AEB CHAPTER 4 SUMMARY BY A.D.

K
PART I
 All higher animals are triploblastic.
 All embryos of higher animals contain additional third
germ layer called the mesoderm.
 The mesoderm is a true tissue unlike the mesogloea which
is found in diploblastic organisms.
 The mesoderm is an improvement on the anatomy of
triploblastic organisms.
 Triploblastic organisms are subdivided into; the
acoelomates and coelomates.
 The coelomates have the developed body cavity called
coelom while the acoelomates lack a developed body
cavity called coelom.
 The coelom separates the mesoderm into an outer
somatic layer applied to the body wall and an inner
splanchnic layer applied to the gut.
 Principal phyla of the acoelomate animals are; The
Platyhelminthes, Nermeteans, Rotifers and Nematodes.
 The primary body cavity of the metazoan is blastocoel
which is also the first cavity developed in the embryo.
 The blastocoel becomes more constricted during the
gastrulation phase of the embryonic development.
 In coelenterates this layer (the blastocoel) is completely
removed by the secretion of mesogloea between the
ectoderm and endoderm.
 In the acoelomates the blastocoel is invaded by mesoderm
 In Platyhelminthes the blastocoel is completely filled with
by the mesoderm.
 In the rotifers the blastocoel is completely devoid of the
mesodermal cells or mesoderm.
 The Nematodes have a small number of enormous
vasculated cells occupying the primary cavity
 In Nemertean a few longitudinal channels remain to
constitute the blood vascular system.
 In the arthropod; biggest of the coelomate phylum large
portions of the primary body cavity remain and are filled
with blood to form the haemocoel.
 The second body cavity to arise in the metazoan is the
archenteron.
 The archenteron develops in the gut cavity of the adult
forms.
 The archenteron arises from the split in the endoderm (as
in Hydra and Obelia) or by the invagination of the blastula
wall during the embryonic development.
 In the case of invagination the original opening is called
blastopore.
 The blastopore closes later and near it a posterior gut
opening is formed with the mouth arising at the opposite
end.
 There are no concrete proofs only evidences that the
triploblastic organisms originated from the diploblastic
organisms.
 At the embryonic stage, during the blastula stage every
triploblastic organism possesses a double layered
gastrula.
 The mesogloea possesses skeletal function at these stages
because it binds all the cells together providing an elastic
matrix which contracts in response to the action of the
muscle tails of the muscular layer.
 The endoskeleton of higher animals is formed from the
mesoderm and its primary function is the attachment of
muscles.
 The development of the mesoderm in coelenterates is
foreshadowed by the cells which invade the mesogloea.
 In higher coelenterates various types of cells are formed
including; wandering-amoeboid cells, skeleton-forming,
muscle-fibre cells.
 Those cells previously mentioned and similar cells in
sponges are collectively referred to by some authorities as
mesenchyme.
 Mesenchyme means the germ cell of the mesoderm.
 The mesoderm of the embryo forms the greater part of
the bulk of the extreme thickness of the mesogloea.
 From the mesodermal layer arises the reproductive
system, muscular system, the endoskeleton and all-
pervading and important connective tissues.
 In coelenterates, only the mesogloea forms the channel
for diffusion of food materials from the endoderm to the
ectoderm.
 In higher animals mesodermal activities form the linkages
between the ectoderm and endoderm.
 The mesoderm is the cause of the wide gap between the
digestive tract and the body wall thus the challenge of the
transportation of essential materials.
 To solve this problem aggressive differentiation of the
mesodermal cells to give rise to the reproductive and
excretory system was developed.
 Advancement of the nervous system is seen in the
Platyhelminthes.
 The Platyhelminthes are called flatworms because they are
dorso-ventrally flattened.
 Platyhelminthes are acoelomate triploblastic organisms
possessing a body wall composed of outer epidermis and
inner gastrodermis.
 Phylum Platyhelminthes is composed of both the free-
living and parasitic forms.
 The free living forms for e.g. Planaria could be predatory
or scavenger or carnivores.
 Their feeding action is aided by the trapping of preys with
mucus secreted by specialized mucus glands.
 The flatworms are divided into three classes; the
Turbellaria; free living forms, Trematode aka flukes and
Cestodes aka tapeworms (the last two are the parasitic in
humans and other vertebrates).
 Osmoregulation in flatworms is by the use of flame cells
and their excretory product is ammonium compound.
 Respiration in flatworms is by simple diffusion across the
integuments.
 Flatworms have a concentration of nervous tissues at the
anterior end of their bodies and two longitudinal nerve
cords that run along the length of their bodies.
 The free living forms have the most advanced nervous
network among the flatworms possessing receptors
sensitive to light, touch and chemicals.
 All Platyhelminthes are hermaphrodites except the genus
Schistosoma. The Schistosoma spp. carries out cross
fertilization as its common mode of reproduction.
 Fertilization is internal and eggs hatch into ciliated larva
called miracidium.
 The life cycle of many flatworms is very complex
sometimes involving more than one intermediate hosts.
 Planaria shows great ability to regenerate.
 Regeneration the ability of organisms to grow out torn out
segments of its body to its original state.
 The helminths are typically parasitic worms with
morphological variations and bilateral symmetry.
 Phyla Platyhelminthes (flatworms), Nematodes (round
worms), Acanthocephala (spiny headed worms) are often
referred to as the Aschelminthes.
 The Planaria is a true example of the Turbellaria.
 Planaria is practically found in every pond, stream and
canal.
 Planaria is nocturnal, conceals itself under stones or
among weeds emerging at night to search for food,
 Planaria is usually black in colour and up to 15mm long.
 It is broader at the front than at the back where it is
roundly tapered and extremely flattened.
 There is a definite front end which is usually directed
forward during locomotion, an upper/dorsal surface and
lower/ventral surface which is applied to the substratum.
 The eyes are a paired structure near the anterior end
visible as rounded spots.
 The mouth lies on the ventral surface about a quarter of
the distance from the posterior end; it is the only opening
of the gut. When the animal is feeding the pharynx can be
seen as a protruding white tube.
 The body wall of Planaria consists of an epidermis with
ciliated columnar cells located all over the sides of the
body except the long oval glandular tract.
 The epidermis is ornamented with short hyaline rods
known as rhabdites.
 There is no hard skeletal structure just the basement
membrane which serves as an attachment for both the
epidermis and underlining musculature and the fluid filled
body cavity providing hydrostatic support.
 Planaria is carnivorous attacking small worms and
crustaceans on the dead bodies of larger animals.
 Digestion in planaria is slightly extracellular; due to the
release of histolytic enzymes into the enteron of the worm
and slightly intracellular due to the amoeboid ingestion of
small food particles.
 Transportation of digested food is through parenchyma
cells also known as wandering amoeboid cells that actively
transport food materials.
 Faecal materials are egested through the mouth like
coelenterates.
 Respiration is through diffusion and osmosis.
 Planaria can’t survive in water rich in organic waste which
makes it a good bio-indicator of organic pollution in
aquatic media.
 Movement in planaria by the gliding action which it partly
achieves by the beating of the cilia from front to rear and
partly through the ripping muscular waves that traverse
the body from the anterior to the posterior.
 Growth in planaria is by the active division of the somatic
cells, except those in the nervous system.
 Planaria regenerates when injured or cut which is also
common with annelids.
 Annelids aka segmented worms e.g.; Hirudina-leech,
Nereis, Earthworm. Nereis and leech are parasites of
vertebrates.
 Excretion in planaria is by the use of the longitudinal
excretory canals that open up on the dorsal surface of the
body by a number of minute pores.
 Planaria possess a nerve net and a paired cerebral
ganglion located in the anterior region.
 The eyes are for photo sensitivity and are located beneath
the upper epidermis just in front of the cerebral ganglia.
 Turbellerians are hermaphrodites generally but many
planarians reproduce asexually by regeneration.
 The orders under the Class Trematoda; the Monogenean
(single host flukes), Aspidogastrea (presence of the
opisthaptor, parasites of invertebrates) and Digenea
(parasites with more than one host).
 The classification into monogenea and digenea is based on
number of hosts the parasites maintain within a lifecycle.
 The Monogenean parasites has only one host, one sucker,
carries out direct infection, usually parasites to lower
vertebrates and ectotherms; Pisces, amphibians and
reptiles.
 Common monogenean parasites; Polystoma intergerimum
found in the bladder of amphibians and Diclidophora
merlangi that infects the gills of fishes.
 The digenean parasites maintain more than one host in a
lifecycle and are mainly endoparasites.
 Digenean parasites are usually monoecious except the
Schistosoma spp.
 The main characteristic of digenetic parasites is the
possession of two suckers; oral and ventral suckers, the
ventral suckers aka acetabulum.
 Trematodes are parasites of great economic importance as
they cause a number of diseases in man, livestock and
game animals.
 Infections by Trematodes are diagnosed by detection of
their eggs in sputum, stool, faeces or urine specimens.
 All the eggs of digenetic Trematodes are operculated
except Schistosoma spp. That possesses prominent
terminal spines.
 The lid or cap at one end of the egg of flatworms
differentiates it from those of the hookworms (parasitic
nematode).
 Some infections caused by Trematodes include;
schistosomiasis, fascioliasis and paragonomiasis.
 Schistosomiasis is caused by the fluke Schistosoma
haematobium, S. mansoni, S. japanicum.
 Fascioliasis in the cattle and sheep caused by F. hepatica
and F. gigantica.
 Paragonomiasis in humans and other mammals caused by
Paragonomus westermani (lung fluke of man) and other
species of Paragonomus.
 ASPIDOGASTREA
 The Aspidogastrea are a small group of flukes
characterized by a very large hookless holdfast organ
located at the ventral region of the body (ventral or basal
disc opisthaptor). In the adult forms this region covers
nearly the whole ventral side.
 The Aspidogastrea are not host specific and are not
important host of freshwater fish.
 They are important parasites of the Elasmobranchs,
Teleost, or decapod crustaceans.
 One striking difference between the Aspidogastrea and
other flatworms is that they don’t entertain intermediate
 hosts in their life cycle though their larval stages may
develop independently on another animal.
 This attribute makes them unspecialized parasites with
high tendency for arbitrariness in their infectivity.
 The adult of the Aspidogastrea could be sourced from the
kidney of clams (Lamellibranchiata, Uniondae) or from the
intestine of snails, fish and reptiles.
 Eggs of Aspidogastrea are operculated and embryonated,
containing creeping non ciliated larva.
 The larva grows to adult stage through transformation.
 Multicotyle purvisi, ciliated free swimming larva, adult
reaches a size of 10mm in length and occurs inside of the
pallial complex of snail (pila) or in the intestine of snail
eating turtles.
 SCHISTOSOMIASIS
 Schistosomiasis or Bilharziasis or Snail fever is referred to
as a disease of the poor.
 The disease is named after Theodor Bilharz; a German
scientist who first identified the parasite during an autopsy
in Egypt in 1851.
 Epidemiological records show that 200 million people are
affected with the disease with which 120 million are
asymptomatic and 20 million have severe debilitating
disease.
 About 85% of the severely affected are in the sub-Saharan
Africa.
 It is second to Malaria as a cause of human morbidity.
 The three main species of human Schistosoma; S.
haematobium; which is found in the venules surrounding
the bladder causing urinary schistosomiasis; S. mansoni
and S. japanicum; that cause intestinal schistosomiasis
(that inhabit the mesenteries around the intestine).
 Mature paired worms live in the blood vessels surrounding
either the intestines (S. mansoni, S. japanicum) or the
bladder (S. haematobium).
 Female worms are fertilized by the spermatozoa of the
male worms.
 These lay eggs, measuring 114-174µm by 45-68µm and
bear a large postero-lateral spine.
 These eggs laid in the small vessels of the mucosa or sub
mucosa of the intestine, or capillaries may be carried away
by the bloodstream to the liver and other organs.
 From the bladder the eggs are expelled along with the
urine.
 The eggs of S. haematobium are identified by the presence
of a distinct terminal spine while that of S. mansoni has a
lateral spine.
 Eggs readily hatch into ciliated larvae called miracidium.
 The larva swims around until it penetrates a suitable
intermediate snail host usually a fresh water snail where it
develops into another larval stage called the mother
sporocyst that gives the daughter sporocyst.
 A lot of tissue organization and reorganization occurs in
the daughter sporocyst giving rise to another larval stage
called cercaria.
 The cercaria migrates through the tissues of snail and
escapes into the water as the infective stage of the
parasite. The cercaria penetrates the skin of the host
directly.
 When the cercaria penetrates the skin it is known as
schistomule (juvenile).
 S. haematobium reside in the veins of bladder, S. mansoni
resides in the veins of the large intestine, and S. japanicum
resides in the veins of the small intestine.
 Mortality due to Schistosomiasis is put at 11,000 deaths
per year, 1.7 million (DALY-disability adjusted life years)
lost per year.
 The major cause of pathology is the egg embedded in the
tissues of host thereby, causing immunological reactions
especially in the walls of the bladder, colon, and rectum
and in the liver.
 Schistosome eggs in these tissues act as foreign bodies
eliciting inflammatory reactions.
 In the liver a hard cast is usually formed around each egg
called granuloma (pseudotubercle).
 Small abscesses and the occlusion of small blood vessels
may occur leading to necrosis and ulceration.
 PARAGONOMIASIS
 Paragonomiasis (lung fluke) is caused by the Trematode
called Paragonomus westermani in Nigeria.
 The fluke is called the oriental lung fluke because of its
particular endemicity in Asia (China, Japan and Korea) and
in other parts of the globe; Africa, South and North
America.
 In North America the most common species is the P.
kellicotti.
 Paragonomiasis affects 20 million people worldwide with
the disease found in other vertebrates such as dogs and
cats.
 The host (human) gets infected by P. westermani from
eating poorly cooked infected freshwater crabs or crayfish
which are the intermediate host.
 The life cycle of fluke starts when an infected host releases
the operculated eggs of the parasites in the sputum and
on a moist environment.
 This hatches into a miracidium in about 3 weeks which
then infects a suitable snail intermediate host called
 Semisulcospira liberatina. In the intermediate host the
miracidium develops into the sporocyst
 Each sporocyst bears 12 radiae immature intercellular
stage of the parasite.
 After 78 days the cercaria crawls out of the snail and
infects a crustacean, crab called; Eriocheir japanicum or
crayfish which is the second intermediate host.
 In the second intermediate host, the parasite forms meta-
cercarial cysts in the gills and muscles.
 Man becomes infected when he eats poorly cooked
infected crustacean of the stated species.
 In man the parasites penetrates the intestinal wall and
enters the coelom migrates to the lungs and other organs
in pairs.
 At the bronchioles the cyst ruptures and maturation of the
fluke takes place with clinical symptoms.
 Mature eggs are expelled when the infected host coughs
and swallows.
 Paragonomus spp. , infection could be severe if the worm
burden is high leading to pulmonary paragonomiasis.
 Sometimes the parasite migrates to other organs;
intestine, brain, liver, spleen, eyes and ovaries. These
migrant parasites also infect these organs leading to extra-
pulmonary paragonomiasis.
 The parasites can result to total blindness when dislodged
in the eye or headaches when dislodged in the brain due
to embolism (blockage of the artery).
 Other symptoms of paragonomiasis include cough, blood
in sputum, bronchitis, pleurisy, pneumothorax, difficulty in
breathing, anaemia, weariness and hives.
 Fascioliasis is a disease caused by the Trematode called
Fasciola hepatica. It affects both man and ruminants;
sheep, cow and goat.
 Liver fluke has a wide geographical distribution as it is
found in the tropics, sub-tropics and temperate regions.
 The host gets infected by ingestion of infected water plant
(water cress).
 At the intestine excystation of the cercaria occurs
liberating the metacercaria which penetrates the intestinal
walls, migrates to the liver and bile duct, develops into the
adult and reproduces egg/ova.
 The operculated eggs or ova are passed out of the host via
the faeces in egestion process to the environment.
 In about 4-15 days, the eggs hatch into the miracidium a
free juvenile stage infective to the intermediate host; a
lymnea spp., snail or degenerate.
 In the snail the miracidium develops into the sporocyst
which gives rise to the mother radiae.
 From the intermediate host the cercaria crawls out which
encyst on a vegetation waiting to be ingested by the
definitive host.
 Common digenean parasites of fish; Posthodiplostonum
(white grub); this parasite infects cultured fish and prefers
the eye, head and visceral organs resulting in reduced
growth.
 Mortality rarely occurs unless in heavy infection of the
eye, head and visceral organs.
 Clinostonum (yellow grub); is a large fluke with no obvious
symptoms apart from reduction in the market value of the
fish due to external injuries.
 Diplostomum (eye fluke); Diplostomiasis in catfish is a
disease caused by the metacercaria of the fluke resulting
in blindness by damaging the eye lens of the fish host. This
is called parasitic cataract.
 Diplostomum spp. has two intermediate hosts; bird usually
gulls and snails.
 Fish or humans can be the final host depending on the life
cycle considered.
 Diplostomiasis is a zoonotic disease.
 Diplostomum spp. are common parasites affecting many
fish species including; catfish and salmonids etc.
 CESTODES
 Cestodes are tapeworms.
 The Cestodes lack a mouth and a digestive tract.
 The body surface is covered with a tegmental layer which
is a protective layer.
 It has a segmented body with a holdfast organ; the scolex
at the anterior end.
 All members of the class are endoparasites and are
described as the most specialized metazoan parasites of
the alimentary canal associated with the adult stage of
vertebrates.
 They require intermediate host, (1/2) to complete their
lifecycles.
 The final or definitive host is man who is usually infected
by consuming poorly cooked meat (pork) containing the
infective larvae called the bladder worm or cysticercoid.
 The intermediate host pig or cow is infected when it feeds
on grass containing the infective stage called the
hexacanth larva or oncosphere.
 The oncosphere bears six hooks as a taxonomic feature.
 In the intermediate host the oncosphere or egg hatches to
penetrate the haemocoel forming the metacestode; pre
adult stage usually in the muscles.
 The pre-adult stage or bladder worm or cysticercoid is the
infective stage of the parasites.
 The scolex of the cysticercus is always inverted.
 A single bladder worm may bear many invaginated
scolices.
 This specialized larva having many scolices is known as
coenurus.
 In some species the metacestode displays a second and
third variation of invagination.
 The formation of metacestode with multiple scolices is
called the hydatid cysts/brood capsule which helps to
transmit the parasite effectively.
 The infection of the definitive host is the only thing that
brings about the evagination of the bladder worm.
 The evagination of the bladder worm is subject to pH,
temperature and presence of certain enzymes.
 T. solium has two rows of hooks on the scolex while T.
saginata is unarmed and has no rostellum.
 The infective stage of T. solium is the cysticercus
cellulosae while the infective stage of T. saginata is
cysticercus bovis which bear a single invaginated scolex in
unsuitable hosts.
 Common symptoms of taeniasis; abdominal pain,
excessive appetite, weakness and loss of weight.