Essential elements needed for plant growth, development, and

reproduction and criteria for their essentiality

Plants require 17 essential elements for plant growth Plants require 17 essential elements for
growth: carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium
(K), sulfur (S), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), boron (B), chlorine (Cl), copper (Cu), iron
(Fe), manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo), nickel (Ni), and zinc (Zn). These 17 essential
elements, also called nutrient which are categorized into macro- and micronutrients.
There are two main groups of essential elements necessary for the plants to grow,
develop, and produce fruits/ seeds. These are:
1. Macronutrients - These are nutrients needed by plants in large quantities.
Examples are N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S; and gases such C, O, H.
2. Micronutrients - These are nutrients that are needed by plants in small quantities
at about less than 50 ppm. Examples are B, Cu, Mn, Mo, Cl, Fe, Zn, and Cu.
What are the criteria for nutrient elements to be considered essential for plant
growth?
1. The element is required for the completion of the vegetative and reproductive
cycle of the plants.
2. The deficiency or absence of an element can be corrected only by the addition of
the element in question and that no other element can be a substitute.
3. The element is directly involved in the nutrition of the plant and performs a
specific function.

1. Macronutrients
1). Nitrogen – NH4+, NO3–
 Most of NH4+ has to be incorporated into organic compounds in the roots
while NO3– is readily mobile in the plant.
 It is a part of a large number of necessary organic compounds, including
amino acids, coenzymes, nucleic acids, and chlorophyll.
 This element promotes rapid vegetative growth and increases leaf size
 Imparts deep green color of the leaves.
 With cereals, it increases the plumpness of the grains and their
percentage of protein.
 In all plants, nitrogen is a regulator since it governs to a considerable
degree the utilization of phosphous, potassium, and other
constituents.
 Its application tends to produce succulence, a quality desirable in certain
crops such as lettuce, cucumber, fruits, etc.
 For optimal growth, the plant requires 2-5% of the plant dry weight.

Symptoms of Nitrogen Deficiency in Plants

- Stunted, yellowish plants
- Older leaves or whole plants are yellowish green (chlorotic)
 - In severe cases, these leaves become yellow and eventually fall off.
- Some plants, including tomato and some varieties of corn, show
purplish coloration in the stems, petioles, and lower leaf
surface due to accumulation of anthocyanin pigments.

Causes of Nitrogen Deficiency

- Low soil N-supplying power
- Inadequate application of mineral N fertilizer
- Losses from volatilization, denitrification, leaching, run off
- Untimely application and improper placement

2). Phosphorus
( HPO−24 , H 2 PO−4 )
 It is essential for energy storage and transfer in plants.
 As part of sugar phosphates and coenzymes, phosphorus allows the
sugar to be metabolized by the plant and acts as energy carrier.
 Important in cell division and fat and albumin formation.
 Promotes root development, early flowering, fruiting, and ripening;
seed formation; promotes tillering in rice.
 Strengthens straw in cereal crops thus, helping to prevent lodging.
 Improves crop quality, espcially of forages and of vegetables.
 Increases resistance to certain diseases.
 A lack of P may prevent other nutrients from being acquired by plants.
 For optimal plant growth, 0.3–0.5% of the plant dry weight is required

Symptoms of Phosphorus Deficiency in Plants

- Stunted growth but with dark green color of leaves.
- Maturity of the plants is often delayed
- Reduced tillering in rice.
- In corn, leaves become purplish or reddish, beginning early in the
growing season.
- Leaf tips die and turn dark brown
- Ears of affected corn plants are twisted with irregular kernel rows
and imperfecly developed ear tips.
- Restricted root growth
- Deficiency symptoms occur first in more mature leaves

Causes of Phosphorus Deficiency

- Low native soil P-supplying power
- Inadequate application of mineral P fertilizer
- Low efficiency of applied P fertilizer due to high P-fixation capacity
in soil or erosion losses (especially in upland ricefields).
- Excessive use of N fertilizer with insufficient P application
- Varietal differences in susceptibility to P deficiency and response to
P fertilizer
- Method of crop establishment (ex. in upland rice where direct-
seeding is practiced with high plant density and root systems are
shallow.
3). Potassium (K+ )
 K provides strength to plant cell walls and contributes to greater
canopy photosynthesis and crop growth..
 Increases crop resistance to certain diseases.
 It acts as a coenzyme, or activator, of many enzymes..
 It enhances strong root systems thus, tends to prevent lodging and
counteracts the ill effects of too much nitrogen.
 It is essential for starch formation and the translocation of sugar as
product of photosynthesis.
 It is necessary in the development of chlorophyll but does not enter
into its molecular structure.
 K is important to cereals in grain formation by increasing the number
of spikelets per panicle, percentage of filled grains, 1,000-grain
weight, and giving plump heavy kernels in rice.
 It exerts a balancing effect on both nitrogen and phosphorus as in
delaying maturity, K works against undue ripening influences of
P.
 For optimal plant growth, 2-5% of the plant dry weight is required.

Symptoms of Potassium Deficiency in Plants

- Dark green plants with yellowish brown leaf margins or
- Dark brown necrotic spots first appear on the tips of older leaves.
- In corn, first symptoms are yellowing and dying of leaf margins
beginning at lower leaf tips.
- The roots become more easily infected with root-rotting organisms
causing the plants to easily bend to the ground.
- Plants usually lodge late in the season.
- Ears on K-deficient plants maybe small with pointed, poorly developed
tips.
- Potassium-deficient plants are usually low in protein content but high
in amino-acid building blocks of protein.

Causes of Potassium Deficiency

- Low soil K - supplying capacity
- Not enough application of mineral K fertilizer
- Complete removal of vegetative plant parts from the field
- Low recovery efficiency of applied K fertilizer due to high soil K-
fixation capacity or leaching losses.
- Wide Na:K; Mg:K; or Ca:K ratios in soil, and sodic/ saline
conditions.
- Excess Mg in soils derived fom untrabasic rocks.
- Large bicarbonate concentration in irrigation water.

4). Magnesium (Mg+2)

 It is a constituent of chlorophyll and is involved in photosynthesis.
 It activates numerous enzymes needed by roots and microorganisms
lacking chlorophyll.
  Proper amounts of Mg are essential to maintain the structure of
ribosomes, small ribonucleoprotein bodies necessary for protein
synthesis.
 For optimal plant growth, 0.15-0.35% of plant dry weight is required.

Symptoms of Magnesium Deficiency in Plants

- Deficiency occurs in seedlings as a general yellowing of upper leaves.
- Eventually, yellow-to-white interveinal striping develops, and older
leaves appear reddish-purple along their edges and tips.
- Severe deficiencies cause leaf tips and margins to die. In corn, the
entire plant may show interveinal sriping.
- Stunting may occur, but it is not as severe as with P or K deficiency.

Causes of Magnesium Deficiency

- Low available soil magnesium.
- Decreased Mg uptake due to wide ratio of exchangeable K:Mg ( i.e.,
> 1:1).
- Common in rainfed lowland and upland rice where soil Mg is
depleted due to continuous crop removal.

( SO )
−2

5). Sulfur 4

 It is required for protein synthesis, plant function, and plant structure.

 It is also involved in carbohydrate metabolism.
 For optimal plant growth, 0.1-0.5% of plant dry weight is required.

Symptoms of Sulfur Deficiency in Plants

- Stunting, delayed maturity and a general yellowing of the foliage as
in N deficiency.
- In some cases, interveinal chlorosis occurs, and yellowing is more
pronounced on younger leaves with S deficiency than with N
deficiency.
- In rice, pale green plants, light green-colored young leaves.

Causes of Sulfur Deficiency

- Low available sulfur content in the soil.
- Depletion of soil S as a result of intensive cropping.
- Use of S-free fertilizers (e.g. using urea as a substitute for
ammonium sulfate; triple superphosphate substituted for single
superphosphate, and muriate of potash substituted for potassium
sulfate).
- In many rural areas of developing countries, the amount of S deposited
in precipitation is minimal due to low levels of industrial gas
emission.
- Sulfur concentrations in ground water may range widely. Irrigation
water usually contains only small amount of sulfates.
- Sulfur present in organic residues is lost when they are burned.

6). Calcium (Ca+2 )

  In higher plants, calcium is needed in low concentrations in membranes
to maintain their proper structure and differential permeability
characteristics.
 Calcium is an essential part of alpha-amylase, a starch-digesting
enzyme.
 Sufficient supply of Ca increases resistance of cereal crops to diseases
such as bacterial leaf blight or brown spot.
 Calcium is also needed by plants to bean proper root function.
 Plant requirement for optimal growth varies from 0.1 to 0.5% of the
plant dry weight.

Symptoms of Calcium Deficiency in Plants

- Chlorotic-necrotic split or rolled tips of younger leaves.
- In corn, the leaves are unable to emerge or unfold so that the tips stick
together giving a ladder-like effect.
- Affected plants may have a slight yellow-green tint and may be
severely stunted in growth.

Causes of Calcium Deficiency

- Small amounts of available Ca in degraded and acid soils.
- Sandy soils with high percolation rates and leaching.
- Acid, strongly leached, low-CEC soils in uplands and lowlands
- Alkaline pH with a wide exchangeable Na: Ca ratio, resulting in
reduced Ca uptake.
- Wide soil Fe: Ca or Mg: Ca ratios, resulting in reduced Ca uptake.
- Excessive N or K fertilizer application which may result in wide NH4:
Ca or K: Ca ratios and reduced Ca uptake.
- Excessive P fertilizer application, which may depress the availability
of Ca due to the formation of Ca phosphates in alkaline soils.

2. Micronutrients
1). Fe (Fe+3; Fe+2)
 Iron is an essential activator for one or more enzymes catalyzing
reactions involved in chlorophyll synthesis.
 In organisms lacking chlorophyll, it forms a necessary part of certain
pigment molecules, the cytochromes, which act as electron
carriers in photosynthesis and in respiration.
 It is also an essential part of another photosynthetic electron carrier
called ferredoxin and of nitrate reductase, one of the enzymes
participating in the reduction of nitrate to ammonium ions.
 Critical level in plant is in the range of 50-150mg Fe kg–1 dry weight.

Symptoms of Iron Deficiency in Plants

- Interveinal yellowing and chlorosis of emerging leaves.
- Upper leaves become pale green to white between the veins and along
the entire leaf on alkaline soils.

Causes of Iron Deficiency

 - Iron is very immobile in the plant, since it precipitates as an insoluble
oxide or in the form of inorganic or organic ferric phosphate
compounds. Hence, its entry into the phloem transport stream is
prevented.
- Soil type -Deficiency is more likely to occur in sandy than in clay soils
since the latter have greater power to fix or "lock up" excessive
soluble phosphates.

2). Zinc (Zn+2)

 Zn is essential for several biochemical processes in the rice plants.
 It is needed to produce a hormone, the indoleacetic acid (IAA), which
is essential for the normal enlargement of cells in the stems.
 Zinc is also an essential part of certain enzymes such as alcohol
dehydrogenase, lactic acid dehydrogenase, glutamic acid
dehydrogenase, and certain peptidases such as
carboxypeptidase. Its removal rom these enzymes will cause
them to be inactive and may even break down into smaller
subunits.
 Critical levels in plant is 15-20mg Zn g–1 dry weight.

Symptoms of Zinc Deficiency in Plants

- In rice, dusty brown spots on upper leaves of stunted plants
appearing 2-4 weeks after transplanting.
- In corn, symptoms appear within 2 weeks of seedling emergence,
indicated by light streaking of leaves followed by a broad band
of bleached tissue on each side of the midrib. Midrib and
margins remain green.
- Leaf edges and stalks appear reddish or brownish. Plants generally
outgrow the Zn deficiency unless it is severe.

Causes of Zinc Deficiency

- Small amount of available Zn in the soil.
- Varieties being used are susceptible to Zn deficiency.
- High pH of the soil ( greater or equal to pH 7.0 under anaerobic
conditions).
- High HCO3 _ concentration due to reducing conditions in calcareous
soils with high organic matter content or because of large
concentrations of HCO3 in irrigation water.
- Less Zn uptake due to increased availability of Fe, Ca, Mg, Cu, Mn,
and P after flooding.
- Immobiliztion of Zn after large applications of P fertilizer (P-induced
Zn deficiency).
- Large applications of organic manures and crop residues.
- High P content in irrigation water (only in areas with polluted water.
- Excessive liming.

3). Manganese (Mg+2)

 It activates many enzymes which is an important function in plants.
 It activates one or more enzymes involved in fatty acid synthesis, those
responsible for deoxyribonucleic acid and ribonucleic acid
 formation, and a respiratory enzyme of the Krebs Cycle that
decarboxylates and oxidizes isocitric acid.
 Mn is also directly involved in photosynthesis by acting as an electron
carrier, taking part in a reaction by which water is split and
oxygen is released.
 It plays a direct role as a catalyst in an unknown reaction of chlorophyll
formation, since yellowing of the plants results when it is absent.
 Critical level in plant varies between 10 and 20mg Mn kg–1 dry weight.

Symptoms of Manganese Deficiency inPlants

- Initial symptoms are inteveinal chlorosis, depending on the species,
followed by, or associated with necrotic leaves.
- Mn plays a structural role in the chloroplast membrane system as
shown by disorganization of the lamellar membrane system
extending through those bodies but does not affect the stucture of
nuclei and mitochondria.
- "Gray speck" of oats, "marsh spot" of peas, and "speckled yellows" of
sugar beets.
- In corn, leaves become olive green and somewhat streaked. In severe
cases, deficient leaves have elongated whitish streaks, the center
of which turns brown, die, and fall out.

Cause of Manganese Deficiency

- High pH and sandy soils high in organic matter.

(BO , B O )
−2 −2

3 4 7
4). Boron
 It has a role in carbohydrate translocation.
 Boron is also an important constituent of cell walls.
 Critical level is 5-10mg kg–1 for graminaceous species and 20-
70mg kg–1 in dicotyledonous species.

Symptoms of Boron Deficiency in Plants

- Death of the stem and root apical meristems.
- In several plants, the root tips become swollen and discolored.
- In rice, white, rolled leaf tips of young leaves can be observed
since B is not retranslocated to new growth.
- Its deficiency results in reduced pollen viability.
- In corn, plants have irregular shaped spots between the veins and
eventually coalesce to form white stripes which appear waxy
and raised from the leaf tissue.
- Internodes do not elongate, and tassels and ear shoots often fail to
emerge.

Causes of Boron Deficiency

- Small amount of available boron in soil.
- The adsorption of B on organic matter, clay minerals, and
sequioxides.
- Reduction in boron mobility due to drought.
 - Excessive liming.
- Occurred in highly weathered, red soils, and sandy rice soils; also
in soils with high amount of organic matter.

5). Copper (Cu, Cu++ )

 Plays an important role in photosynthesis and respiration by acting
as an electron carrier and part of certain enzymes.
 It is an important part of plastocyanin, a compound forming part of
the photosynthetic electron transport chain, of polyphenol
oxidase, and of nitrite reductase.
 It plays also a catalytic role in nitrogen fixation, and is involved in
certain other chemical processes in the plant.
 It is important in pollen formation and fertilization.
 Critical level in plant is generally in the range of 1-5mg g –1 dry
weight.

Symptoms of Copper Deficiency in Plants

- The young leaves often become dark green in color and are twisted or
misshapen, often accompanied by necrotic spots.
- In citrus orchard, the dying leaves led to the name 'die back' disease.
- In rice, chlorotic streaks, bluish green leaves, which become yellowish
near the tips.
- In corm, severely deficient plants are stunted, younger leaves become
chlorotic, and some dieback of older leaves occurs.
- Stalks of affected plants are soft and pliable.

Causes of Copper Deficiency

- Small amount of available copper in soil.
- Strong adsorption of Cu on humic and fulvic acid soils (peat).
- Presence of high amounts of organic matter in the soil (Histosols,
humic volcanic ash soils, peat soils).
- Utilization of soils derived from marine sediments (limestone); sandy-
texured soils; calcareous soils.
- Small amounts of Cu in parent materials (sandy soils derivd from
quarts).
- Application of large amounts of NPK fertilizers which may result in
rapid plant growth, exhausting Cu in soil solution.
- Application of too much lime in acid soils.
- Using excessive Zn in the soil, inhibiting Cu uptake.

6). Molybdenum
( MoO−4 ; MoS 4)
 It is an electron carrier when present in certain enzymes necessary to
convert nitrate to ammonium ions.
 It is also essential to the process of nitrogen fixation.
 Critical level varies between 0.1 and 1.0mg g–1 leaf dry weight.

Symptoms of Molybdenum Deficiency in Plants

- "Whiptail" of cauliflower and broccoli and "yellow spot" of citrus.
 - Interveinal chlorosis occurring first on the older leaves or midstem
leaves, then progressing to the youngest.
- "Whiptail" diseased plants may not become chlorotic when applied
with ammonium nitrogen but instead develop severely twisted
young leaves which eventually die.
- In corn, older leaves die at the tip, along the margins and finally
between the veins. Younger leaves wilt, then die along the margins
and in some cases, twist.

Causes of Molybdenum Deficiency

- Small amount of available molybdenum in soil.
- Non-application of Mo in soil deficient in the said nutrient.

−
7). Chlorine (Cl )
 It stimulates photosynthesis by acting as an enzyme activator for one
or more reactions in which water is split and oxygen released.
 Critical level in plant range from 0.7 to 1.7mg g–1 dry weight.

Symptoms of Chlorine Deficiency in Plants

- Plants have wilted leaves, which become chlorotic and necrotic,
eventually attaining a bronze color.
- Roots become stunted in length but thickened, or club-shaped, near the
tips.

Note: Chlorine is the most soluble of the group belonging to inorganic

form of micronutrients. It is added to soils in considerable amounts
each year through rain water. Its incidental addition in fertilizers and in
other ways, helps prevent the deficiency of chlorine under field
conditions.

8). Cobalt (Co+2 )

 It is essential for the symbiotic fixation of nitrogen.
 This element is a component of Vitamin B 12 which is important for
the formation of a form of hemoglobin in N-fixing nodule tissue.
 Legumes and other plants are thought by some to have cobalt
requirement independent of N-fixation, although the amount
required is small compared to that for the N-fixation process.