transfer systems and control
systems.
(4) Online processing: a system in this mode has access to a network. Unlike the real-
time processing system, an online processing system is not updated automatically,
so information is not always current and must be updated frequently.
(5) Providing a user interface: It allows the user to communicate or interact with the
computer.

Objective 1.15: Distinguish between types of user interface.

Content: Software interface: Command driven, graphical user interface (GUI) , menu
driven (pull-down, pop-up, icons). Hardware interface: touch screens, non-visual
interface, sensors, Braille keyboards

Notes: User Interfaces

There are three (3) types of software user interfaces:

1. Command driven interface: This type of interface is used in a DOS operating system. To
communicate with the computer, the user has to type a command in codes or words
when prompt on the display screen. E.g. C :\> dir tells the OS to list all the files on the
hard drive.
2. Menu driven interface: to communicate the user can either use the mouse or arrow
keys to make a selection from a menu which contains commands e.g. Print, Save As,
Open. There are two (2) types of menus:
Pull-down menu – usually drops down from the menu bar when it is clicked.

Pop-up menu – pops up from nowhere when the right mouse button is clicked.

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 3. Graphical user interface (GUI): This interface is also called WIMP (windows, icons,
menus and pointing devices). To communicate with the user, it uses buttons, icons,
menus and keystrokes to choose commands, start programs and see lists of files and
other options. Icons are small pictures that represent programs, folders, files, tasks etc.
In a The GUI all objects that are related to each other are shown in a window. More
than one window can be opened on the desktop at the same time. The desktop is
common visual background which appears on the display screen when the computer
has finished booting.
Hardware user interfaces:
Touch screens
To communicate with the computer, the user touches the display of the device by a finger or
stylus. This interface incorporates aspects of GUI and allows the user to make selections and
send commands by touching icons on the screen. The interface is used for both input and
output, since you view information and the options available to you on the screen.
Non-visual interfaces
This type of interface utilizes audio (sound) and gestures (head, hand and device) to send
commands and make selections.

Sensors
This type of interface utilizes changes (chemical or physical) in the environment to
communicate with the computer.
Braille keyboards
This device aids the blind in communicating with the computer. The keys have raised dots
which represent different characters.

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