Fundamentals of

Electrical Engineering
Energy and Power
 Energy and Power
• A battery not only supplies a potential difference but also
supplies energy.

Slide 22-3
 Energy and Power
• The charge escalator transfers
the chemical energy Echem to
the electric potential energy U
of the charges.
• That energy is then dissipated
as the charges move through
the lightbulb, keeping the
filament warm and glowing.

Slide 22-4
 Energy and Power
• A charge q gains potential energy ΔU = qΔV as it moves
through a potential difference ΔV.
• The potential difference of a battery is ΔVbat = , so the
battery supplies ΔU = q to charge q as it lifts the charge
up the charge escalator from the negative to the positive
terminal.

Slide 22-5
 Energy and Power
• The rate at which energy is transferred from the battery to
the moving charges is

• Δq/Δt, the rate at which charge moves through the battery,

is the current I.

• Power has units of J/s or W.

Slide 22-6
 Power delivered by a car battery
A car battery has = 12 V. When the car’s starter motor is
running, the battery current is 320 A. What power does the
battery supply?
SOLVE The power is the product of the emf of the battery
and the current:
Pbat = I = (320 A)(12 V) = 3.8 kW
ASSESS This is a lot of power (about 5 hp), but this amount
makes sense because turning over a car’s engine is hard
work. Car batteries are designed to reliably provide such
intense bursts of power for starting the engine.

Slide 22-7
 Energy and Power
• In a circuit consisting of a battery and a single resistor, the
entire sequence of energy transformations is

Slide 22-130
Energy and Power

Slide 22-9
 Energy and Power
• The net result of a circuit consisting of a battery and a
single resistor is that the battery’s chemical energy is
transferred to the thermal energy of the resistor, raising
its temperature.
• The rate at which the energy is transferred from the
current to the resistor is

Slide 22-10
 Energy and Power
• In a single-resistor circuit, the current is the same in the
battery and the resistor, so
PR = Pbat
• The power dissipated in the resistor is exactly equal to the
power supplied by the battery.
• The rate at which the battery supplies energy is exactly
equal to the rate at which the resistor dissipates energy.

Slide 22-11
 QuickCheck
A resistor is connected to a 3.0 V battery; the power
dissipated in the resistor is 1.0 W. The battery is traded for a
1. V battery. The power dissipated by the resistor is now

A. 1.0 W
B. 2.0 W
C. 3.0 W
D. 4.0 W

Slide 22-12
 QuickCheck
A resistor is connected to a 3.0 V battery; the power
dissipated in the resistor is 1.0 W. The battery is traded for a
1. V battery. The power dissipated by the resistor is now

A. 1.0 W
B. 2.0 W
C. 3.0 W
D. 4.0 W

Slide 22-13
Example Finding the current in a
lightbulb
How much current is “drawn” by a 75 W lightbulb
connected to a 120 V outlet?
PREPARE We can model the lightbulb as a resistor.

Slide 22-14
 Finding the current in a lightbulb
(cont.)
SOLVE Because the lightbulb is operating as intended, it will
dissipate 75 W of power. We can rearrange Equation 22.11
to find

ASSESS We’ve said that we expect currents on the order of

1 A for lightbulbs and other household items, so our result
seems reasonable.

Slide 22-15
 Energy and Power
• A resistor obeys Ohm’s law: I = ΔVR/R. Thus

• Power varies as the square of both the current and the

potential difference.

Slide 22-16
 Example Problem
An electric kettle has a coiled wire inside that dissipates
power when it carries a current, warming the water in the
kettle. A kettle designed for use in England carries 13 A
when connected to a 230 V outlet.

A. What is the resistance of the wire?

B. What power is dissipated when the kettle is running?
C. The kettle can hold 1.7 l of water. Assume that all power
goes to heating the water. How long will it take for the
kettle to heat the water from 20°C to 100°C?

Slide 22-17
 Example Problem
The kettle in the previous example is now redesigned to
work at the lower voltage of outlets in the United States.
Now, the kettle carries 13 A when connected to 120 V.

D. What is the new resistance of the wire?

E. How long will it take for the redesigned kettle to heat
1.7 l of water from 20°C to 100°C?

Slide 22-140
QuickCheck
Several light bulbs, different rated voltages, powers. Which
one has highest resistance?

Power
Voltage across Dissipated by
Bulb Bulb Bulb
A 10 V 1W
B 8V 1W
C 12 V 2W
D 6V 2W
E 3V 3W

Slide 22-19
QuickCheck
Several light bulbs, different rated voltages, powers. Which
one has highest resistance?

Power
Voltage across Dissipated by
Bulb Bulb Bulb
A 10 V 1W
B 8V 1W
C 12 V 2W
D 6V 2W
E 3V 3W

Slide 22-20
QuickCheck
Which has a larger resistance, a 60 W lightbulb or a 100 W
lightbulb?

A. The 60 W bulb
B. The 100 W bulb
C. Their resistances are the same.
D. There’s not enough information to tell.

Slide 22-21
QuickCheck
Which has a larger resistance, a 60 W lightbulb or a 100 W
lightbulb?

A. The 60 W bulb
B. The 100 W bulb
C. Their resistances are the same.
D. There’s not enough information to tell.

Slide 22-22
Example Finding the power of a dim bulb
How much power is dissipated by a 60 W (120 V) lightbulb
when operated, using a dimmer switch, at 100 V?

Slide 22-23
 Example Finding the power of a
dim bulb (cont.)
PREPARE The 60 W rating is for operation at 120 V. We will
assume that the resistance doesn’t change if the bulb is run
at a lower power—not quite right, but a reasonable
approximation for this case in which the voltage is only
slightly different from the rated value. We can compute the
resistance for this case and then compute the power with the
dimmer switch.

Slide 22-24
 Example Finding the power of a
dim bulb (cont.)
SOLVE The lightbulb dissipates 60 W at ∆VR = 120 V. Thus
the filament’s resistance is

The power dissipation when operated at ∆VR = 100 V is

Slide 22-25
Example Finding the power of a
dim bulb (cont.)
• ASSESS Reducing the voltage by 17% leads
to a 30% reduction of the power. This makes
sense; the power is proportional to the
square of the voltage, so we expect a
proportionally larger change in power.

Slide 22-26
Summary: General
Principles

Text: p. 720

Slide 22-27
Summary: Important Concepts

Text: p. 720
Slide 22-28
Summary: Important Concepts

Text: p. 720
Slide 22-29
Summary: Applications

Text: p. 720

Slide 22-30
Summary: Applications

Text: p. 720
Slide 22-31
Summary

Text: p. 720

Slide 22-32
Summary

Text: p. 720

Slide 22-33
Summary

Text: p. 720

Slide 22-34
 Power and Energy in Electric
Circuits
• The power delivered by an electric circuit
increases with both the current and the
voltage. Increase either, and the power
increases.
• When a ball falls in a gravitational field, there
is a change in gravitational potential energy.
Similarly, when an amount of charge, ΔQ,
moves across a potential difference, V, there
is a change in electrical potential energy,
ΔPE, given by
ΔPE = (ΔQ)V
Power and Energy in Electric Circuits
• Recalling that power is the rate at which
energy changes, P = ΔE/Δt, we can express
the electric power as follows:
P = ΔE/Δt = (ΔQ)V/Δt
• Knowing that the electric current is given by
I = (ΔQ)/Δt allows us to write an expression for
the electric power in terms of the current and
voltage.
 Power and Energy in Electric
Circuits
• Thus, the electric power used by a device is equal to the
current times the voltage. For example, a current of 1 amp
flowing across a potential difference of 1 V produces a
power of 1 W.
• The following example provides another example of how
the electric power is calculated.
Power and Energy in Electric Circuits
• The equation P = IV applies to any electrical
system. In the special case of a resistor, the
electric power is dissipated in the form of
heat and light, where the electric power
dissipated in an electric space heater.
 Power and Energy in Electric
Circuits
• Applying Ohm's law, V = IR, which deals with resistors,
we can express the power dissipated in a resistor as
follows:
P = IV = I(IR) = I2R
• Similarly, solving Ohm's law for the current, I = V/R, and
substituting that result gives an alternative expression for
the power dissipated in a resistor:
P = IV = (V/R)V = V2/R
• All three equations for power are valid. The first, P = IV,
applies to all electrical systems. The other two
(P = I2R and P = V2/R) are specific to resistors, which is
why the resistance, R, appears in those equations.
 Power and Energy in Electric
Circuits
• The power dissipated by a resistor is the result of
collisions between electrons moving through the circuit
and the atoms making up the resistor.
• The potential difference produced by the battery causes
conduction electrons to accelerate until they bounce off
an atom, causing the atoms to jiggle more rapidly.
• The increased kinetic energy of the atoms is reflected as
an increased temperature of the resistor. After each
collision, the potential difference accelerates the
electrons again, and the process repeats. The result is
the continuous transfer of energy from the conducting
electrons to the atoms.
 Power and Energy in Electric
Circuits
• The filament of an incandescent lightbulb is
basically a resistor inside a sealed, evacuated tube.
The filament gets so hot that it glows, just like the
heating coil on a stove or the coils in a space
heater.
• The power dissipated in the filament determines
the brightness of the lightbulb. The higher the
power, the brighter the bulb.
 Power and Energy in Electric
Circuits
• The local electric company bills consumers
for the electricity they use each month. To
do this, they use a convenient unit for
measuring electric energy called the
kilowatt-hour.
• Recall that a kilowatt is 1000 W, or
equivalently, 1000 J/s. Similarly, an hour is
3600 s. Combining these results, we see
that a kilowatt-hour is equal to 3.6 million
joules of energy:
1 kWh = (1000 J/s)(3600 s) = 3.6 x 106 J
 Freqency
• Frequency is measured in units of hertz
(Hz).
• A digital counter/timer is the most common
instrument for measuring frequency.
• Alternatively, a phase-locked loop can be
used. An oscilloscope is also
• used commonly, especially in circuit test
and fault diagnosis applications.
 • If p(t) > 0, then the circuit element
is absorbing power from the rest of
i(t) the circuit.
• If p(t) < 0, then the circuit element
Rest of is supplying power to the rest of the
circuit +
circuit.

v(t)

-
Circuit element under
consideration
Voltage Source Current Source
 v=f(vx) v=f(ix)
+ +

- -

Voltage Controlled Current Controlled

Voltage Source Voltage Source
(VCVS) (CCVS)
 I=f(Vx) I=f(Ix)

Voltage Controlled Current Controlled

Current Source Current Source
(VCCS) (CCCS)
 Electronic Components

Active Components (have directionality)

Semiconductor devices-transistors

Passive Components (Have no directionality)

Resistors, capacitors, inductors, diodes
(diodes and polarized capacitors must be
installed in a specified way)
 Electronic Components (cont.)

A. Resistors:

Resistors are passive elements that oppose/restrict

the flow of current.

A voltage is developed across its terminal,

proportional to the current through the resistor.
V = IR

Units: Ohms (Ω)

 Electronic Components (cont.)
B. Capacitors
• behave like a tiny rechargeable battery.
(store energy and release it later. )
• are made of two parallel conductors separated by a
dielectric.
• are used for filtering, tuning, separating signals , etc.

• The ability of a capacitor to store charge is called

“Capacitance”

• C = Q/V (amount of charge stored/applied voltage)

• The unit of capacitance is the Farad.

Commonly used capacitances are much smaller than 1
Farad, micro-Farads (10-6 Farad, μF),
nano-Farads (10-9 Farad, nF),
pico-Farads (10-12 Farad, pF).
Q. Which of the following components used in a
circuit allows the current to flow one way

a. Resistors
b. Inductors
c. Capacitors
d. Diodes
e. Fuses
 Capacitor initially charged. Initially, current is zero, energy is
all stored in the capacitor.

A current gets going, energy gets split between the capacitor

and the inductor.

Capacitor discharges completely, yet current keeps going. Energy

is all in the inductor.

The magnetic field on the coil starts to collapse, which will

start to recharge the capacitor.

Finally, we reach the same state we started with (with

opposite polarity) and the cycle restarts.
 Reading
Question 22.1
The charge carriers in metals are

A. Electrons.
B. Positrons.
C. Protons.
D. A mix of protons and electrons.
 Reading
Question 22.1
The charge carriers in metals are

A. Electrons.
B. Positrons.
C. Protons.
D. A mix of protons and electrons.
 Reading
Question 22.2
A battery is connected to a resistor. Increasing the resistance
of the resistor will

A. Increase the current in the circuit.

B. Decrease the current in the circuit.
C. Not affect the current in the circuit.
 Reading
Question 22.2
A battery is connected to a resistor. Increasing the resistance
of the resistor will

A. Increase the current in the circuit.

B. Decrease the current in the circuit.
C. Not affect the current in the circuit.
 Reading
Question 22.3
A battery is connected to a resistor. As charge flows, the
chemical energy of the battery is dissipated as

A. Current.
B. Voltage.
C. Charge.
D. Thermal energy.
 Reading
Question 22.3
A battery is connected to a resistor. As charge flows, the
chemical energy of the battery is dissipated as

A. Current.
B. Voltage.
C. Charge.
D. Thermal energy.
 Reading
Question 22.4
The equation is called

A. Ampère’s law.
B. Faraday’s law.
C. Ohm’s law.
D. Weber’s law.
 Reading
Question 22.5
The power dissipated in a resistor can be written as

A. IΔVR
B. (ΔVR)2 / R
C. I2R
D. All of the above.
E. None of the above.
 Reading
Question 22.5
The power dissipated in a resistor can be written as

A. IΔVR
B. (ΔVR)2 / R
C. I2R
D. All of the above.
E. None of the above.
QuickCheck
22.1
A wire carries a current. If both the wire diameter and the
electron drift speed are doubled, the electron current
increases by a factor of

A. 2
B. 4
C. 6
D. 8 ie  Ad
E. Some other value
QuickCheck
22.2
Every minute, 120 C of charge flow through this cross
section of the wire.

The wire’s current is

A. 240 A
B. 120 A
C. 60 A
D. 2A
E. Some other value
QuickCheck
22.2
Every minute, 120 C of charge flow through this cross
section of the wire.

The wire’s current is

A. 240 A
B. 120 A
C. 60 A
D. 2A
E. Some other value
Example 22.2 Charge flow in
a lightbulb
A 100 W lightbulb carries a current of 0.83 A. How much
charge flows through the bulb in 1 minute?
SOLVE According to Equation 22.2, the total charge passing
through the bulb in 1 min = 60 s is
q = I ∆t = (0.83 A)(60 s) = 50 C
QuickCheck
22.3
A and B are identical lightbulbs connected to a battery as
shown. Which is brighter?

A. Bulb A
B. Bulb B
C. The bulbs are equally bright.
QuickCheck
22.3
A and B are identical lightbulbs connected to a battery as
shown. Which is brighter?

A. Bulb A
B. Bulb B
C. The bulbs are equally bright.
Conservation of current
QuickCheck
22.4
The wires shown next carry currents as noted. Rate the
currents IA, IB, and IC.

A. IA > IB > IC
B. IB > IA > IC
C. IC > IA > IB
D. IA > IC > IB
E. IC > IB > IA
QuickCheck
22.4
The wires shown next carry currents as noted. Rate the
currents IA, IB, and IC.

A. IA > IB > IC
B. IB > IA > IC
C. IC > IA > IB
D. IA > IC > IB
E. IC > IB > IA
 Electric Current, Resistance, and
Semiconductors
• To move electrons against the resistance of a wire, it is
necessary to apply a potential difference between the wire's
ends.
• Ohm's law relates the applied potential difference to the
current produced and the wire's resistance. To be specific, the
three quantities are related as follows:
 Electric Current, Resistance,
and Semiconductors
• Ohm's law is named for the German physicist Georg Simon
Ohm (1789–1854).
• Rearranging Ohm's law to solve for the resistance, we find
R = V/I
• From this expression, it is clear that resistance has units of
volts per amp. A resistance of 1 volt per amp defines a new
unit—the ohm. The Greek letter omega (Ω) is used to
designate the ohm. Thus,
1 Ω = 1 V/A
• A device for measuring resistance is called an ohmmeter.
Electric Current, Resistance, and
Semiconductors
• A resistor is a small device used in electric circuits to
provide a particular resistance to current. The resistance
of a resistor is given in ohms, as shown in the following
Quick Example.

• In an electric circuit, a resistor is signified by a zigzag

line, 222.. , as a reminder of the zigzag path of the
electrons in the resistor.
Electric Current, Resistance, and
Semiconductors
• The following chart summarizes the elements of electric
circuits, their symbols, and their physical characteristics.