Lesson 3

JOMO KENYATTA UNIVERSITY
OF
AGRICULTURE & TECHNOLOGY
JKUAT SODeL
SCHOOL OF OPEN, DISTANCE AND eLEARNING

P.O. Box 62000, 00200
©2014
Nairobi, Kenya
E-mail: elearning@jkuat.ac.ke
STA 2100 Probability and Statistics I
JJ II LAST REVISION ON January 15, 2014

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This presentation is intended to covered within one week.
The notes, examples and exercises should be supple-
mented with a good textbook. Most of the exercises have
solutions/answers appearing elsewhere and accessible by
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clicking the green Exercise tag. To move back to the same

page click the same tag appearing at the end of the solu-
tion/answer.
©2014
Errors and omissions in these notes are entirely the re-

sponsibility of the author who should only be contacted
through the Department of Curricula & Delivery
(SODeL) and suggested corrections may be e-mailed to
elearning@jkuat.ac.ke.
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JKUAT: Setting trends in higher Education, Research and Innovation
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LESSON 3
Presentation of Data
Learning outcomes
JKUAT SODeL
Upon completing this topic, you should be able to:

Identify different methods of presenting data.
Construct Charts and graphs for the purpose of data pre-
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sentation.
Compare the presentations of the same set of data by using
various graphs.
Understand the criterion for the selection of a method to
JJ II organize and present data
J I Identify the different methods of data organization and
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presentation
Identify sources of deception in misleading graphs.
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3.1. Introduction
The raw data collected through the various methods of data
collection will be in a haphazard and unsystematic form and is
not appropriately formed to draw conclusions about the group
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or the population under study. Hence it becomes necessary to

arrange or organize the data in a form which is suitable for
analysis. Data can be presented in different forms such as: text,
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in a table, or pictorially as a chart, diagram or graph.

Data graphics are a good way to communicate important
data in your reports. The purpose of putting results of research
into graphs, charts and tables is two-fold. First, it is a visual
way to look at the data and see what happened and make inter-
JJ II pretations. Second, it is usually the best way to show the data
J I to others.
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Reading lots of numbers in the text puts people to sleep and
does little to convey information. Tables are the most commonly
used form of data graphics, but graphs, charts or diagrams that
include symbols and pictures will get your results across to the
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reader faster and will liven up your presentation or report.
3.2. Tables
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Once we have collected our data, often the first stage of any
analysis is to present them in a simple and easily understood
way. Tables are perhaps the simplest means of presenting data.
There are many types of tables. For example, we have all
seen tables listing sales of computers by type, or exchange rates,
JJ II or the financial performance of companies. These types of tables
J I can be very informative. However, they can also be difficult to
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interpret, especially those which contain vast amounts of data.
Frequency tables are amongst the most commonly–used ta-
bles and are perhaps the most easily understood. They can
be used with continuous, discrete, categorical and ordinal data.
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Frequency tables have uses in some of the techniques we will see

in the next lecture.
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3.3. Graphical presentations

Graphics, such as maps, graphs and diagrams, are used to repre-
sent large volume of data. With large amounts of data graphical
presentation methods are often clearer to understand. We look
JJ II at methods for producing graphical representations of data of
J I the different types.These methods are necessary because:
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If the information is presented in tabular form or in a de-
scriptive record, but it becomes difficult to draw results.
Graphical form makes it possible to easily draw visual im-
pressions of data.
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The graphic method of the representation of data enhances

our understanding.
It makes the comparisons easy.
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Such methods create an imprint on mind for a longer time.

It is a time consuming task to draw inferences about what-
ever is being presented in non–graphical form.
It presents characteristics in a simplified way.
JJ II These makes it easy to understand the patterns of pop-
J I ulation growth, distribution and the density, sex ratio,
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age–sex composition, occupational structure, etc.
When creating graphic displays, keep in mind the following ques-
tions:
What am I trying to communicate?
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Who is my audience?
What might prevent them from understanding this dis-
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play?
Does the display tell the entire story?
Some Rules of Thumb
show the data
avoid distorting the data
JJ II induce the viewer to think about the substance of the
J I graphic rather than the methodology, graphic design, or
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something else
make large amounts of data coherent
encourage the viewer to use the graphic as you intend, e.g.
make comparisons
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be closely integrated with statistical and verbal descrip-

tions of the data
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be as simple as possible
In the following section we discuss some of the commonly used
graphical presentations
3.3.1. Pie chart
JJ II Pie charts are simple diagrams for displaying categorical or grouped

J I data. These charts are commonly used within industry to com-
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municate simple ideas, for example market share of ISP in a
country. They are used to show the proportions of a whole.
They are best used when there are only a handful of categories
to display.
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A pie chart consists of a circle divided into segments, one seg-

ment for each category. The size of each segment is determined
by the frequency of the category and measured by the angle of
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the segment. As the total number of degrees in a circle is 360,

the angle given to a segment is 360 times the fraction of the data
N umberrincategory
in the category, that is angle = T otalnumberinsample(n) × 360
A pie chart is a circle that is divided into sectors that rep-
resent categories. The area of each sector is proportional to the
JJ II frequency of each category.
J I Example . Construct a pie chart for the following data on
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Accidental Deaths in the USA in 2002.
Type Frequency
Motor Vehicle 43,500
Falls 12,200
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Poison 6,400
Drowning 4,600
Fire 4,200
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Ingestion of Food/Object 2,900

Firearms 1,400
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Pie Chart
To create a pie chart for the data, find the relative frequency
(percent) of each category.
Relative
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Type Frequency
Frequency
Motor Vehicle 43,500 0.578
Falls 12,200 0.162
Poison 6,400 0.085
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Drowning 4,600 0.061

Fire 4,200 0.056
Ingestion of Food/Object 2,900 0.039
Firearms 1,400 0.019
n = 75,200
Continued.
Athiany, HKO 29
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Pie Chart
Next, find the central angle. To find the central angle,
multiply the relative frequency by 360°.
Relative
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Type Frequency Angle

Frequency
Motor Vehicle 43,500 0.578 208.2°
Falls 12,200 0.162 58.4°
Poison 6,400 0.085 30.6°
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Drowning 4,600 0.061 22.0°

Fire 4,200 0.056 20.1°
Ingestion of Food/Object 2,900 0.039 13.9°
Firearms 1,400 0.019 6.7°
Continued.
Athiany, HKO 30
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Pie Chart
Ingestion Firearms
3.9% 1.9%
Fire
5.6%
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Drowning
6.1%
Poison
8.5% Motor
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vehicles
Falls 57.8%
16.2%
Athiany, HKO 31
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3.3.2. Bar Charts
Bar charts are a commonly used and clear way of presenting cat-
egorical data or any ungrouped discrete frequency observations.
The five step process of creating a bar chart are shown below:
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1. First decide what goes on each axis of the chart. By con-

vention the variable being measured goes on the horizontal
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(x–axis) and the frequency goes on the vertical (y–axis).

2. Next decide on a numeric scale for the frequency axis. This
axis represents the frequency in each category by its height.
It must start at zero and include the largest frequency. It
is common to extend the axis slightly above the largest
JJ II
value so you are not drawing to the edge of the graph.
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3. Having decided on a range for the frequency axis we need
to decide on a suitable number scale to label this axis.
This should have sensible values, for example, 0, 1, 2, . .
. , or 0, 10, 20 . . . , or other such values as make sense
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given the data.

4. Draw the axes and label them appropriately.
5. Draw a bar for each category. When drawing the bars it
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is essential to ensure the following:
the width of each bar is the same;

the bars are separated from each other by equally sized
JJ II gaps.
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Example . Use the following data representing the number of
guests who were booked in a hotel in Mombasa on a particular
day in the month of December 2013, construct a suitable bar
graph for the data.
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Country of origin Male Female

Irish 10 7
British 4 10
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Mainland European 2 2
Rest of the world 5 7
Total 21 26
The corresponding bar graph is as shown below.
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JKUAT SODeL
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Note that the above graph is a vertical bar graph. We can

JJ II also obtain a vertical bar graph presenting the same information.
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3.3.3. Histograms
Bar charts have their limitations; for example, they cannot be
used to present continuous data. When dealing with continuous
random variables a different kind of graph is required. This is
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called a histogram. At first sight these look similar to bar charts.

There are, however, two critical differences:
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the horizontal (x-axis) is a continuous scale. As a result of

this there are no gaps between the bars (unless there are
no observations within a class interval);
the height of the rectangle is only proportional to the fre-
quency if the class intervals are all equal. With histograms
JJ II
it is the area of the rectangle that is proportional to their
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frequency.
Initially we will only consider histograms with equal class in-

tervals. Those with uneven class intervals require more careful
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thought. Producing a histogram is much like producing a bar

chart and in many respects can be considered to be the next
stage after producing a grouped frequency table. In reality, it
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is often best to produce a frequency table first which collects

all the data together in an ordered format. Once we have the
frequency table, the process is very similar to drawing a bar
chart.
JJ II 1. Find the maximum frequency and draw the vertical (y–axis)

J I from zero to this value, including a sensible numeric scale.
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2. The range of the horizontal (x–axis) needs to include not
only the full range of observations but also the full range
of the class intervals from the frequency table.
3. Draw a bar for each group in your frequency table. These
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should be the same width and touch each other (unless

there are no data in one particular class).
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Example . The following data represents the ages of 30 IT
students in a statistics class. Construct a histogram using this
data.
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18 20 21 27 29 20
19 30 32 19 34 19
24 29 18 38 37 22
30 39 32 44 33 46
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54 49 18 51 21 21
Before constructing the histogram, we need to first construct a
frequency distribution, then finally construct the histogram. In
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that connection, the process of constructing the histogram is as

follows.
Constructing a Frequency Distribution
Guidelines
JJ II 1. Decide on the number of classes to include.

J I 2. The number of classes should be between 5 and 20; other-
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wise, it may be difficult to detect any patterns.
3. Find the class width as follows. Determine the range of
the data, divide the range by the number of classes, and
round up to the next convenient number.
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4. Find the class limits. You can use the minimum entry as
the lower limit of the first class. To find the remaining
lower limits, add the class width to the lower limit of the
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preceding class. Then find the upper class limits.

5. Make a tally mark for each data entry in the row of the
appropriate class.
6. Count the tally marks to find the total frequency f for
JJ II each class.
J I For the above data;
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Obtain the number of classes (k) as follows: k = roundup(log(n)
The minimum data entry is 18 and maximum entry is 54,
so the range is 36. Divide the range by the number of
classes to find the class width.
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36
– Classwidth = 5
= 7.2 round up to 8
The minimum data entry of 18 may be used for the lower
limit of the first class. To find the lower class limits of the
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remaining classes, add the width (8) to each lower limit.

– The lower class limits are 18, 26, 34, 42, and 50.
– The upper class limits are 25, 33, 41, 49, and 57.
Make a tally mark for each data entry in the appropriate
class.
JJ II The number of tally marks for a class is the frequency for
J I that class.
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In summary, the frequency distribution is as follows;
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Constructing a Frequency Distribution

Example continued:
Number of
Ages students
Ages of Students
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Class Tally Frequency, f

18 – 25 13
26 – 33 8
34 – 41 4
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42 – 49 3
Check that the
50 – 57 2 sum equals
the number in
 f  30
the sample.
Athiany, HKO 10
Once this is done and we now have the class intervals, we

JJ II
J I can then construct the histogram as follows;
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Frequency Histogram
A frequency histogram is a bar graph that represents
the frequency distribution of a data set.
1. The horizontal scale is quantitative and measures
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the data values.

2. The vertical scale measures the frequencies of the
classes.
3. Consecutive bars must touch.
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Class boundaries are the numbers that separate the

classes without forming gaps between them.
The horizontal scale of a histogram can be marked with
either the class boundaries or the midpoints.
Athiany, HKO 16
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Class Boundaries
Lets consider the class boundaries for the “Ages of the IT Students”
frequency distribution.
Ages of Students
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Class
Class Frequency, f Boundaries
The distance from 18 – 25 13 17.5  25.5
the upper limit of
the first class to the 26 – 33 8 25.5  33.5
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lower limit of the 34 – 41 4 33.5  41.5

second class is 1.
42 – 49 3 41.5  49.5
Half this 50 – 57 2 49.5  57.5
distance is 0.5.
 f  30
Athiany, HKO 17
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An finally the histogram;
Frequency Histogram
To draw a frequency histogram for the “Ages of Students”
frequency distribution, we use the class boundaries.
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14 13 Ages of Students
12
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10
8
8
f 6
4
4 3
2 2
0
17.5 25.5 33.5 41.5 49.5 57.5
Broken axis
Age (in years)
JJ II
Athiany, HKO 18
J I
You may have noticed that we referred to the above his-
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togram as a frequency histogram. Instead of constructing a fre-
quency histogram, we may also be interested in constructing a
relative frequency histogram. The process is quite similar to
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the above after obtaining the relative frequencies as illustrated

below.
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Relative Frequency
First, we need to find the relative frequencies for the “Ages of IT
Students” frequency distribution as follows.
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Relative Portion of
Class Frequency, f Frequency students
18 – 25 13 0.433 f 13

26 – 33 8 0.267 n 30
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34 – 41 4 0.133  0.433
42 – 49 3 0.1
50 – 57 2 0.067
f
 f  30  1
n
Athiany, HKO 14
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Relative Frequency Histogram

A relative frequency histogram has the same shape and
the same horizontal scale as the corresponding frequency
histogram.
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0.5
0.433
(portion of students)
Relative frequency
0.4 Ages of Students

0.3
0.267
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0.2
0.133
0.1
0.1 0.067
0
17.5 25.5 33.5 41.5 49.5 57.5
Age (in years)
Athiany, HKO 20
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3.3.4. Frequency Polygons
These are a natural extension of the relative frequency his-
togram. They differ in that, rather than drawing bars, each
class is represented by one point and these are joined together
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by straight lines. The method is similar to that for producing a

histogram:
1. Produce a percentage relative frequency table.
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2. Draw the axes;The x-axis needs to contain the full range

of the classes used. The y-axis needs to range from 0 to
the maximum percentage relative frequency.
3. Plot points: pick the mid point of the class interval on the
JJ II x-axis and go up until you reach the appropriate percent-
J I age value on the y-axis and mark the point. Do this for
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each class.
4. Join adjacent points together with straight lines.
A frequency polygon is a line graph that emphasizes the contin-
uous change in frequencies.

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Example . Using the same data on IT students age, we can

construct the following frequency polygon;
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Frequency Polygon
14
Ages of Students
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12
10
8 Line is extended
to the x-axis.
f 6
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4
2
0
13.5 21.5 29.5 37.5 45.5 53.5 61.5
Broken axis
Age (in years) Midpoints
Athiany, HKO 19
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3.3.5. Cumulative Frequency Polygons (Ogive)
Cumulative percentage relative frequency is also a useful tool.
The cumulative percentage relative frequency is simply the sum
of the percentage relative frequencies at the end of each class
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interval (i.e. we add the frequencies up as we go along).

A cumulative frequency graph or Ogive, is a line graph that
displays the cumulative frequency of each class at its upper class
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boundary. The graph, or Ogive, is simple to produce by hand:

1. Draw the axes.
2. Label the x-axis with the full range of the data and the
y-axis from 0 to 100%.
JJ II 3. Plot the cumulative % relative frequency at the end point

J I of each class.
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4. Join adjacent points, starting at 0% at the lowest class
boundary.

Example . Use the IT students age data to construct an
Ogive curve/plot.
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Cumulative Frequency Graph

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30 Ages of Students
Cumulative frequency
(portion of students)
24
18
The graph ends
at the upper
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12 boundary of the
last class.
6
0
17.5 25.5 33.5 41.5 49.5 57.5
Age (in years)
Athiany, HKO 21
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3.3.6. Scatter Plots
Scatter plots are used to plot two variables which you believe
might be related, for example, height and weight, advertising
expenditure and sales, or age of machinery and maintenance
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costs.
3.3.7. Box plots

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Box plots or“box and whisker”plots are another graphical method

for displaying data and are particularly useful for highlighting
differences between groups.These plots use some of the key sum-
mary statistics such as, the quartiles and also the maximum and
minimum observations. Box plots are a useful tool to compare
JJ II groups of data .Another use of box plots is to show outliers and
J I it also gives an idea about the shape of the distribution.
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3.3.8. Stem and leaf plots
Stem and leaf plots are a quick and easy way of representing data
graphically. They can be used with both discrete and continuous
data. The method for creating a stem and leaf plot is similar
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to that for creating a grouped frequency table. The first stage,

as with grouped frequency tables, is to decide on a reasonable
number of intervals which span the range of data. The interval
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widths for a stem and leaf plot must be equal. Because of the
way the plot works it is best to use “sensible” values for the
interval width – i.e. 5, 10, 100, 1000; if a data set consists of
many small values, this interval width could also be 1, or even 0.1
or 0.01. Once we have decided on our intervals we can construct
JJ II the stem and leaf plot.
J I Consider the following data: 11, 12, 9, 15, 21, 25, 19, 8. The
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first step is to decide on interval widths – one obvious choice
would be to go up in 10s. This would give a stem unit of 10 and
a leaf unit of 1. The stem and leaf plot is constructed as below.
Stem units: 10, leaf digits: 1 (the value 8.000 is represented
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by 0|8)
0|89
1|1259
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2|15
In a stem-and-leaf plot, each number is separated into a stem
(usually the entry’s leftmost digits) and a leaf (usually the right-
most digit). This is an example of exploratory data analysis.
JJ II Using the IT students age data set, we can construct a stem
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and leaf plot as follows
Stem-and-Leaf Plot
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Ages of Students
Key: 1|8 = 18
1 888999
2 0011124799 Most of the values lie
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3 002234789 between 20 and 39.
4 469
5 14
This graph allows us to see
the shape of the data as well
as the actual values.
Athiany, HKO 24
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Stem-and-Leaf Plot
Constructing a stem-and-leaf plot that has two lines for
each stem.
Ages of Students
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1 Key: 1|8 = 18
1 888999
2 0011124
2 799
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3 002234
3 789 From this graph, we can
4 4 conclude that more than 50%
4 69 of the data lie between 20
5 14 and 34.
5
Athiany, HKO 25
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Revision Questions
Exercise 1. Distinguish between a pie chart and a his-

togram.

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Exercise 2. Identify a data set of your choice and use it to

construct a bar or pie chart. Similarly, obtain some quantitative
data and use the data to construct a histogram and a cumulative
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frequency polygon.
Learning Activities
1. Read more on scatter plots and Box plots and summarize
their use, advantages and disadvantages versus the meth-
JJ II ods we have presented in this lecture. If possible, give
J I some examples of a scatter plot and a box plot.
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2. Search for at least five bad graphs and discuss why they
are bad.
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Solutions to Exercises
Exercise 1. A pie chart is mostly useful in displaying a rel-
ative frequency (percentage) distribution; similar to Bar chart
while a histogram is useful for revealing the general pattern or
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distribution of (quantitative) values. Exercise 1

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JOMO KENYATTA UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF OPEN, DISTANCE AND eLEARNING

STA 2100 Probability and Statistics I

JJ II LAST REVISION ON January 15, 2014

clicking the green Exercise tag. To move back to the same

Errors and omissions in these notes are entirely the re-

Upon completing this topic, you should be able to:

or the population under study. Hence it becomes necessary to

in a table, or pictorially as a chart, diagram or graph.

reader faster and will liven up your presentation or report.

Frequency tables have uses in some of the techniques we will see

3.3. Graphical presentations

 The graphic method of the representation of data enhances

 Such methods create an imprint on mind for a longer time.

 be closely integrated with statistical and verbal descrip-

3.3.1. Pie chart

JJ II Pie charts are simple diagrams for displaying categorical or grouped

A pie chart consists of a circle divided into segments, one seg-

the segment. As the total number of degrees in a circle is 360,

Ingestion of Food/Object 2,900

Drowning 4,600 0.061

Type Frequency Angle

Drowning 4,600 0.061 22.0°

1. First decide what goes on each axis of the chart. By con-

(x–axis) and the frequency goes on the vertical (y–axis).

given the data.

is essential to ensure the following:

 the width of each bar is the same;

Country of origin Male Female

Note that the above graph is a vertical bar graph. We can

called a histogram. At first sight these look similar to bar charts.

 the horizontal (x-axis) is a continuous scale. As a result of

Initially we will only consider histograms with equal class in-

thought. Producing a histogram is much like producing a bar

is often best to produce a frequency table first which collects

JJ II 1. Find the maximum frequency and draw the vertical (y–axis)

should be the same width and touch each other (unless

that connection, the process of constructing the histogram is as

JJ II 1. Decide on the number of classes to include.

preceding class. Then find the upper class limits.

remaining classes, add the width (8) to each lower limit.

Constructing a Frequency Distribution

Class Tally Frequency, f

Once this is done and we now have the class intervals, we

the data values.

Class boundaries are the numbers that separate the

lower limit of the 34 – 41 4 33.5  41.5

the above after obtaining the relative frequencies as illustrated

Relative Frequency Histogram

0.4 Ages of Students

by straight lines. The method is similar to that for producing a

2. Draw the axes;The x-axis needs to contain the full range

Example . Using the same data on IT students age, we can

interval (i.e. we add the frequencies up as we go along).

boundary. The graph, or Ogive, is simple to produce by hand:

JJ II 3. Plot the cumulative % relative frequency at the end point

Cumulative Frequency Graph

3.3.7. Box plots

Box plots or“box and whisker”plots are another graphical method

to that for creating a grouped frequency table. The first stage,

3 002234789 between 20 and 39.

Exercise 1.  Distinguish between a pie chart and a his-

Exercise 2. Identify a data set of your choice and use it to

The graphic method of the representation of data enhances

Such methods create an imprint on mind for a longer time.

be closely integrated with statistical and verbal descrip-

the width of each bar is the same;

the horizontal (x-axis) is a continuous scale. As a result of

Exercise 1. Distinguish between a pie chart and a his-