AP World History Modern Study Guide

AP World History - Ultimate
Guide
Unit 1: The Global Tapestry
Review of History Within Civilizations
What rises out of collapse of classical civilization and interactions
developing between new states
Growth of long-distance trade
Overview of World’s Major Religions in 1200

Most events are connected to religion
Key Points:
1. Most belief systems still are impacting history
2. Most major religions have divisions = subgroups and sects (focus
more on overall religion)
3. Understand theological basis of belief systems and impact of belief
systems on social, political, cultural, military developments
4. Origin and spread of belief systems - cultural interactions
Religious Mysticism: adherents within religions focusing on mystical
experiences that bring them closer to divine - prayer, meditation
Buddhism
Cultures: India, China, Southeast Asia, Japan
Context:
Founded by Siddhartha Gautama, a young Hindu prince -
lived in Nepal from 563-483 BCE, rejected wealth and world
possessions and became Buddha (Enlightened One)
No supreme being - 4 Noble Truth: (1) all life is suffering, (2)
suffering caused by desire, (3) can be freed of desire, (4)
freed of desire following a prescribed path
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Death of Buddha (483 BCE) = Buddhism split - Theravada
Buddhism and Mahayana Buddhism
Theravada Buddhism: meditation, simplicity, nirvana as
renunciation of consciousness and self
Mahayana Buddhism: great ritual, spiritual comfort - more
complex but with greater spread
Impact: rejects caste system - appealed to those of lower rank
India: reabsorbed in Hinduism
China, Japan, Southeast Asia: Buddhism continued to thrive
Further: spread via trade routes
Christianity
Cultures: started as group of Jews, quickly expanded through
Europe, northeastern Africa, Middle East
Context:
Based around Jesus of Nazareth, a figure who claimed to be
Messiah the Jews had awaited - teachings of devotion to
God and love for others
Jesus was crucified by Roman and Jewish leaders in 30 CE
and his followers believe he rose from dead into heaven
Based on Bible teachings
Believe Jesus is the Son of God - forgiveness of sins,
everlasting life is achievable through him
World was created by God, but world has fallen from God
Believers should seek God and care for him and others
Impact: compassion, grace through faith appealed to lower classes
and women
Became most influential religion in Mediterranean basin by
3rd century
Became official religion of Roman Empire, then branching
north and west
Connection with Roman Empire had profound impact on
global culture
Confucianism
Cultures: China (400 BCE+)
Context:
Founded by Confucius, educator and political advisor -

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thoughts and sayings collected in the Analects
Deals with how to restore political and social order, not with
philosophical or religious topics
5 fundamental relations build society and make it orderly -
(1) ruler and subject, (2) parent and child, (3) husband and
wife, (4) older sibling and younger sibling. (5) friend and
friend
Impact:
Compatible with other religions, causing it to flourish
Led to distinctive Chinese culture of tight-knit communities
Stayed within Chinese culture
Hinduism
Cultures: India
Context:
Belief in one supreme force called Brahma who created
everything - gods are manifestations of Brahma (Vishnu =
preserver, Shiva = destroyer)
Goal of believer is to merge with Brahma - believe it takes
multiple lives to accomplish and believers live to determine
who they will be in their next life
Following the dharma (rules and obligations of your caste)
will move you towards Brahma - moksha is highest stake of
being (internal peace and release of soul)
No sacred text - Vedas and Upanishads guide Hindus
Impact:
Religion and social caste system, which has prevented global
acceptance of religion
Recently, Hindus are rebelling caste system
Spawned Buddhism
Islam
Cultures: caliphates (Islamic kingdoms), North Africa, central Asia,
Europe
Context:
7th century - Muslims are the believers
Allah presented words through prophet Muhammad, whose
words were recorded in the Qur’an

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Salvation is won through submission to God - 5 Pillars of
Islam: (1) confession, (2) prayer 5 times a day, (3) charity, (4)
fasting during Ramadan, (5) pilgrimage to Mecca
2 groups, Shia and Sunni, who disagreed who should
succeed Muhammad
Impact:
Rapidly spread to Middle East
Judaism
Cultures: Hebrews
Context
God selected a group of holy people who should follow his
laws and worship them
Unique relationship with God
World is for them to enjoy, free will - destiny of world is
paradise
Hebrew Bible - Torah, miracles, laws, historical chronicles,
poetry, prophecies
Impact
First of major monotheistic faiths
Developments in the Middle East

Abbasid Dynasty: Golden Age to Remember
Islamic Empire from 750-1258 CE - early mid-9th century golden
age
Capital in Baghdad (modern-day Iraq)
Centre for arts and sciences - mathematics (Nasir al-Din al Tusi),
medicine, writings (House of Wisdom library)
Built around trade - used receipt and bill system
Decline of Islamic Caliphates: Internal Rivalries and Mongol Invasions
Challenged by revolt of enslaved Turkish warriors, new Shia dynasty
in Iran, Seljuk Turk Sunni group, Persians, Europeans, Byzantines,
and most importantly Mongols
Mongols overtook and destroyed Baghdad in 1258
Ottoman Turks would later reunite Egypt, Syria, and Arabia in new
Islamic state until 1918
Mamluks: Egyptian group that defeated Mongols in Nazareth,

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helping preserve Islam in Near East
Developments in Europe
Middle Ages: fall of Rome before Renaissance - complicated time
Eastern Roman Empire became Byzantine Empire
Western Europe: collapsed entirely - Christianity remained strong
European Feudalism: Land Divided
Feudalism: European hierarchy social system of Middle Ages
1. King: power over whole kingdom
2. Nobles: had power over sections of kingdom in exchange for
loyalty to king and military service
3. Vassals: lesser lords with sections of Noble land who could
divide it further - estates were called fiefs or manors (self-
sufficient)
Founded three-field system: 3 fields for fall, spring,
and empty one to replenish nutrients
Conflict between lords was regulated with code of
chivalry which condemned betrayal and promoted
mutual respect
Male dominated: women could not own land and land
was passed down to eldest son (primogeniture), their
education was limited to domestic skills
4. Peasants or Serfs: worked the land
Had few rights or freedoms outside of manor
Skilled in trades, which helped them break out of
feudal mode as global trade increased - led to middle
class emergence of craftsmen and merchants
Emergence of Nation-States
At end of Middle Ages, people began moving from feudal kingdom
organization to linguistic and cultural organization - emergence of modern
countries
Achievement of statehood in 13th century took different paths
Germany: reigning family of emperorship died out, entering a
period of interregnum (time between kings) - merchants and
tradespeople became more powerful

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England: English nobles rebelled against King John and forced him
to sign the Magna Carta - reinstated the nobles, laid foundation for
Parliament
Later divided into House of Lords (nobles and clergy - legal
issues) and House of Commons (knights and wealth
burghers - trade and taxation)
France: in 12th century, England began to occupy many parts of
France which spurred revolts - Joan of Arc fought back English out
of Orleans
Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453): unified France, leading to
England’s withdrawal
Spain: Queen Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon married
to unite Spain in a single monarchy and forced all residents to
convert to Christianity - Spanish Inquisition
Russia: taken over by Tartars (group of eastern Mongols) under
Genghis Kahn in 1242 until Russian prince Ivan III expanded his
power in 1400s and became czar - Ivan the Terrible became a
ruthless ruler utilizing secret police in 1500s
Developments in Asia
China and Nearby Regions
Song Dynasty (960-1279)
Confucianism justified subordination of women - foot binding:
women’s feet bound after birth to keep them small
Neo-Confucianism: Buddhist ideas about soul, filial piety,
maintenance of proper roles, loyalty to superiors
Ming Dynasty (1368-1644): after brief period of Mongol dominance
Religion: influenced by Nestorianism, Manichaeism, Zoroastrianism, Islam,
and especially Buddhism in two of its forms
Mahayana: peaceful and quiet existence apart from worldly values
Chan or Zen: meditation and appreciation of beauty
Japan
Relatively isolated from external influences outside Asia for many years
Feudal Japan (1192):
1. Emperor

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2. Shogun (chief general)
3. Daimyo: owners of larger pieces of land, powerful samurai (like
knights)
Followed Code of Bushido code of conduct - loyalty,
courage, honour
4. Lesser samurai (like vassals)
5. Peasants and artisans
Women had little rights and esteem
India
Delhi Sultanate: Islamic invader kingdom in Delhi
Islam took over Northern India - clash between Islam monotheism and
Hinduism polytheism
Islam rulership brought in colleges and farming improvements
Rajput Kingdoms: several Hindu principalities that united to resist Muslim
forces from 1191 until eventual takeover in 1527
Southeast Asia
Religion spread and established different states
Khmer Empire (9th-15th century): Hindu Empire in modern day

Cambodia, Laos, Thailand

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Beliefs were carried through Indian Ocean trade network
Crafted the Angor Wat temple
Developments in Africa
Islamic Empire spread to North Africa in the 7th to 8th centuries -
travelled through Sahara Desert and reached the wealthy sub-Saharan
An explosion of trade began
Hausa Kingdoms: off Niger River, series of state system kingdoms
Islam region, achieved economic stability and religious influence
though long trade (salt and leather) - notably city of Kano
Political and economic downturn in 18th century due to internal wars
Developments in Americas
3 great civilization in Central and South America: Maya, Incas, Aztecs

Aztecs: Trade and Sacrifice
Arrived in Mexico in mid 1200s
Tenochtitlan: capital city (modern Mexico City)
Expansionist policy and professional, strict army
Empire of 12 million people with flourishing trade, many of people
enslaved
Women were subordinate, but could inherit property
Inca: My Land is Your Land
Andes Mountains in Peru
Expansionist - army, established bureaucracy, unified language,
system of roads and tunnels
Many people were peasants
Capital of Cuzco had almost 300000 people in late 1400s
Women were more important and could pass property to their
daughters
Polytheistic religion with human sacrifice - Sun god was most
important
People were mummified after death
Military was very important
Temple of the Sun and Machu Picchu architecture
The Mayans (textbook does not go into detail)

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Unit 2: Networks of Exchange
Height of the Middle Ages: Trading and Crusading
Merchants emerged in towns - referred to as Burghers, became politically
powerful
Towns often formed alliances with each other
Hanseatic League (1358): trade alliance though northern Europe to drive
toward nationhood, increase social mobility and flexibility
Architecture: Romanesque to Gothic - especially reflected in cathedrals

Flying buttresses: tall windows and vaulted ceilings
Often had art and sculpture, music
Scholasticism: growth of education and knowledge - founding of
universities for men; philosophy, law, medicine study; ideas of Muslims
and Greeks - came in conflict with religion
Crusades (11-14th century): military campaigns by European Christians to
convert Muslims and non-Christians, combat religious questioning

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Combat Heresies: religious practices/beliefs not conforming to
traditional church doctrine
Pope Innocent III: issued strict decrees on church doctrine -
frequently persecuted heretics and Jews, unsuccessful 4th crusade
Pope Gregory IX: Inquisition (formal interrogation and prosecution
of perceived heretics with punishments like excommunication,
torture, execution) - church often referred to as Universal Church
or Church Militant
Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274): Christian theologian who made
advancements in Christian thought - faith and reason aren’t in
conflict
Urbanization
Trade led to the growth of urban culture - cities usually were around
trade routes
Silk Route cities were the most populous - Baghdad, Merv, Chang’an
Constantinople before 1400 and Paris and Italian city-states after
1400 were big European cities
The Rise and Fall of the Mongols

Set of tribes and clans that were superb horseman and archers
Genghis Kahn: unified the tribes in Mongolia in the early 1200s to expand
their authority over other societies - first invaded China in 1234
Mongol Empire: spanned from Pacific Ocean to Eastern Europe - spit into
hordes after death of Genghis Kahn, ruthless warriors destroying cities
but remained peaceful after settling into cities
Golden Horde: conquered modern-day Russia
Kublai Khan: Genghis Kahn’s successor - ruled China
Didn’t really have a set culture - didn’t enforce religion or way of life on
conquered nations, but did make any cultural advancements
Timur Lang: Mongol leader who took over India and destroyed everything
- grew Islam in the nation
If any residents of society the Mongols took over resisted, they would
immediately kill them, so most had no choice but to give in - they were
ruthless fighters, organized and mobile
Impact:
Great diffusers of culture

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Prevented Russia from culturally developing
World trade, cultural diffusion, global awareness grew as they
spread through Europe, the Middle East, and Asia
Mali and Songhai

Mali had a lot of gold that Islamic traders were interested in
Mansa Musa: Malian ruler who built the capital of Timbuktu and expended
the kingdom beyond Ghana
Sonni Ali: Songhai ruler that conquered region of west Africa in 15th
century - became a major cultural centre until 1600
Chinese Technology
Song Dynasty: bureaucratic system built on merit and civil service
examination creating a lot of loyal government workers, improved
transportation and communication and business practices
Concentrated on creating an industrial society - improved literacy with
printed books which increased productivity and growth
Review of Interactions Among Cultures

Trade Networks and Cultural Diffusion
Trade exploded from 1200-1450
Improved with better transportation and monetary systems
Main Global Trade Routes:
1. The Hanseatic League
2. The Silk Road
3. The land routes of the Mongols
4. Trade between China and Japan
5. Trade between India and Persia
6. The Trans-Saharan trade routes between west Africa and the
Islamic Empire
Cultural diffusion - spread religions, languages, literature, art, idea,
disease, plague
Bubonic Plague: started in Asia in the 14th century and carried by
merchants - killed about 1/3 people
Indian Ocean Trade

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Dominated by Persians and Arabs - western India to Persian Gulf to
eastern Africa
Great Zimbabwe: trading empire in Africa from 11th to 15th centuries
Vibrant Indian Ocean Communities

Sailors marrying local women created cultural intermixing
Silk Road
China to Mediterranean cultures in early days of Roman Empire and from
1200 to 1600
Cultural exchange through travellers stopping at trade towns - Kashgar,
Samarkand
Silk, porcelain, paper, religion, food, military technologies
Hanseatic League
Made up of over 100 cities
Created substantial middle class in northern Europe
Set precedent for large, European trading operations
Expansion of Religion and Empire: Cultural Clash

Both natural spread of religion through contact over trade and intentional
diffusion through missionary work or religious war
Other Reasons People Were on the Move

Ran out of room in certain places, but cities were always increasing in size
as opportunities grew in them
New cities and empires drew people in
Muslim pilgrimages
Notable Global Travellers

1. Xuanzang: Chinese Buddhist monk - through T’ang Dynasty to India to
explore Buddhism
2. Marco Polo: merchant from Venice, to China and Europe
3. Ibn Battuta: Islamic traveler, through Islamic world to India to China
4. Margery Kempe: English Christian, through Europe and Holy Land
Unit 3: Land-Based Empires

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Major European Developments
After 300 years of development, Europe become the dominant world
power
Revolutions in European Thought and Expression:
1300s: Europe had been Christian for over a thousand years
As countries began to unify and connect more, especially with
countries who had preserved their history, Europe expanded its
worldview and explored its past and 4 cultural movements
happened
The Renaissance
As trade increased, people moved to the cities and an influx of money was
experienced - a lot of money went to studying the past
Humanism: focus on personal accomplishment, happiness, and life on
earth instead of living for the goal of salvation
Afterlife remained dominant in the Catholic Church
Arts have a comeback
People could afford art again - Medici family patrons of
Michelangelo and Brunelleschi
Artists focused on realism - Leonardo da Vinci and Donatello
Western writers have an audience
mid-1400s: Johannes Gutenberg invents the printing press -
made books easy to produce and affordable, and accessible to
everyone
led to more literate people
The Protestant Reformation
Catholic Church was one of the most powerful organizations in the Middle
Ages - power in politics and society - undisputed authority
Church capitalized off its many followers with indulgences: paper faithful
could purchase to reduce time in purgatory
Nobles and peasants began getting increasingly frustrated by the
church’s exploitation and noticed its corrupt nature
Martin Luther: German monk who published his list of complaints against
the church - most significantly proposed salvation was given directly
through God, not through the church, which significantly reduced the

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church’s influence
Pope Leo X: excommunicated Luther when he refused to recount
his idea
Christianity split - Luther’s ideas led to many others to come forward
Lutherans: Luther’s followers - separated from Catholic Church
Calvinism - John Calvin: predestination - only a few people would
be saved by God, great influence in Scotland and France
When the pope refused to annul King Henry VIII’s marriage to
Catherine of Aragon because a heir wasn’t produced, he declared
himself the head of religious affairs - presided over Church of
England/Anglican Church
Jesuits - Ignatius Loyola: prayer and good works leads to salvation
Catholic Reformation (16th century)
Catholic church attempts to remedy some of their controversies
and regains some of its credibility - still wanted authority and
control
Council of Trent: reinstated pope authority, punished heretics,
reestablished Latin as only language in worship
Caused wars
Scientific Revolution
Expanded education led to world discoveries
Copernican Revolution: Nicolaus Copernicus - discovered earth and
other celestial bodies revolved around the sun and the earth rotated on its
axis
Galileo: built off Copernicus’s theories and proved them - forced to recant
by the Catholic Church and put under house arrest
Scientific Method: shift from reasoning being most reliable means of
scientific meaning to scientific method (theory, documentation, repetition,
others experimenting)
Tycho Brahe, Francis Bacon, Johannes Kepler, Sir Isaac Newton
Led to Industrial Revolution, and many rejecting the church - atheists
(believe no god exists), deists (believe God exists, but is passive)
Deism: became popular in 1700s - God created the earth but doesn’t
interfere in its workings
European Rivals

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Spain and Portugal
Spain became very powerful, supporting exploration, expansion of
Spanish language and culture, and having a large naval fleet
Under Charles V, Spain controlled parts of France, the Netherlands,
Austria, Germany, Spain, America
Under Charles’s son Philip, the Spanish Inquisition to oust heretics
was continued, the Dutch Protestants under Spain revolted to form
independent the Netherlands - lost a lot of money in mid-17th
century and was poised to be defeated by England and France
Portugal focused on dominating costal Africa, Indian Ocean, Spice Islands
- lost control to Dutch and British
England
Henry VIII never succeeded in having a male heir - his daughter Elizabeth I
became Queen
Elizabethan Age (1558-1603): expansion, exploration, colonization in
New World - golden age
Muscovy Company: first joint-stock company - British East India
Company
James I: succeeded Elizabeth in 1607 - England and Scotland under one
rulership, reforms to accommodate Catholics and Puritans failed
Charles I: succeeded James in 1625 - signed Petition of Rights (limiting
taxes and forbidding unlawful imprisonment) - ignored it for the next 11
years
Scottish invaded England out of resentment for Charles in 1640 -
called the Long Parliament into session (sat for 20 years), which
limited the powers of the monarchy
Parliament raised an army, under Oliver Cromwell, to fight the King
after he tried to arrest the
Parliament defeats the king and executes him - began the English
Commonwealth (Oliver Cromwell known as the first Lord Protector)
Oliver Cromwell: intolerant of religion, violent against Catholics and Irish
- highly resented
Charles II: exiled son of Charles I invited by Parliament to reclaim the
throne as a limited monarchy after Cromwell died (Stuart Restoration)
Agreed to Habeas Corpus Act: prevents people from arrests

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without due process
James II: succeeded Charles II after his death - highly disliked, fear he
would make England a Catholic county - driven from power by Parliament
(Glorious Revolution)
Succeeded by his daughter Mary and her husband William - signed
English Bill of Rights (1689)
France
Unified and centralized under strong monarchy after Hundred Years’ War
(1337-1453)
Largely Catholic, but French Protestants started to emerge (Huguenots)
and fought with the Catholics
Henry IV: issued Edict of Nantes (1598) (environment of tolerance
between religions) - first of Bourbon kings who ruled until 1792
Cardinal Richelieu: chief advisor to the Bourbons who compromised with
Protestants instead of fighting with them
Created the bureaucratic class noblesse de la robe, succeeded by
Cardinal Mazarin
Louis XIV: reigned from 1642-1715 - highly self-important and grandiose,
condemned many Huguenots, never summoned the French lawmakers,
appointed Jean Baptiste Colbert to manage royal funds - France almost
constantly at war to increase empire
War of Spanish Succession (1701-1714): Louis’s grandson was to
inherit the Spanish throne, so England, Roman Empire, and German
princes united to prevent France and Spain from combining
German Areas (Holy Roman Empire?)

Holy Empire was in present day Austria/Germany - weak due to the mixed
dynamics, rulership, and religion of the surrounding area
Lost parts of Hungary to Ottoman Turks in early 16th century
Devastated by Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648)
German states were gaining power by 18th century
Peace of Augsburg (1555): intended to bring end to conflicts between
Catholics and Protestants
Thirty Years’ War: began when protestants in Bohemia challenged
Catholics - violent and destructive
Peace of Westphalia (1648): German states affirmed to keep the

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peace
Russia
Russian leaders were overthrowing reigning Mongols in late 15th century
Moscow became centre of Orthodox Christianity
Ivan III refused to pay tribute to Mongols and declared them free from
their rule - lead Russians, later Ivan IV did too
Recruited peasants freedom from boyars (their feudal lords) if they
conquered their own land themselves
Ivan IV (Ivan the Terrible): strong leader feared by many - executing
people who were threats to his power
Battle for throne after Ivan IV died without an heir - Time of Troubles
(1604 to 1613): killing those who tried to rise to the throne
Michael Romanov was elected by feudal lords until 1917 - Romanovs
consolidated power and ruled ruthlessly
Peter the Great: ruled from 1682-1725 - redesigned and adapted Russia
in to westernized fashion
Catherine the Great: ruled from 1762-1796 - education and Western
culture - serf conditions were of no importance to her
Islamic Gunpowder Empires

Ottoman Empire precedes 1450 - founded by Osman Bey as the Mongol
Empire fell
Eventually invaded Constantinople in 1453 and ended Byzantine
Empire (Constantinople now named Istanbul)
Ottomans were Islamic and solidified rule over territory from Greece
to Persia to around Mediterranean into Egypt and northern Africa by
giving land (timars) to Ottoman aristocrats to control
Employed practice called devshirme: enslaved Christian children
and turned them into warriors called Janissaries
Selim I: came into power in 1512, led much of the empire growth,
made Istanbul centre of Islamic civilization
Suleiman I: succeeded Selim I in 1520, build Ottoman military and
arts - golden age from 1520-1566
Took over parts of Hungary, but could not successfully take
over Vienna

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Babur: Mongol leader who invaded northern India in 1526 - Mughal
Empire (dominated for next 300 years)
United entire subcontinent
Akbar: succeeded Babur from 1556 to 1605 - united India further
with religious toleration, did give Muslim landowners (zamindars)
power to tax
Hindus and Muslims lived side by side in a golden age of art and
thought - under Shah Jahan, the Taj Mahal was built
Aurangzeb: emperor who ended religious toleration and waged
wars to conquer rest of India - Hindus were persecuted
Europeans arrived in early 17th century to trade and spread ideas -
after 1750 is when Britain turned into an imperial superpower
Africa
Starting in 10th century, wealth accumulated from trade - Songhai, Kongo,
and Angola became powerful kingdoms
Songhai:
Islamic state
Sunni Ali: ruler 1464-1493 - navy, central administration, financed
Timbuktu - fell to Moroccans
Asanti Empire: arose in 1670 - avoided invasion and expanded its territory
Kongo:
King Alfonso I: Catholic, and converted his people
Mostly destroyed by previous allies Portugal
Angola:
Established by Portuguese around 1575 for the slave trade
Queen Nzinga resisted Portuguese attempts to further their control
for 40 years
Isolated Asia
China
Ming Dynasty was restored until 1644 after kicking out Mongols in 1368
Built huge fleets in early 15th century to explore Asia and Indian ocean -
Zheng He: famous Chinese navigator
Economy started failing due to silver currency inflation, famines in 17th
century, peasant revolts

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Qing warriors were invited to help Ming emperor but instead ousted him in
1644
Qing/Manchus ruled China until 1911
Not ethnically Chinese so had to affirm legitimacy - displayed
imperial portraits with Chinese historical items
Kangxi: ruled from 1661 to 1722 and conquered Taiwan, Mongolia,
central Asia, Tibet
Qianlong: ruled from 1735 to 1796 and conquered Vietnam, Burma,
Nepal
were both Confucian scholars
Did not interact a lot with surrounding nations, protected their culture
Japan
Shoguns ruled Japan in 16th century, but Christian missionaries came in
and Jesuits took control of Nagasaki - westernization
Tokugawa Ieyasu: established Tokugawa Shogunate (Edo period) from
1600 to 1868 - strict government that instituted a rigid social class model
Moved capital of Japan to Edo (modern-day Tokyo)
National Seclusion Policy (1635): prohibited Japanese from
traveling abroad and prohibited most foreigners
Japanese culture thrived - Kabuki theatre and haiku poetry became
popular
Resistance
Key rebellions in 17th and 18th centuries:
1. Ana Nzinga’s Resistance (Kingdoms of Ndongo and Matamba) -
1641-167
Resisted Portuguese colonizers
2. Cossack Revolts (Modern-day Ukraine) - 17-18th century
Resisted Russian Empire but were eventually defeated
3. Haitian Slave Rebellion (Haiti) - 1791-1804
Resisted France and eventually achieved independence for
Haiti
4. Maratha (India) - 1680-1707
Resisted Mughal Empire and defeated them starting the
Maratha Empire

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5. Maroon Societies (Caribbean and Brazil) - 17th-18th century
Resisted slave-owners in Americas and avoided attempts to
be recaptured and sold
6. Metacom’s War (US) - 1675-1678
Resisted British colonists over unfair trade practices
7. Pueblo Revolts (US) - 1680
Resisted Spanish colonizers and their encomienda system,
but victory was temporary
Unit 4: Transoceanic Interconnections

European and Expansion
Portuguese and Spanish controlled major shipping routes in Indian Ocean,
Indonesia, Atlantic Ocean
Portugal financed explorations
Prince Henry the Navigator (King John I’s son)
Vasco da Gama: explored eastern Africa, India
Spain also did:
Financed Christopher Columbus: explored Americas
Treaty of Tordesillas (1494): agreement between Spain and Portugal to
split colonized land between them
England, Netherlands, France launched own explorations to acquire new
colonies - caused rise in nationalism and powerful monarchies
Explorers
1. Amerigo Vespucci (1500): South America
2. Ponce de Leon (1513): Florida
3. Vasco de Balboa (1513): Central America
4. Ferdinand Magellan (1519): South America to Philippines
5. Giovanni da Verrazzano (1524): North America
6. Sir Francis Drake (1578): circumnavigated the globe
7. John Cabot (1497): North America
8. Henry Hudson (1609): Hudson River
Products that aided new explorations:
1. Sternpost Rudder: invented in China - better control of ships
2. Lateen Sails: invented in Roman Empire - allowed directional
control of ships

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3. Astrolabe: navigation device that measured distance between sun
and stars on horizon to determine latitude
4. Magnetic Compass: developed in China - determine direction
5. Three-Masted Caravels: large ships fit for longer journeys
The New World: Accidental Empire

Spanish explorers found great wealth in Aztec and Inca Empires
Hernando Cortés: landed on coast of Mexico in 1519 - sought to exploit
the Aztec Empire of their gold and spices
Neighbouring states were willing to help Spanish conquer Aztecs as
they had taken over a lot of the neighbouring communities - or
those who didn’t cooperate were forced or killed
Became very hungry for wealth and quickly seized Montezuma and
began a siege of Tenochtitlan
Disease: Ultimate Weapon of Mass Destruction

Spanish brought smallpox to the Aztec Empire which reduced their
population from 20 million in 1520 to 2 million in 1580 - Spanish were able
to take control in 1525
Francisco Pizarro took over Inca Empire in 1531 partially due to spreading
disease to them
Pizarro was in control of the Inca Empire by 1535
The Encomienda System

Spanish implemented a hierarchical colonial society as they took over the
New World
Structure:
1. Peninsulares: Spanish officials governing the colonies
2. Creoles: Spanish born in colonies to Spanish parents - barred from
high positions but were educated and wealthy
3. Mestizos: those with European/Native American ancestry
4. Mulattos: those with European/African ancestry
5. Native Americans
Viceroys: governors of each of 5 regions of New Spain - established the
encomienda system (system of forced labour of the natives and African
slaves)

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African Slave Trade
Slaves brought to New World to work on the plantations and mines
Europe exploited a system of slavery already existing in Africa - prisoners
were supposed to serve their captors before being released
Europeans traded for their surplus of enslaved people, but didn’t
understand that they were supposed to be released
As demand for slaves in Europe increased, Europe became even more
ruthless - kidnapping Africans, causing wars, forcing rulers to give up their
citizens
Slaves were forced onto ships, chained below deck, and endured brutal
Middle Passage
Around 13 million Africans were taken - 60% to South America, 35% to
Caribbean, 5% to North America, around 20% of people on each trip
perished
The Columbian Exchange

Transatlantic transfer of animals, plants, diseases, people, technology,
ideas among Europe, Americas, and Africa
Never before had so much moved across the ocean
Transfer of food products caused population increase in Europe, Asia, and
Africa
Two key products: sugar (plantations appeared all over Spanish colonies),
silver (mining also in Spanish colonies) - both used significant forced
labour
Spanish control of silver opened doors in Ming China
The Commercial Revolution

Age of Exploration: trading, empire building, conquest - due to financing
schemes
Banking became a respectable practice - lead to joint-stock company
(pool resources of merchants to distribute costs and reducing dangers of
individual investors)
Led to huge profits and modern-day concept of stock markets
Muscovy Company, Dutch East India Company took over trade routes
Mercantilism: theory that creating a favourable balance of import and
export was best - of course, this led to Europe’s intense colonialism to

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match their import demand
Caused resentment in colonies
Europe established limited trade with China from 16-18th century
Portugal gained control of Spice Islands to gain access to China
China and Japan still highly limited their trade with them
Developments in Specific Countries - 1450-1750
Major movements of the times affected parts of Europe differently
People with power guarded it
Peasant class weren’t able to participate in any developments
Powerful states were also developed in Middle East, India, China,
and Japan
Monarchies contributed to development of strong loyalties and led
to many conflicts/wars
Unit 5: Revolutions
The Enlightenment
17th and 18th centuries - humankind in relation to government
Divine Right: church allied with strong monarchs, monarchs believed they
were ordained by God to rule - people had moral/religious obligation too
obey
Question of ultimate authority
Mandate of Heaven in China - had to rule justly to be appreciated
in heaven
Social contract: governments not formed by divine decree, but to meet
social and economic needs
Philosophers of the age:
1. Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679): government should preserve
peace/stability - all powerful rule who ruled heavy-handed
2. John Locke (1632-1704): men are all born equal, mankind is good
and rational - primary role of government was to secure and
guarantee natural rights and revolting is justified if not
3. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778): all men are equal, society
organized according to general will of people - government is
protection by community and both being free
4. Voltaire (1694-1778): espoused idea of religious toleration

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5. Montesquieu (1689-1775): separation of powers among branches
of government
6. David Hume (1711-1776): lack of empirical evidence casts doubt on
religion
7. Adam Smith (1723-1790): an “invisible hand” will regulate
economy if it is left alone
8. Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797): women should have political
rights, including voting and holding office
9. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804): knowledge exists beyond what is
deduced from use of only observation or only reason
10. Cesare Beccaria (1738-1794): criminals retain some rights and
state should not practice cruel punishment
Enlightened monarchs: utilized ideas of tolerance, justice, improving
quality of life
Neoclassical Period: middle of 18th century - imitated style of ancient
Greek/Roman architecture
Enlightenment Revolutions in the Americas and

Europe
American Revolution
British defeated France over American territory - French and Indian
War/Seven Years’ War - pushed France to northern territory
Americans revolting against British rulership
British passed laws on behalf of Crown for the American colonizers
(George Grenville, Charles Townshend)
Revenue Act (1764), Stamp Act (1765), Tea Act (1773) intended
to raise funds for British government
Colonizers opposed these laws and began battling British troops shortly
after - Boston Tea Party (1773): colonists dumping imported tea in
harbour to protest Tea Act
Thomas Paine: wrote Common Sense, encouraging colonizers to form a
better government than the monarchy - 6 months later the Declaration of
Independence was signed
France joined forces with Americans in 1777 and defeated the British in
1781 and the American democracy was created
French Revolution

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France was running out of money from monarch spending, wars, and
droughts - Louis XVI proposed raising taxes to the Estates-General
(governing body infrequently called by the kings)
1. First Estate: clergy
2. Second Estate: noble families
3. Third Estate: everyone else
Representatives from each estate
Third Estate was facing being shut out of new constitution - formed
National Assembly in 1789 out of protest and peasants stormed the
Bastille shortly after
Declaration of the Rights of Man - adopted by National Assembly in
1789 and caused big changes in French government structure
Established a constitutional monarchy at first, but new constitution
development led to the Convention being the new ruling body - France
become a republic (led by Jacobins who later beheaded the king)
Convention threw out constitution again and created Committee of
Public Safety: enforcer of revolution and murdered any anti-revolution
people
led by Maximilien Robespierre
French beheaded Robespierre in 1795 and established another new
constitution with the Directory as the government
Built up military, with Napoleon Bonaparte as one of the generals
Napoleon overthrew the Directory in 1799 - Napoleonic Codes (1804)
recognized equality of men, dissolved the Holy Roman Empire with French
military and fought other countries who eventually met to overthrow him
(Prince von Metternich, Alexander I of Russia, Duke of Wellington)
Defeated him at Waterloo in 1813 and met at Congress of Vienna
to discuss what to do with France
Congress of Vienna:
Balance of power should be maintained among powers of Europe
Tried to erase French Revolution
Haiti:
France enslaved many Haitians, who eventually revolted successfully, led
by Pierre Toussaint L’Ouverture
Jacques Dessalines, a former slave, became governor-general in

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1804
South America
Napoleon invaded Spain and appointed his brother Joseph Bonaparte to
the throne -
Colonists ejected French governor and appointed own leader in
Venezuela, Simón Bolívar, who eventually helped them declare
independence from Spain in 1811
Established a national congress, but was also opposed by Spanish
royalists, who declared a civil war
Bolívar won freedom for Gran Colombia (Columbia, Ecuador, Venezuela)
José de San Martin: took command of Argentinian, Chilean, Peruvian
armies, and defeated many Spanish forces to also declare independence
from Spain
Brazil
John VI of Portugal fled to Brazil when Napoleon invaded Portugal -
His son Pedro became the emperor of Brazil and declared it
independent with a constitution
His son Pedro II took over and abolished slavery
Mexico
priest Miguel Hidalgo led a revolt against Spanish rule in 1810, who was
later killed by them
Jose Morelos picked up where he left off
Independence achieved in 1821 - Treaty of Cordoba: Spain recognizing
their 300-year-old control of Latin America was ending
Neocolonialism: independent nations still controlled by economic and
political interests
Riches accumulated often stayed within wealthy landowning class
Mexican Revolution: protest of neocolonialism - rejection of
Porfirio Diaz’s dictatorship to protest impoverished conditions
Other resistance movements:

1. Peru
Tupac Amaru II led a revolt against Spanish occupiers and inspired
further resistance movements

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2. West Africa
Samory Toure led resistance against French colonizers and inspired
further resistance
3. US
Sioux resisted the US government invading their land, but were shot
at during their protests
4. Sudan
Muhammad Ahdam led Mahadists in a revolt against colonial rule of
Egypt but was stopped by the British
Slavery still existed in independent nations as well as class inequalities

Catholic Church still dominated
Industry and Imperialism

Industrial revolution in Britain can not be separated from Imperialism
Industrial countries gained power quickly to exploit colony resources
Industrial Revolution: began in Britain in 19th century - spread through
Europe, Japan, US
Agricultural output increased significantly again - more people moved to
cities
Enclosure: public lands that were shared for farming became
enclosed by fences
New farming technologies
Urbanization was natural - London grew to over 6 million people
Domestic system (most work being done on farms or at home or at small
shops) preceded
New advancements that changed production:
1. Flying shuttle: sped up waving process
2. Spinning jenny: spinning vast amounts of thread
3. Cotton gin: invented by Eli Whitney - processed massive amounts
of cotton quickly
4. Steam engine - Thomas Newcomer, James Watt
5. Steamship - Robert Fulton
6. Steam-powered Locomotive - George Stephenson
7. Telegraph: communication with great distances in seconds
8. Telephone - Alexander Graham Bell
9. Lightbulb

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10. Internal Combustion Engine for cars
11. Radio
Also major developments in medicine and science, theory of natural
selection (Charles Darwin)
Rapid creation of products was done in factories
Interchangeable parts: machines could be replaces or fixed
quickly
Assembly line: each worker had one small part in production - man
became the machine
Workers were overworked, underpaid, and working in unsafe
conditions - child labour was common
Despairing conditions
Formation of new social classes - aristocrats were those rich from
industrial success, middle class of skilled professionals, huge working
class
Adam Smith: success achieved through private ownership and free
market system (capitalism) - governments removed from regulation =
laissez-faire capitalism
Start of stock market and other financial instruments
Karl Marx: The Communist Manifesto - working class take over means of
production and all resources would be equally - Marxism was foundation
for socialism and communism
Luddites: workers who destroyed equipment in middle of night to
protest working conditions
Marxism mixed with capitalist thought to create partly socialist
systems in many places
Major split among intellectuals and policymakers in regards to response to
inhumane factory conditions
Factory Act of 1883: limited hours of each workday, restricted children
from working, factory owners had to make conditions safer
Labour Unions: vehicles for employees to bargain for better
conditions
Living conditions improved - middle class became larger, public
education increased, social mobility became more common
Slave trade abolished in 1807 in Britain
Women became more limited to their traditional roles

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Nationalist Movements and Other Developments
Nationalism was strong after Napoleonic era
France, Spain, Portugal, Britain, Russia had unified
Italy and Germany, which were city-states took longer to unify and alter
balance of European power
Italy: Count Camillo Cavour named prime minister of Sardinia by
Victor Emmanuel II who pushed for nationalism - after Giuseppe
Garibaldi, another nationalist overthrew other Italian kingdoms, a
lot of Italy was unified in 1861
Germany: Prussia, which controlled a lot of present-day Germany,
under the rule of William I who appointed Otto von Bismarck as
prime minister, defeated Austria and engaged in the Franco-
Prussian War to create the new German Empire
New emperor William II forced Bismarck to resign and built a
huge military force
Other Nationalist Movements:
Russia:
Romanov czars had absolute power in 19th century
Alexander II began reforms - Emancipation Edict: abolished

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serfdom but had little effect
Small middle class began to emerge which led to an intellectual
political group The People’s Will assassinating Alexander II
In response, Alexander III started Russification: all had to learn the
Russian language and convert to Russian Orthodoxy
Ottoman Empire: was at danger of collapse so Britain and France worked
to maintain it to prevent Russia from gaining control over Mediterranean
The Growth of Nationalism

Desire of people of common cultural heritage to form independent nation-
state/empires that protects their cultural identity
Had major influence and effects all over the world
Unit 6: Consequences of
Industrialization
In Search of Natural Resources
Europe has coal and iron for power and factory equipment, but needed
raw materials that didn’t grow there - solution = colonization
Colonization has given industrial countries great wealth
Europe had colonized nations on every continent - depleted raw materials
in these nations at extreme speed and destroyed and polluted
environments
Transnational Businesses: international corporations that strengthened
Europe’s economic power in Asia and Africa

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European Justification
Europe was very ethnocentric - other cultures were barbaric and
uncivilized, even as progressives were denouncing the slave trade - why?
1. Social Darwinists: applied natural selection to sociology - there
were dominant races or classes , therefore Britain was the most
powerful/fit
2. Moral obligation to civilize others - Rudyard Kipling’s poem
“White Man’s Burden” described colonization as justified
European Imperialism in India

India had many luxuries to Europeans - tea, sugar, silk, salt, jute
India was vulnerable to external powers after wars in 18th century Mughal
empire and religious conflict
France and England battled each other in Seven Year’s War for colonial
superiority and Britain won
British East India Company: joint-stock company like a multinational
corporation - had exclusive British trade rights in India - led by Robert
Clive
Britain started slowly taking over Mughal Empire territory and setting up
administrative regions through empire - first, island of Ceylon, then Punjab
Northern India, then Pakistan and Afghanistan
Sepoy Mutiny: Indians who worked for British as soldiers were called
Sepoys - they rebelled against British Muslim/Hindu disrespect in 1857,
but it failed

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British then made all of India a crown colony - Queen Victoria made
Empress of India above almost 300 million Indian subjects
Mughal Empire ended when last ruler Bahadur Shah II was sent
into exile
India became model of British imperialism - upper castes taught English,
Christianity spread, industrialization and urbanization - but more and more
Indians dreamed of being free from Britain
1885: group of Indians formed Indian National Congress to fight
for independence - wouldn’t be achieved until mid-20th century
European Imperialism in China

Up until 1830s, Europe could only trade with China in city of Canton -
China was relatively isolationist, until Europe gained industrial power and
barged in with weapons
Opium Wars: British traders brought Opium to China in 1773 and
widespread addiction was caused - forbidden and seized in 1839
Britain wanted to continue trade, so brought war to China
Treaty of Nanjing: China forced to sign unequal treaty that gave
Britain considerable rights to expand trade with China
Hong Kong declared crown possession of Britain in 1843
Second Opium War occurred in 1856 for four years when Britain
tried to further trade and China lost again - all of China opened to
trade
British takeover caused Chinese to turn on their government’s failings
White Lotus Rebellions (beginning of 18th century): Buddhists
who were frustrated over taxes and government corruption
Taiping Rebellion (mid-18th century): rebels led by religious zealot
who almost succeeded in taking down Manchu government
Self-Strengthening Movement (1860s): Manchu Dynasty attempt
to get its act together, which failed
Korea declared independence from China in 1876
Sino-French War (1883): Chinese lost control of Vietnam
Defeated by Japan in Sino-Japanese War
Treaty of Shimonoseki (1895): China forced to hand control of
Taiwan to Japan and give them trading rights
France, Germany, Russia, Britain took their own spheres of

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influence in China - not quite colonies as Manchu Dynasty still had
authority
in 1900, US pledged to support sovereignty of Chinese government
and equal trading to prevent full British takeover (Open Door
Policy) - despite barring Chinese immigrants from US in 1882
(Chinese Exclusion Act)
Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists, or Boxers: Chinese peasant
nationalists attempted to rebel by slaughtering Christian missionaries and
controlling foreign embassies in response to government’s defeats and
concessions to the West, but failed
Boxer Protocol: China forced to pay Europeans and Japanese with
rebellion costs
Chinese culture also started to crumble - imperial government ended in
1911 and a republic was established in China
Japanese Imperialism
Japan kept Europeans away in 17th and 18th centuries - until European
and US appetite for power intensified and Commodore Matthew Perry
arrived from US in a steamboat in 1853 - Japan felt obligated to join
industrialized world
Treaty of Kanagawa (1854) was a trade agreement with the West
Samurai revolted against shogun who ratified it and restored
Emperor Meiji to power
Meiji Restoration: era of Japanese westernization - Japan became a
world power
1870s: built railways and steamships, abolished samurai warrior
class
Prioritized military power - took control of Korea and Taiwan from
China in 1895 - military pageantry became a cultural movement
1890s: Japan became powerful enough to reduce European and US
influence
European Imperialism in Africa

Interior Africa remained unknown to Europeans - costal regions used for
limited trade, ship stopping points, and the slave trade
1807-1820: most European nations abolished slave trade as

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Enlightenment principles gained more force - slavery abolished a few
decades later
No new enslaved people entered Europe but those still in slavery
were not free until mid-century
Former slaves returned to Africa or established their own nations
South Africa: Dutch first arrived and settled Cape Town - British seized it
in 1795
South African Dutch (Boers) moved northeast and discovered
diamonds and gold - British followed and fought the Boer War
(1899-1902) to gain rights to resources, which they won
Egypt: when Napoleon tried to take control of Egypt in 18th century
during the weak Ottoman rule, Muhammad Ali defeated the French and
the ruling Ottoman Empire in 1805 - began industrialization and
agriculture expansions
efforts just temporarily halted by Abbas I
Suez Canal constructed with French and completed in 1869 -
connected Mediterranean to Indian Ocean (eventually British took
control of it too)
Berlin Conference
Otto van Bismarck hosted European powers in Berlin in 1884 to discuss
land claims in African Congo - encouraging colonialism
By 1914, almost all of Africa was colonized by Britain, France, Germany,
Italy, Spain, Portugal, and Belgium (except Ethiopia and Liberia)
Europeans added substantial infrastructure to the continent, but stripped
Africa of resources, most exercised direct rule and implementation of
customs over African people (except British who were already busy with
India)
Europeans disregarded African boundaries, cut tribal land in half or forced
enemy tribes together, ignoring history and culture
Traditional African culture also started falling apart

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US Foreign Policy
Monroe Doctrine: US President Monroe declared Western Hemisphere
off-limits to Europeans in 1823 - Britain agreed out of fear of Spain’s
potential actions
Roosevelt Corollary to Monroe Doctrine: US would be responsible for
intervening in financial disputes between Americas and Europe, if to
maintain peace because Europe was still investing in Latin industry
US was exercising own imperialism over Latin America - built their
Panama Canal in Panama
US launched Spanish-American War in 1898 to aid Cuba in their conflict
with Spain - defeated Spain and gained control over Philippines, Guam,
Puerto Rico, and Cuba (given independence in exchange for construction
of US military bases)

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Unit 7: Global Conflict
The World War I Era
At beginning of 20th century, most of world was colonized by Europe or
had been colonized by Europe - everywhere was connected to instability
in Europe
European countries had had feuds, but industrialism and rise in
nationalism caused military build-up and more powerful weapons,
alliances and power-grabbing rivals increasing
Triple Alliance (1880s): Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy - protect against
France
France-Russian alliance to keep Germany in check
Schlieffen Plan: Germany’s attack on France through Belgium, a neutral
country
Triple Entente: Britain, France, Russia - later joined by Japan
Ottoman Empire was in bad shape and kept losing territory - Greece,
Slavic areas declaring independence, countries disagreeing on land
arrangements and allies
Bosnia and Herzegovina still under control on Austria-Hungary, as
decided by Berlin Conference of 1878
Austria-Hungary Archduke Franz Ferdinand visited Bosnia and was
assassinated by Serbian nationalist Gavrilo Princip - war was already on
the horizon and this was the final blow
Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia - Russia was allies with
Serbia - France, Germany, Britain joined to honour their alliances
(Italy later joined the Triple Entente in 1915)
Central Powers Alliance: Ottoman Empire, Germany, Austria-Hungary
Over 40 countries joined the war effort because in part of widespread
colonial connections
US joined the Allies in 1917 after Germany sunk British boat Lusitania in
1915 which had over 100 American passengers on board and kept sinking
American ships attempting to bring resources to Britain - final push was
Germany trying to get Mexico to join the war in 1916 (Zimmermann
telegram - a secret telegram between German diplomats saying Mexico
could regain territory taken by US if they joined forces)
Previously had isolationism policy (neutrality, focusing on internal

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affairs instead)
The Great War lasted until Germany and Central Powers gave up in
November 1918
8.5 million soldiers were killed
20 million civilians died
The Treaty of Versailles: signed in 1919 - official end to WWI
Germany was to pay war reparations, release territory, downsize
military to prevent them from rising to power again - poverty and
resentment in Germany led to Hitler’s rise
Austria-Hungary divided into other nations like Czechoslovakia
Departure from President Wilson’s Fourteen Points, more focused
on future peace and workable balance of power - but was
disapproved of by Britain and France who put strict punishments on
Germany
President Wilson called for formation of council of nations called League
of Nations to preserve peace and establish humanitarian goals, but was
not widely accepted (even by US)
Russian Revolution
Socialists began to organize after Czar Nicholas II’s forced
resignation in 1917, resentment was strong among working class
Had lost war against Japan over Manchuria in 1904
Fired at peaceful protestors in 1905 (Blood Sunday)
Alexander Kerensky established a provisional government -
ineffective because it disagreed with the local councils, soviets,
who represented workers, peasants, and soldiers
Socialist party is known as the Bolsheviks - led by Marxist leader
Vladimir Lenin
April Theses: issues by Lenin - demanded peace, land for
peasants, power to soviets
within 6 months took power of government - soon to be
called Soviet Union
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1918): armistice with Germany - ceded
part of western Russia to Germany so they dropped out of WWI
Counterrevolutions began occurring in Russian empire - Bolsheviks
created Red Army, military force under Leon Trotsky to defeat
counterrevolutions

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Soviet Union became a nation lacking of trust by Western
neighbours with a powerful army
When Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, a movement to reclaim
Turkish culture spawned a genocide of Armenian minority and a shift to
Turkish nationalism - which resulted in loss of most of remaining land in
peace negotiations
Mustafa Kemal (Ataturk): led successful military against invading
Greece and overthrew Ottoman Empire to become first president of
Turkey
World War II Era

Stalin and the Soviet Union
Lenin first instituted the New Economic Policy (NEP) in 1920s - allowed
farmers to sell portions of grain for profit - successful, but Lenin died and
new Communist leader, Joseph Stalin discarded it
Five-Year Plans: taking over private farms for state-owned enterprises
(collectivization) - really was totalitarianism
Stalin industrialized the USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics) -
relied on terror (secret police, bogus trials, assassinations)
The Great Depression

War was expensive and Europe owed a lot of money to America
(especially France and Germany)
Money was based on credit, loans that would never be repaid = US stock
market crash in 1929 leading to international catastrophe
US and Germany hit the hardest - 1/3 of workforce unemployed, loss of
trust in government = fascism
Fascism
Main idea: destroy will of individual in favour of the people
Wanted a unified society like communists, but did not eliminate private
property or class distinctions
Pushed for extreme nationalism - often on racial identity
Fascism in Italy
First fascist state - founded by Benito Mussolini in 1919
Squad called Blackshirts fought socialist and communist

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organizations to win over factory and land owners
The Italian king named Mussolini Prime Minister
Faced very little opposition and took over Parliament in 1922
Rise of Hitler
Revolt when German emperor was abdicated after WWI - a conservative
democratic republic took over (Weimar Republic)
Mussolini’s success in Italy was influencing Germany - Nationalist
Socialist Party (Nazis) rose to power in 1920s
People of Germany were rejecting Weimar Republic elected body the
Reichstag due to economic crisis
Adolf Hitler became head of Nazi Party - believed in extreme nationalism
and superior race - believed the Aryan race was the most superior race
By 1932, Nazis dominated German government and Hitler became leader
of Reichstag in 1933
Seized control of the government - his fascist rule is known as the Third
Reich
Appeasement?
Hitler began rebuilding military (against Treaty of Versailles) and withdrew
Germany from League of Nations
Spain was in turmoil after fall of Spanish monarchy - nationalist army
under General Francisco Franco took control of large parts of Spain -
established a dictatorship in Spain in 1939 with help from Germany and
Italy
Hitler continued restoring Germany: took back the Rhineland part of
Germany, formed alliance with militant Japan, annexed Austria, given
Sudetenland at Munich Conference of 1938 (Hitler, Mussolini, Neville
Chamberlin of England) to cease his expansionist activities
(appeasement) - did not work
Hitler invaded rest of Czechoslovakia in 1939 and Italy invaded Albania in
1939
Germans and Soviets signed a pact to stay out of each other’s countries
(Nazi-Soviet Pact) and agreed to divide rest of Europe’s land between
them
Germany invaded Poland and Britain and France then declared war on
Germany - start of WWII

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Japan
Became a world power when accepting an alliance with Britain in 1905
Economy thrived after WWI until the Great Depression - Japanese
militarists gained momentum
Japan invaded Manchuria in 1931 and renamed in Manchukuo
Withdrew from League of Nations and signed Anti-Comintern Pact
(against communism) with Germany, beginning their alliance
In 1937, began war on China which eventually merged into WWII
Review of WWII
Hitler’s blitzkrieg technique destroyed everything in its path - by early
1940 Germany had control of Poland (half with USSR), Holland, Belgium,
France
Britain’s PM Winston Churchill did not give in to Germany’s pressures -
even with German airstrikes from their more powerful airforce (Battle of
Britain)
Germany invaded Greece in 1941, breaking their deal with Soviet Union, so
they invaded the Soviet Union too
US didn’t want to get involved, but froze Japan’s assets in US to respond
to their hostility - Japan entered Tripartite Pact with Rome and Berlin,
making the war worldwide
in response to US sanctions, Japan bombed Pearl Harbor in Hawaii
in 1941 and declared war with US
US began working on Manhattan Project: development of the atomic
bomb
1943: US and Britain take control of Italy
1944: US, Britain, and Canada land on French beaches (D-day) and
eventually liberate France
1945: Allied forces close in on Germany and end Europe war when Hitler
commits suicide
To end war in Pacific, US drops atomic bomb on city of Hiroshima in
Japan - when Japan refused to surrender, they dropped another bomb on
Nagasaki, causing them to surrender
The Consequences
The Holocaust

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Millions of Jews under German control were rounded up and killed in
concentration camps to create the Aryan race
The Peace Settlement

US and Soviet Union became superpowers and Germany and Japan
forced to demilitarize
Europe Torn to Shreds

US instituted Marshall Plan to rebuild Europe (only accepted by Western
Europe nations) and rebuilt their economies in less than a decade
Decline of Colonialism
War inspired native populations to rise against their oppressors
Big Changes for Women

Women took over the workforce while men were fighting - after the war,
many women kept their jobs
Creation of International Organizations

United Nations, established in 1945, to prevent break out of another
great war - goal was to mediate and intervene in international disputes
UN published Universal Declaration of Human Rights in response to
Holocaust
World Bank, International Monetary Fund, General Agreement on Trade
and Tariffs also formed to manage a global economy
Cold War
US or Soviet Union did not want each other to spread its influence beyond
their borders, so they were strategizing how to contain each other -
lasting for the next 50 years
Unit 8: Cold War and Decolonization

Communism and the Cold War
Cold War lasted from 1945 to early 90s
US and Soviet Union tried to get the rest of the world to side with them
An arms based race between - nuclear arsenals became large enough to

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wipe out the whole world
Power Grab
Biggest conflict over future security - both wanted their worldview to
dominate:
US: capitalism, democracy
USSR: communism/totalitarianism
At conferences in Yalta and Potsdam in 1945, parts of Eastern Europe
were divided among Allied forces - Soviet Union demanded control of its
neighbouring states (Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania,
Bulgaria), which the US disagreed with
1948: French, US, British sections of Germany merged into one, while
Eastern Germany was under Soviet control - they cut of access to Berlin
from Western side (Berlin Blockade)
US flew in resources to trapped Western side (Berlin Airlift) until
Soviets relented and split Berlin in half - built a wall on their side
(Berlin Wall)
East Vs. West
Europe was clearly divided in East and West
East: East Germany, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Romania,
Hungary = Soviet bloc
West: Britain, France, Italy, Belgium, Netherlands, Norway,
West Germany, Greece, Turkey = Western bloc
Truman Doctrine (1947) said US would aid countries threatened by
communism (containment) - Western bloc formed military alliance
NATO for this
In response, Eastern bloc formed Warsaw Pact
Two alliances became heavily weaponized - line between them was
called the Iron Curtain
Many countries were part of nonalignment - accepted investments
from US and USSR but didn’t side with either
Helped many former colonies find cooperative economic
relations
Bandung Conference (1955): leaders from Africa and Asia
meet to discuss these partnerships - Non-Aligned Movement
China

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After fall of Manchu Dynasty in 1911, Sun Yat-sen led the Chinese
Revolution of 1911 for China to become more Westernized and powerful
Sun Yat-sen’s Three Principles of the People: nationalism, socialism,
democracy
Established his own political party for his own goals - the Kuomintang
(KMT)
Chiang Kai-shek established KMT in 1920s while Japanese and Soviets
also struggled to control China
US helped drive Japan out, but communists and KMT continued to fight
Chinese Civil War for next 4 years
Communists recruited millions of peasants under Mao Zedong to drive
KMT out of China into Taiwan (where they established Republic of China)
Mainland China became People’s Republic of China and the largest
communist nation in the world
Taiwan and People’s Republic of China are still separated
Mao Zedong
At first was successful in increasing China’s productivity and
agriculture
Implemented Great Leap Forward by creating communes (local
governments) to achieve a Marxist state - they couldn’t keep up
with their agricultural quotas, so they lied about it causing
starvation of over 30 million Chinese people
After withdraw of Soviet support, military became his focus and
capitalism was implemented into economy - Mao didn’t like it
Mao’s Cultural Revolution: got rid of all Western influences to
prevent privileged classes - universities shut down and most
worked as farmers from 1960s to 70s
Deng Xiaoping
New leader - focused on restructuring economy, reimplemented
education
Free-market capitalism elements, property ownership, foreign
relations - but still largely communist
Tiananmen Square Massacre: hundreds of protesters for
democratic reform killed by government troops
Division of Korea - Korean War

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After WWII, was held half by Soviets and half by US until Korea could
achieve stability
Soviet communist regime in North Korea
US democracy in South Korea
North Korea attacked South Korea in 1950 to unite the two countries -
United Nations, under General MacArthur, supported South Korea and
China supported North Korea - armistice didn’t happen until 1953
North Korea remains an isolated and dangerous nation today
Vietnam War
After WWII, France attempt to hold on to colony of Indochina, but
Vietminh nationalists fought back until it was agreed to split the nation
into two
Communists - North under Ho Chi Minh
Democrats - South under Ngo Dinh Diem
Soon war broke out between them - France and US supported South, but
eventually the South was taken over by communist Viet Cong fighters,
which looked very bad for US
Genocide in Cambodia
Communism took over Cambodia and communist faction Khmer Rouge
took over the government - goal to get rid of professional class an
religious minorities led to 2 million deaths by the government
The Cuban Revolution

US remained involved in Cuban affairs after Spanish-American War under
Platt Amendment
US supported the Batista Dictatorship from 1939 to 1959 until peasants
began revolting in 1956 under leadership of Fidel Castro - led to Cuban
Revolution in 1959
Castro promoted democracy but immediately established a communist
dictatorship instead, so the US imposed economic bans on trade with
Cuba - strengthened Cuba’s ties with Soviets instead
US organized Bay of Pigs Invasion with a small force of Cuban exiles,
authorized by President Kennedy, to overthrow Castro - they were
immediately captured

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In response, Soviets installed missiles in Cuba and when US found out,
they established a navel blockade around the island - Cuban Missile
Crisis
Soviets eventually backed down when US agreed to not invade
Cuba - closest brush with nuclear war
Cold War Tensions and Democratization in Latin

America
US’s capitalistic destruction of resources in Latin America stirred radical
political parties in Mexico, Peru, Venezuela, Brazil - US was the imperialist
“Good Neighbour”
US distracted by wars and Cold War led to single-party rule in Mexico,
brutal militaristic leaders in Argentina and Chile, and socialist democracies
in Nicaragua and Guatemala
US focused on Nicaragua - ground for Bay of Pigs Invasion,
targeting of Sandinista guerrillas in 80s
Reliance on export economies has resulted in poor domestic economies
and debt
Only in 2000 did Mexico have first multi-party election - opposition, PAN
party, won
Cold War Ends

People in Eastern Europe, under communism, began to revolt over poor
living conditions compared to the West, democracy, and self-
determination in the 80s
Poland
A Solidarity movement under Lech Walesa brought thousands of workers

wanting reform of communist economic system
Not until reform-minded Mieczyslaw Rakowski became the Prime Minister
did Solidarity become legalized in 1989
Tadeusz Mazowiecki, Solidarity member, became PM in first open
elections
Communism fell in 1990, Lech Walsea become president, and economy
improved swiftly
German Reunification

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Decline of communism in Soviet bloc led to East Germany cutting ties with
Soviets
Berlin Wall was torn down in 1989 and East and West reunified
Germany now focused on peace and economic reform instead of violence
The Soviet Union Collapses

Mikhail Gorbachev came to power in 1986 and urged restructuring of
Soviet economy - elements of private ownership instituted, nuclear arms
treaties with US
When Poland and other former Soviet nations separated from USSR,
Soviet Union disintegrated in 1991
Mostly peaceful, but ethnic cleansing occurred in the Balkans and many
Muslims were murdered by Christian Serbians - led to UN troop
involvement
Most new countries formed constitutional democracies, Cold War was
over, and US emerged as the world’s only superpowers
Democracy and Authoritarian Rule in Russia
New Russia looked like a perfect federal state, but their abrupt
intro to democracy and capitalism led to corruption, high
unemployment, poverty, widespread crime
First president, Boris Yeltsin, had the challenge of reforming Russia
Yeltsin resigned in 1999 and former KGB agent Vladimir Putin
became the head and has between the President and Prime
Minister since then
Has caused significant unrest in relations with other nations
Independence Movements and Developments in Asia

and Africa
Indian Subcontinent
Indian National Congress, mostly Hindu, established in 1885 and Muslim
League in 1906 to increase rights of Indians under colonial rule
In 1919, Amritsar Massacre catapulted resistance - 319 Indians killed by
the British during a peaceful protest
Mohandas Gandhi became an important figure in resistance - philosophy
of passive resistance (demonstrations, boycotts instead of violence)
Hindu and Muslim groups disagreed while fighting for the same cause -

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Muslims pushed for their own nation called Pakistan
Independence Won by India
Britain granted independence to India after WWII
Muslims and Hindus disagreed with how the independent nation
should function - one group wanted unity between Hindus and
Muslims, the other wanted to partition the subcontinent and form a
separate Muslim nation (led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah)
British separated the subcontinent into three parts: India (Hindu),
and Pakistan (Muslim) in two parts
Many died by religious persecution as they migrated across
religious lines - created international conflict between Pakistan and
India
Africa
In 1910, South Africa established its own constitution, that was
discriminatory to native Africans, and in 1912, the African National
Congress was formed to oppose European colonialism
in 1950s, independence movement across Africa grew and Gamal Nasser,
general in Egyptian army, overthrew Egypt king and established a republic
- inspired other Islamic nationalists along Mediterranean to also become
independent
Many Africans were undereducated and did not have skills to build
productive, independent nations and European influence had caused
major destruction in social dynamics
Algeria fought war for independence against France from 1954-1962
Nigeria and Ghana negotiated their freedom from Britain
Kenya also negotiated constitution with Britain
Angola and Belgian Congo overthrew colonial governments causing civil
wars
Zimbabwe was among last to establish majority African rule in 1980
53/54 of African nations belong to African Union - replaced Organization
of African Unity
Still, Chad, Sudan, Uganda, Somalia, Rwanda, Congo continue to be
wrecked by civil wars
Rwanda
Conflict between Tutsi and Hutu groups (Tutsi, 15% of pop.,

Page 47 of 53
governed the Hutu) caused ethnic strife, genocide, and human
rights violations after colonial authorities left
Hutu revolted and killed as many as 800000 Tutsis over 100 days of
genocide
Apartheid in South Africa
Union of South Africa formed in 1910 combing British and Dutch
colonies, the year after South Africa Act, completely excluded
Black people from politics
1923: segregation established and enforced
1926: Black people banned from certain occupations
1948: system of apartheid (racial separation) established -
Black people forced into the worst parts of the country and
city slums
Nelson Mandela became leader of African National Congress in
1950s determined to abolish apartheid
Sharpeville massacre: 67 protesters against apartheid killed -
African National Congress then supported guerrilla warfare
(resulted in Mandela being jailed in 1964)
Mandela was released in 1990 and apartheid crumbled - he was the
first president elected in a free and open election
Middle East
After WWI, France was put in charge of Syria and Lebanon, Britain in
charge of Palestine, Jordan, and Iraq (Iran between Britain and Russia) -
Arabia united itself as a Saudi Kingdom
Creation of Modern Israel:
Many Jews left Israel region as Palestine became more and more
Islamic
During WWI, Zionists (Jewish nationalists) convinced Arthur
Balfour (Britain’s foreign secretary) to issue Balfour Declaration of
1917 - declared that Jewish people had right to live in Palestine,
without displacing current Palestinians
Jews fleeing antisemitic mobs (pogroms) began flooding into
Palestine, a lot more came during the 30s to escape Hitler
Jewish Wait for a State Ends in 1948 - two Palestines, one for Jews and
one for Muslims, officially created

Page 48 of 53
As soon as David Ben-Gurion became first prime minister of Israel,
Muslims attacked Israel (1948 Arab-Israeli War)
Israel fought back and eventually controlled most of Palestine, while
Jordan held remaining portions (West Bank)
1967 Six-Day War resulted in Israelis taking over all of Palestine -
West Bank, Sinai Peninsula, Gaza Strip (Egypt), Golan Heights
(Syria)
In 1977, Egypt recongized Israel’s right to exist when Prime
Minister Menachem Begin of Israel and President Anwar Sadat
of Egypt signed the Camp David Accords - a huge blow to
Palestinians (did not recognize West Bank in accords)
Since then, Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), dedicated to
reclaiming land and Palestinian state, has been unsuccessful in
negotiating a homeland
In 2000, violence continued and Israel PM Ariel Sharon
constructed a wall between Palestinian West Bank and Israel
In 2005, Palestinian president Mahmoud Abbas signed a cease-
fire with Israel after previous president Yasser Arafat failed to do so
Intense division, military violence, and terrorism still exists between
the groups and no advancements have been made
Iranian Revolution
When Reza Shah Pahlavi rose to power and lead the shah in 1925 in
Iran, Westernization was introduced to the nation
In 1960s, rights of women increased drastically which angered
Islamic fundamentalists
President Jimmy Carter of US visited Iran to congratulate them on
their modernization, which was the breaking point for
fundamentalists - in 1979 Iranian Revolution ousted current shah
and went back to a theocracy led by Ayatollah Khomeini
Human rights advancements were reversed and women went back
to traditional roles - Qu’ran became basis of legal system
Iraq soon after invaded Iran over border disputes - Iraq received
quiet support from US but still led to 8-year Iran-Iraq War
Power struggle still continues in Iran and American-led war that
began in Iraq in 2003 complicated matters further
Oil

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Middle East was sitting on more than two-thirds of world’s oil
reserves
Multinational corporations rushed to gain drilling rights in 20th
century
Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iran, and Iraq started to earn billions annually,
so they organized with some oil-exporting nations to form a
petroleum cartel (OPEC) leading to more money and modernization
Unit 9: Globalization
International Terrorism and War
After WWII, there was an increasing interest in maintaining international
security - organizations like NATO, United Nations, International Criminal
Court in The Hague (prosecutes war crimes), and NGOs (Amnesty
International, Doctors Without Borders) to provide international aid to
those in need
War in the Gulf
Iraq wanted to gain more control of oil reserves so they invaded
Kuwait in 1990 under leadership of Saddam Hussein
United Nations sent forces to drive Iraqis out in early 1991 - now
called Persian Gulf War
UN liberated Kuwait and put severe limitations on Iraq’s military and
economic activity (although Hussein remained in power for another
10 years)
In 2003, coalition of countries, mostly US and Britain invaded Iraq
to oust Hussein - Hussein was captured in December 2003 and a
democratic government was formed in 2005
Despite conflicts and terrorism between Sunni, Shiites, and Kurds
groups, a Kurdish president, Jalal Talabani and a Shia minister,
Nouri ai-Maliki were elected, but they still have faced a number of
challenges
Taliban, Al Qaeda, Osama bin Laden
In early 1980s, Soviets sent troops to Afghanistan under at request
of Marxist military leader Nur Muhammad Taraki
Afghanis opposed communism and fought back until Soviets
withdrew troops - left a power void that warring factions vied to fill

Page 50 of 53
Taliban, an Islamic fundamentalist regime, filled the void after 14
years of fighting
Provided a safe haven for Osama bin Laden, the Saudi leader of
the international terrorist network Al Qaeda, who specifically
despised the US
US:
1. Supports Israel
2. Had troops stationed in Saudi Arabia
3. Is the primary agent of globalization believed to be
infecting Islamic culture
On September 11, 2001, Al Qaeda attacked US by hijacking 4 US
planes and flying 2 of them into the World Trade Centre in New
York, 1 into the Pentagon, and 1 into a field in Pennsylvania - 3000
people died
US immediately declared a war on terrorism and invaded
Afghanistan - the Taliban was removed from power and
Osama bin Laden was killed, but Al Qaeda still survives
Many terror attacks linked to Islamic fundamentalists still occur
throughout Europe and the Middle East
World Trade and Cultural Exchange

End of Cold War and the Internet/technology resulted in a new and strong
wave of global connection - last obstacle to true global interaction
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) and European Union
(EU) were created to unite global currency/trade further
English became the language of global business and communication
EU banded Europe into a single market to give US some competition in 90s
Has 3 branches: executive, legislative, judicial
Eurozone, a monetary union formed in 1999, included all but 3
nations (UK, Sweden, Denmark)
Economies faltered again during the economic crisis in late 2000s -
stronger economies like Germany were able to remain stable while over-
extended economies collapsed badly
Global Culture
Some significant examples of pop culture are:
1. The Olympics

Page 51 of 53
2. World Cup Soccer
3. Reggae Music
4. Bollywood
5. Social Media
6. McDonald’s
Rise of China and India
China had become a huge economic and industrial force in recent
years - special economic zones developed to be exempt from
communist rules and have since become worldwide production
centres worth 100s of billions of dollars
Although, China has severely limited internet freedom and
remains aged politically
India is one of the fastest growing economies - poor until the 90s,
highly educated Indians brought the world of tech in Silicon Valley
to India and made it a global hub for technology
Both are now nuclear powers with large military forces, but both
also have serious problems with poverty and global emissions
Global Alphabet Soup
General Agreement of Tariffs and Trade (GAFF) - later World
Trade Organization - developed to reduce barriers on international
trade - has 153 member states
Group of Six (G6): forum for world’s major industrialized
democracies - original members US, Britain, West Germany, Italy,
Japan, France
Become G7 in 1977 (Canada) and G8 in 1997 (Russia) but
became G7 again after Russia’s involvement in Ukraine
G20 is separate - 20 Finance Ministers and Central Bank
Governors
Environmental Change
Global integration has caused global environmental concerns
Green revolution of 50s and 60s led to destructions of traditional
landscapes, reduced species diversity, and social conflicts to produce
inexpensive food
Global warming is worsening at the fastest pace ever due to human
activity - outcome is uncertain, but industrialized countries are not doing

Page 52 of 53
enough to limit their environmental damage
Global Health Crises

Epidemics in countries with poor sanitation are still an issue - WHO (World
Health Organization) works to combat them
AIDS is a major crisis - 25% of African adults live with AIDS and treatment
is expensive
Global health issues highlight the global disparities as the
disproportionately affect low-income individuals
Age of the Computer

The personal computer was developed in the 1980s, followed by the
Internet
In the 1990s, computers became commonplace in homes
Social Media has changed the way information spreads and has brought
people closer together
Internet has also been a method of government surveillance and storing of
user data, which is considered by many a breech of privacy

Page 53 of 53

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AP World History - Ultimate

Overview of World’s Major Religions in 1200

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Developments in the Middle East

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Khmer Empire (9th-15th century): Hindu Empire in modern day

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3 great civilization in Central and South America: Maya, Incas, Aztecs

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Architecture: Romanesque to Gothic - especially reflected in cathedrals

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The Rise and Fall of the Mongols

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Mali and Songhai

Review of Interactions Among Cultures

Indian Ocean Trade

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Vibrant Indian Ocean Communities

Expansion of Religion and Empire: Cultural Clash

Other Reasons People Were on the Move

Notable Global Travellers

Unit 3: Land-Based Empires

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The Protestant Reformation

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German Areas (Holy Roman Empire?)

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Islamic Gunpowder Empires

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Unit 4: Transoceanic Interconnections

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The New World: Accidental Empire

Disease: Ultimate Weapon of Mass Destruction

The Encomienda System

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The Columbian Exchange

The Commercial Revolution

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Enlightenment Revolutions in the Americas and

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Other resistance movements:

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Slavery still existed in independent nations as well as class inequalities

Industry and Imperialism

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The Growth of Nationalism

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European Imperialism in India

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European Imperialism in China

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