See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/361699057

Critical review on optimal regenerative braking control system architecture,

calibration parameters and development challenges for EVs

Article in International Journal of Energy Research · July 2022

DOI: 10.1002/er.8306

CITATIONS READS

14 1,167

4 authors:

Pemmareddy Saiteja B. Ashok

VIT University VIT University
10 PUBLICATIONS 73 CITATIONS 191 PUBLICATIONS 5,310 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Atharva Wagh Mohamed Emad Farrag

FH Aachen University of Applied Sciences Glasgow Caledonian University
2 PUBLICATIONS 24 CITATIONS 98 PUBLICATIONS 679 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Pemmareddy Saiteja on 22 July 2022.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Received: 2 February 2022 Revised: 25 May 2022 Accepted: 14 June 2022
DOI: 10.1002/er.8306

SPECIAL ISSUE RESEARCH ARTICLE

Critical review on optimal regenerative braking control

system architecture, calibration parameters and
development challenges for EVs

Pemmareddy Saiteja1 | Bragadeshwaran Ashok1 | Atharva Sanjay Wagh1 |

Mohamed Emad Farrag2

1
Department of Automotive Engineering,
School of Mechanical Engineering,
Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore,
India
2
Department of Electrical and Electronic
Engineering, School of Computing,
Engineering and the Built Environment,
Glasgow Caledonian University,
Scotland, UK
Correspondence
Bragadeshwaran Ashok, School of
Mechanical Engineering, Vellore Institute
of Technology, Vellore, Tamil Nadu
632014, India.
Email: ashokmts@gmail.com
Funding information
Royal Academy of Engineering, Grant/
Award Number: RAE TSP - T2I\100100
Summary
Vehicle technology advances and the world shifts towards E-mobility, improv-
ing the performance of electric vehicles (EVs) and HEVs, which are becoming
the prominent focus. One of the prime topics of EV development is increasing
the driving range, which is the fundamental requirement. Apart from increas-
ing the battery capacity, retrieving the wasted energy during conventional
braking, also called as regenerative braking, is a hot topic. In this context,
numerous control architectures and major braking approaches are considered
to examine in this study in order to create an efficient regenerative braking sys-
tem (RBS). This review article intends to provide an overview of major subsys-
tems in the RBS such as motor control system and hydraulic braking system
and how it affects the braking performance is also well discussed. Additionally,
it complies with some of the recent research applications and systematically
reviews the several braking control strategies implied. The prominent ones are
fuzzy logic control, neural network, MPC, sliding mode, and adaptive control
modelling approaches. These control strategies are used to enhance energy
regeneration without affecting vehicle performance. Further, this article dis-
cusses the RBS design process and its calibration variables, such as speed of
the vehicle and brake force estimation, which can be used to improve braking
performance. Moreover, challenges on RBS improvements are effectively
addressed, coupled with brief suggestions and discussions for the growth of

List of Abbreviations: ABS, Antilock braking system; AC, Alternative current; ANFIS, Adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system; ANN, Artificial
Neural network; APP, Acceleration pedal position; BEV, Battery electric vehicles; BLDC, Brushless direct current motor; BMS, Battery management
system; BPP, Brake pedal position; CACC, Cooperative adaptive cruise control; CAN, Controller area network; DC, Direct current; DTC, Direct
torque control; ECU, Electronic control unit; EM, Electric motor; EMF, Electromotive force; EMS, Energy management system; ESS, Energy storage
system; EUDC, Extra urban driving cycle; EVs, Electric vehicles; FLCS, Fuzzy logic control strategy; FNN, Fuzzy neural network; FTP, Federal test
procedure; HESS, Hybrid energy storage system; HEV, Hybrid electric vehicles; HIL, Hardware-in-loop simulation; ICE, Internal combustion engine;
ISMS, Intelligent sliding mode scheme; IWM, In-wheel-motor; KE, Kinetic energy; LVTMPC, Linear time-varying model predictive control; MCU,
Motor control unit; MIL, Model-in-loop simulation; MOOS, Multi-object optimization strategy; MPC, Model predictive control; NEDC, New
European driving cycle; NLTVMPC, Non-linear time-varying model predictive control; NMPC, Nonlinear model predictive control; NN, Neural
network; PHEV, Parallel hybrid electric vehicle; PID, Proportional, Integral, Derivative; PIL, Processor-in-loop simulation; PSO, Particle swarm
optimization; PWM, Pulse width modulator; RB, Regenerative braking; RBS, Regenerative braking system; RL, Reinforcement learning; RNN,
Recurrent neural network; SIL, Software-in-loop simulation; SMC, Sliding mode control; SMPC, Stochastic model predictive control; SOC, State of
charge; TV-SMC, Time-varying sliding mode control; UDDS, Urban dynamometer driving schedule; VIL, Vehicle-in-loop simulation; VSE, Vehicle
state estimator; WMD, Wheel-motor-driven.

Int J Energy Res. 2022;1–34. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/er © 2022 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. 1
2 SAITEJA ET AL.

future RBS development. Finally, this article will hopefully help the reader to
critically analyse the working of RBS and encourage to design of an efficient
RBS for electro-mobility application.
Highlights
• A holistic overview of the RBS control system architecture and its various
control systems is reviewed.
• Various brake energy control strategies like Fuzzy, MPC, NN, SMC, Adap-
tive and learning-based controls are critically evaluated.
• The discussion of necessary calibration process and its associated parame-
ters are elucidated.
• Representation of real-time design and development process of an efficient
RBS in EV.
• Some of the prominent challenges faced during design and development of
RBS and scope of future improvement is suggested.

KEYWORDS
brake control strategies, E-mobility, hydraulic braking system, motor control system,
regenerative braking system

1 | INTRODUCTION
In recent years, electric vehicles (EVs) have gained dra-
matic attention as alternative mobility means to internal
combustion engine (ICE) vehicles. The amount of
research done and the emergence of new technology per-
taining to EVs are unprecedented, which surely leads to
the conclusion that electric vehicles are truly a green rev-
olution.1 Over the past couple of decades as the world is
slowly shifting towards EVs, a lot of efforts are put into
different research areas to collectively enhance the per-
formance of EVs. Many developments are also done to
enhance the performance of motor propulsion and other
vehicle systems optimization to obtain a lively driving
experience.2 But since the importance of recuperating the
otherwise lost energy during braking is identified, the
concept of regenerative braking has been a prime focus
as this is directly linked to improving the vehicle driving
range.3 Exploring new and advanced control logic to
obtain optimal braking force distribution as well as maxi-
mized energy regeneration is hot topics in the regenera-
tive braking domain. Nowadays, RBS is equipped with
safety technologies like an anti-lock braking system
(ABS), wheel slip control features, etc.4 Regenerative
braking (RB) is a way of recovering the kinetic energy
while a vehicle slows down, which is stored for later utili-
zation, as presented in Figure 1. In this way, some
amount of energy is recovered, which in the case of con-
ventional vehicles gets lost in the form of heat and fric-
tional energy.5 Regenerative braking is widely implied in
various types of EVs like BEV, HEV, and fuel cell. The
hybrid or electric car's electric motor operates in two
directions: one to drive the wheels and push the vehicle,
and the other to recharge the battery (generator). When
the driver takes the foot off the accelerator pedal and
places it on the brake, the power transfer from the motor
to wheels is interrupted.6 Now the rotating wheels induce
an EMF, which causes the current to charge the battery,
making the motor work as a generator. In addition to
improving overall vehicle efficiency, regeneration may
greatly increase the life of the braking system since the
mechanical elements do not wear out as rapidly.7,8 RB is
not by itself completely sufficient to safely bring the vehi-
cle to a halt or rapidly decelerate if required. Hence it is
coupled with another braking system like friction or
hydraulic based braking.9 During and event of braking,
both the braking systems are used depending upon the
driver's demand, and hence a proper control system
needs to be dedicated for the braking force distribution.
To carry out these commands efficiently, different control
strategies are implied, which are discussed further in this
study.10
The literature study involves various research studies
carried on till date and also suggests the grey areas that
need to be explored by future engineers to further
improve the performance and significance of RBS in an
EV. In References 11,12, the regenerative braking capa-
bility limits of BLDC motors and their drive circuits are
examined by taking into account nonlinear circuit
parameters and focusing on control braking forces for
SAITEJA ET AL.
FIGURE 1 General structure of the braking system in Evs2-4
optimal braking performance. To improve the braking
performance, a single-pedal control approach is used it
can efficiently improve the energy recapture rate and
extend the driving range under the different driving con-
ditions.13 Further, NN is used to train prediction models
and optimize the predicted working conditions of EVs in
order to improve their mileage capacity. As a result, it's
used to improve the vehicle's working efficiency by opti-
mizing torque distribution between different braking sys-
tems.14 Apart from cars, regenerative braking is also
implied in heavy vehicles as discussed in Reference 15,
where various braking strategies of a mining truck were
compared with the most efficient one. Also, several
scholars have broadly studied numerous control
approaches, vehicle stability, cooperation of RBS and
ABS,16-18 features and control influences of hierarchical
control approaches,19,20 as mentioned in Figure 2.
Besides hierarchical control strategies, optimal braking
performance, regenerative efficiency approach, and their
collaboration strategy have been presented in Reference
21. To understand the significance of RBS in EVs/HEVs,
Reference 22 investigated the RBS and its energy recov-
ery capacity as compared with conventional ICE vehicles.
Some studies like23,24 proposed a multi-input FLC
3
strategy for regenerative braking distribution between
various braking systems in the vehicle based on real-
world drive cycles. The FLC works by adjusting the slid-
ing mode parameters based on the slip ratio tracking
error between the optimal and actual slip ratios. Also, it
can incorporate the best battery condition and energy
recovery efficiency under a variety of vehicle driving con-
ditions. This fuzzy SMC can improve the energy effi-
ciency and stability of the brake in different braking
conditions.25 Moreover, the optimal slip ratio control
strategy can achieve the balance between RB perfor-
mance and life of the battery under various tire-road
adhesion conditions. Also, it can enhance the maximum
regenerative braking energy efficiency, vehicle stability
and braking strength of the vehicle.26 Then, the multi-
objective optimization of RB control system is to balance
among the performance of braking, braking efficiency
and battery rate losses under different driving conditions.
It can split maximum demand braking torque between
various braking systems in the vehicle. Also, it is used to
increase the efficiency of regenerative braking and reduce
the battery losses on low and medium tire-road adhesion
conditions.27 Further, coordinated control approach of
RBS is used to achieve the optimal braking efficiency and
4 SAITEJA ET AL.
FIGURE 2 The current state of review works in RBS of Evs16-18
guarantee the vehicle brake slip rate. The brake slip rate
can track the slip-ratio tracking errors and ensure the
efficient operation of the braking system. Also, it can
minimize the energy recover rate of the RBS and enhance
the RB energy recovery efficiency.28,29 Similar studies
were carried on in References 30,31 where an NN-based
technique is used to estimate the appropriate braking
force split between the hydraulic and regenerative brak-
ing in the vehicle. The control strategies used have
numerous approaches such as32,33 in which an MPC is
implemented in RBS, which showed better results than a
conventional PI controller. The MPC modelling approach
is used in vehicle energy management where the driver
model is used to predict future power requests. It directs
the friction and regenerative braking forces to meet the
driver's brake request while maintaining the stability and
drivability of the vehicle.34 In order to improve the stabil-
ity of the vehicle, multi-objective optimization is used to
effectively enhance braking stability, life of the battery
and braking comfort without compromising the energy
recovery.18 However, the limited driving range of EV is a
challenging issue that must be addressed. Energy recov-
ery is a key technique for improving energy efficiency
and extending the range of EVs. Under wider braking
scenarios, an optimum braking force split control strategy
is used to split braking torque between various braking
systems of the vehicle. As a result, it can successfully
achieve maximum energy recovery under various braking
environments while maintaining braking performance
and stability.35,36 In Reference 37, with the aims of brake
efficiency, stability and comfort, various cooperative con-
trol approaches were researched, and their comparison
was made to select the most balanced control approach.
Based on such multiple ideas, this review paper aims to
critically present all the concepts of RBS and help bridge
the gaps present in current review studies on this topic.
Another critical aspect of EVs is managing the energy
storage while varying operating conditions. The energy
storage system in typical EVs consists of sole Li-ion bat-
tery or in combination with supercapacitor or ultracapa-
citors, also termed as hybrid energy storage system
(HESS). One significant challenge that can be of concern
is harnessing the transient high-power charging occur-
ring during the regenerative braking, that is, there occurs
a sudden surge in the charging current.38 This can cause
the batteries to degrade, impacting their performance
over longer period of their lifetime. In this scenario, the
hybrid combination energy storage system comes into
picture, which consists of supercapacitor or ultracapaci-
tor along with the Li-ion battery. The supercapacitors
have very good power densities and are capable of har-
nessing the power generated during regenerative braking.
SAITEJA ET AL.
In doing so, the battery state of charge has a significant
impact on the power absorbing capacity and the charging
current of the supercapacitor-based regenerative braking
system (RBS).39 The supercapacitor-based hybrid system
has longer cycle life and rapid charge/discharge cycle
compared with Li-ion battery. But still, some limitation
on the braking rate occurs if the supercapacitor is not
operated within a certain range of SOC because of the
current limitation of the power electronic converter used
to charge the supercapacitor. This issue can be consid-
ered for future development of supercapacitors for effi-
cient application in hybrid combination energy storage
systems.
The effective design and development of RBS are dis-
covered to be a major necessity by vehicle manufacturers
in the current scenario for the effective performance
results of EVs. An effective RBS extends the driving range
by improving battery capacity by recovering lost energy
during the braking. Because of its extremely transient
behaviour, RBS is considered to be a more complicated
design in EV, making energy management between
regenerative and hydraulic braking systems more chal-
lenging. As a result, efforts towards the continued devel-
opment of more effective RBS technology are now
necessary. This type of study would aid in better under-
standing the interrelationships among the RBS multiple
control systems. Furthermore, such an evaluation effort
will pave the way for improving the overall performance
F I G U R E 3 A schematic
representation of the research gap and
original contribution of the work40-43
5
of the RBS in EVs. Many research activities and studies
have been done in specific sectors pertaining to regenera-
tive braking. Many research and review articles have
focused on individual topics of control strategies used in
RBS, and its design considerations, etc. But very few liter-
ature papers have provided a complete overview and crit-
ical analysis of the RBS as a whole.40-43 The different
literature gaps as shown in Figure 3, keeping that in
mind, and to bridge the gap, this paper attempts to pro-
vide a critical review of all the aspects involved in an effi-
cient RBS. In this context, the objective of the current
work is to conduct a critical analysis of control system
architecture, brake control modelling approaches, cali-
bration parameters, and the RBS design and development
process. In addition, this study seeks to provide several
modelling strategies for brake energy optimization, such
as FLC, NN, MPC sliding mode, and adaptive control.
The novelty of this study originates from the aggregation
of research that have explored RBS control system archi-
tecture with various modelling approaches for brake
energy optimization, as well as this work defined the RBS
design and development process. Also, this study expli-
cates challenges that arise during design and develop-
ment of RBS in the EVs. Figure 4 depicts a summary of
the structure and flow of the current review paper.
Finally, the conclusion of the stated objective will provide
readers with information and a critical perspective on the
design and implementation of an effective RBS for EVs.
6 SAITEJA ET AL.
FIGURE 4 A schematic representation of a structured summary of the review work
This study, among other things, can help in certain cru-
cial areas and indicate areas where future research
should be concentrated.
2 | CONTROL SYSTEM
A R C H I T EC T U R E O F
REGENERATIVE BRAKING SYSTEM
IN EVS
EVs require an efficient braking controller for optimal brak-
ing performance and safety. The purpose of RBS is used to
improve the regenerative energy efficiency, braking stabil-
ity, and performance in the vehicle.44 The control architec-
ture of the RBS has various subsystems such as brake
controller, regenerative brake controller along with brake
control strategies, etc, as shown in Figure 5. Regenerative
braking is one of the important systems in the functioning
of an EV. In EV, the braking controller receives numerous
real-time inputs from various sensors present in the vehicle
such as wheel speed, BPP, battery SOC, motor, battery, and
other vehicle inputs.45 These inputs are used to predict the
vehicle required braking force, vehicle state, brake state,
etc. Also, these inputs are used to calculate and manage the
braking force between the various braking systems in the
vehicle. In addition, the motor and battery inputs are used
to control and manage the demand torque in the vehicle
and other factors like temperature, speed, voltage, etc.
Along with these inputs, the regenerative braking controller
receives other external sensor inputs from the various con-
trol modules (such as transmission, battery, motor and vehi-
cle) in the RBS.46,47 Based on these received inputs from the
various sensors, the regenerative braking controller operates
to maximize the regenerative braking efficiency and optimal
usage of the stored battery power. After proper calculations,
the respective output signals are sent to the motor control
unit and also to optimize the braking working status and
operating state of the vehicle.48 Based on these sensor sig-
nals, the control systems in the RBS will perform the appro-
priate control actuation to various systems.
Then, the regenerative braking controller is responsi-
ble for processing various sensor inputs received from the
vehicle and providing output as per the driver require-
ments. The various sensor signals are sent to the diver
model unit; it is used to predict the vehicle's state of
motion, brake state, and stability.49 The predicted sensor
signals are sent to the braking control unit, which is used
to estimate the required mechanical braking torque of the
vehicle. Further, the braking control unit output signals
are sent to the regenerative braking controller, which esti-
mates the required regenerative braking force and brake
state (including regenerative braking, hydraulic braking
SAITEJA ET AL.
FIGURE 5 Control system architecture of RBS in EVs
and combination of both braking systems) of the vehicle.50
To control and estimate the regenerative braking force,
various brake control strategies (fuzzy, neural network,
model predictive, sliding mode control, etc) are used,
which are used to improve the performance of the regen-
erative braking controller.51,52 Also, these control strate-
gies are used to optimize the braking force distributions
between regenerative braking and hydraulic braking sys-
tem in the vehicle, also which depends upon the various
sensor inputs (BPP, speed, SOC) from the driver.53 For
example, in the case of hard brake, the hydraulic brakes
will also function simultaneously with the regenerative
braking. Finally, the optimal braking force is sent to the
motor control unit, when the brakes are applied or the
accelerator pedal is not engaged the EM acts as a generator
to produce current from the rotational motion of the
wheels and this current is stored in the battery after power
conversion for later utilization.54 The RBS also does the
energy and power analysis in how to effectively distribute
the stored energy to the various vehicle systems with maxi-
mum efficiency. Hence, it is very necessary to have a com-
plete understanding of the RBS including all the major
control modules, which are involved in processing the
input information. Such critical analysis can be done using
the entire architecture of the RBS, which will help the
researchers to understand the process flow of input data
7
and the related major modules involved in decision mak-
ing. Also, the readers who are new to this concept can eas-
ily grasp the essence of regenerative braking and its
importance in EVs. It can even aid the researchers to iden-
tify any loopholes within the control system and focus on
improvement of any particular area of the RBS.
3 | REGENERATIVE BRAKING
CONTROL S TRATEGIES I N
ELECTRIC VEHICLES
The braking controller is used to optimize the braking per-
formance between regenerative and hydraulic braking in
the vehicle. To attain the enhanced braking performance
between braking systems, different modelling approaches
such as fuzzy logic, neural network, model predictive, slid-
ing mode, and adaptive control are used as stated in below
individual sections.
3.1 | Fuzzy logic control modelling
approaches
FLCS is an important control system that depends on the
features of the EV system. In general, the FLCS works
8 SAITEJA ET AL.
according to the different sensor commands (SOC, Speed,
BPP, etc) from the vehicle based on the preset logical rules.
Since in a moving vehicle the input parameters are con-
stantly changing, this control approach can be very useful
in distribution of brake torque between braking systems.55
The various sensors' input (speed, SOC, BPP) information
are provided to the fuzzy logic controller, and it is used to
calculate the optimal brake force between different braking
systems in the vehicle.56 Then, it splits and distributes the
optimal braking force between hydraulic and regenerative
braking systems in the vehicle. Also, it always tries to maxi-
mize the energy recuperation to serve the purpose of regen-
erative braking, as shown in Figure 6. In fuzzy logic
control, there are different modelling approaches employed
for brake force distribution,57 slip ratio control,25 and maxi-
mum braking energy recovery such as Sugeno's FLC,58
fuzzy slip ratio control,26 reinforcement learning
approach,59 applied to fuzzy Q-learning,60 Mamdani type
FLC, nonlinear fuzzy logic with PID control and fuzzy logic
with parallel topology,61 as mentioned in Table 1. Regenera-
tive braking force generally depends upon the driver's brak-
ing intention, which means that if the braking force is large
the vehicle is required to stop immediately within a short
distance, and if the braking force is less, then the vehicle
can be decelerated slowly without any urgency.63 When the
driver presses the BP, the controller distributes the braking
force between the wheels according to the input and driving
conditions. Also, in some cases, a combination of fuzzy and
PID controllers is employed in the regenerative braking
strategy, which can split the mechanical and electrical brak-
ing force dynamically.64 Also, it can increase the driving
range of EVs while maintaining braking quality. As dis-
cussed in Reference 65, the reinforcement learning
(RL) method is another modelling approach used to adjust
and improve a fuzzy logic model for regenerative braking
by tuning the model for a specific EV using actual data
gathered from field tests.66 In modern vehicles, an ABS is a
FIGURE 6 Fuzzy logic control system in RBS for EVs
common feature and in these systems, a fuzzy slip ratio
controller is used to obtain the optimal slip ratio and avoid
wheel skidding.67,68 On the other hand, a major concern is
that for efficient results, an extensive testing is required
with hardware for validation of the system. During the vali-
dation, a lot of manual tuning is essential, which is time-
consuming and complex for large-scale applications. The
application of fuzzy logic control strategy causes the distri-
bution of maximum braking torque between frictional and
electrical braking is not achieved. Consequently, the effi-
ciency and performance of the braking decrease in model-
ling of RBS. The splitting of braking torque between various
braking systems can be affected by different vehicle parame-
ters such as speed, SOC and braking requirements. With
the FLC, the braking torque can be controlled over a short
range of operating conditions and it can keep the battery
SOC within certain range of driving conditions. To counter
these issues, the self-learning neural network can have good
scope since they learn with each passing operation and can
become more precise an overtime.
3.2 | Neural network control modelling
approaches
Neural network (NN) is a type of intelligent control algo-
rithm that is widely known for its strong capacities for self-
learning, adapting, and organization; hence it is outstanding
for the control of non-linear systems.62 This control strategy
has three layers (input, hidden, and output layers) of neu-
rons that process the input data and provide the necessary
output according to the modelling approach. The data
acquired as per the driver demand (Speed, BPP, SOC) is
processed as per thoroughly pre-trained models in the
NN. This results in providing an accurate control signal
(braking torque) to carry out the actuation between the
respective braking systems as shown in Figure 7. Similar to
SAITEJA ET AL. 9

TABLE 1 Summary of various fuzzy logic control modelling approaches in RBS

Modelling approach Major outcomes References

PID with fuzzy logic control
FLC with braking force
distribution strategy
FLC for brake energy recovery
strategy
FLC with SOC strategy
Distribution of braking force using
FLC
Sugeno's fuzzy logic controller
Reinforcement learning (RL)
approach with fuzzy-Q-learning
Fuzzy slip ratio control strategy
FLC with PID in ABS control
Nonlinear FLC with PID control
Brake control with FLC
FLC with wheel slip for ABS
• It can achieve more dynamic distribution of braking force between different 56
braking systems in the vehicle.
• By implication of FLC approach in modelling RBS, the distribution of brake 57
torque is achieved between the different braking systems and it recovers more
amount of energy during braking.
• It can increase the energy recovery efficiency of the regenerative braking system 25
and it can achieve superior vehicle braking performance and safety.
• Higher energy recuperating and higher vehicle system efficiency is possible 62
through the FLC combined with SOC.
• Improvement of power and economic performance of EV by the application FLC 59
strategy for brake force distribution.
• It can enhance the braking performance based on various driver's inputs like 60
vehicle speed, SOC and braking torque.
• Improved regenerative braking factor obtained by application of reinforcement 61
learning to adjust and improve the braking performance. Also, it can achieve
maximum amount of energy recuperation.
• It can reduce braking distance and stop time along with slip ratio control for 63
optimal braking torque. Also, it can reduce the slip ratio tracking errors between
optimal and actual slip ratios.
• It can keep the battery SOC within a certain range and recovers the maximum 64
brake regenerated energy throughout a driving cycle.
• The fuzzy with PID control ensures dynamic distribution of mechanical and 65
electrical braking forces in the vehicle.
• It can split optimal brake force between the wheels and improve the brake 66
energy recovery efficiency. Also, it can extend driving range of the vehicle.
• It can reduce the wheel slips by adjusting the slip ratio tracking errors, and also, 67
it can control the braking torque over a range of operating conditions for the
anti-lock braking system.

other controls in the neural network, there are various
modelling approaches like NN-based drive control,69 NN
with sliding mode control,70 ANN-based methodology,71
fuzzy neural network strategy,72 ANN with PI controller,73
as presented in Table 2. Compared with an ANN model,
FLC is much more dependent on the membership functions
but ANN is particularly used to maximize the available
energy for recovery.74 In this approach, the deceleration
and speed are considered as input parameters and a portion
of the front wheel-braking force is obtained as output.75
Further, the number of layers and neurons varies in differ-
ent modelling approaches, such as in NN-based SRM drive
control strategy,76 the ANN has three layers and the hidden
layers have five neurons. The energy recovery, in this case,
is higher when the braking torque is high. Moreover, the
NN self-adaptive system comprises back propagation and a
radial basis function, their function being to adaptively reg-
ulate the constraints of the PID controllers online and
establish a non-linear prediction model and achieve param-
eter prediction.77 This hybrid technique was tested and it
was seen that better regeneration efficiency, control effect,
and energy recovery were achieved. Another approach is
the fuzzy NN control strategy, wherein an independent
four-wheel-motor-driven (4WMD) EV was modelled for
application of this control strategy.78,79 In this approach, the
total of five-layered NN was used to map relations between
inputs and outputs to calculate the allocation of front and
rear RB torque and friction braking torque.80 Also, the ESS
in an EV has to be as efficient as the regenerative braking
system and for that, a HESS along with ANN control
approach for braking force distribution is seen to be
adopted in the study.81 Further, NN controls the system
must be put through a lot of training so that it gets accus-
tomed to the actual road conditions inputs and the control
logic becomes more efficient and faster.82 Moreover, an
appropriate NN structure is achieved through experience
and trial and error approaches, which can be a concern if
enough model training is not done. The NN approach is
used to predict and distribute appropriate braking force
between different braking systems, but it cannot achieve
10 SAITEJA ET AL.

FIGURE 7 Neural network control in RBS for EVs

TABLE 2 Summary of various neural network-based control modelling approaches in RBS

Modelling approach Major outcomes References

NN with drive control • It is used to predict and distribute appropriate braking force between different braking 69
strategy systems, and also, it can achieve stability and reliability of the vehicle.
NN with self-adaptive • It can be recuperated more amount of energy during braking as a result of increased driving 70
PID range of the vehicle.
ANN control • It is used to find the appropriate braking force split between friction and regenerative braking 71
approach and rear-front axles.
NN with sliding mode • It improves energy efficiency at different operating speeds and also reduces the various 72
controller steady-state tracking errors in the vehicle. Also, it can improve the stability, reliability, and
driving range of an EV.
Multilayer perceptron • It is used to enhance the energy recovery, stability and optimal brake force distribution 73
ANN between braking systems.
NN with RB controller • Based on the prediction of future states, it improves energy efficiency and braking 74
performance of the vehicle.
ANN-based vector • It is used to estimate the braking force split between hydraulic and regenerative braking as 75
control strategy per the input parameters for maximum regenerative torque.
NN with Sliding mode • It possesses strong self-adaptability and recovers more energy in the braking process. Also, it 76
control improves regeneration efficiency, stability and reliability of the vehicle.
NN with model • It can recover the maximum braking energy through regenerative braking and also, it can 77
predictive control ensure brake safety and comfort.
NN with energy • The NN-driven system handles the braking torque ripples accurately and it can split optimal 78
recovery strategy braking torque between various braking systems in the vehicle.
FNN braking control • The optimal FNN braking control makes the motor operate in its higher efficiency zone to 79
strategy recover more regenerative braking energy and charge the battery.
ANN with PI • ANN with PI controller is utilized to control the braking force split between the wheels of the 80
controller EV, and also, it can improve energy regeneration by 20%.

stability and reliability of the vehicle. During the regenera-
tive braking, less amount of energy can be recaptured due
to the lack of model training, resulting in decreased driving
range of the vehicle. Further, the optimal NN brake con-
trols approaches are used to operate motor at higher
efficiency zone to recover the high amount of braking
energy, but is incapable of handling the steady-state track-
ing errors in different operating conditions. In such cases,
the MPC is used to anticipate future events to eliminate the
steady-state tracking errors in various driving conditions.
SAITEJA ET AL.
3.3 | Model predictive control modelling
approaches
Model predictive control (MPC) is a progressive method
that is used to control a process and deal with it effi-
ciently by satisfying multiple constraints in complex
automotive systems.83 It also has a unique ability to pre-
dict future events and can take control actions accord-
ingly and due to these favouring characteristics MPCs
are used in various vehicle control processes including
the RBS, as shown in Figure 8. The process flow in MPC
comprises of feeding the input signal data to the predic-
tion algorithm, which gives optimized output signals of
the braking state and the distribution of braking power
between regenerative and hydraulic braking system in
the vehicle. Included in MPC are various modelling
approaches such as nonlinear MPC,84 stochastic MPC85
and MPC with vehicle state estimator approach,86 PSO-
based nonlinear predictive control,87 two-level MPC,
as mentioned in Table 3. Nonlinear MPC is widely
recognized for its ability to manage non-linearities or
restrictions when dealing with difficult optimization
problems.88 Moreover, it combines all control objectives
into a single formulation, and the control settings are
simple to tune.89 Nonlinear MPC's are often combined
with certain algorithms like the PSO-based nonlinear
MPC as mentioned in Reference 90. The PSO-non-linear
MPC is adopted to realize the required force and
moment with brake torque allocation and pressure regu-
lation along with vehicle stability control features like
calculating required longitudinal force, lateral force,
etc.91 In-vehicle operation, the driver behaviour can be
represented as a stochastic system since the driving con-
ditions are random and unpredictable. The stochastic
MPC modelling approach is used in vehicle energy
FIGURE 8 Model predictive control in RBS for EVs
11
management where the driver model is used to predict
future power requests.92 Since stochastic MPC is based
on online numerical optimization, the driver model can
be learned online, hence allowing the control algorithm
to adapt to different driver's behaviours.93 The MPC con-
troller can also be merged with a vehicle state estimator
(VSE), which calculates the road friction, vehicle motion
states, tire normal forces, etc.94,95 Also, the MPC control-
ler directs friction and regenerative braking forces to
meet the driver's brake request while maintaining the
stability and drivability of the vehicle.96 The MPC is
combine with VSE it can successfully maximize energy
recuperation in relation to drivability demands, and
completely provides the whole braking force demanded
by the driver.97 Moreover, the MPC requires high com-
putation power to control the various vehicle operation.
It is used to track the driver's intentions and optimize
steering and braking coordination, but it cannot elimi-
nate the vehicle wheel spin problem in various driving
conditions.79 Further, it successfully maximizes the
energy recuperation in relation to the various driver
demand, but it is incapable of handling linear and non-
linear MPC designs for the combination of wheel spin
and braking torque distribution between different brak-
ing systems. While maintaining energy regeneration
efficiency, the MPC does not provide faster transient
response to driver demands. Also, it requires a suitable
trained model for the controlling of various braking
operation; it depends on high accurate system model for
eliminating the errors. It can be advantageous if the dis-
turbances and uncertainties observed are reduced along
with a simple calculation approach. This is a special
characteristic of the sliding mode controller; it can be
used to eliminate the non-linearities and disturbances in
different driving conditions.
12 SAITEJA ET AL.

TABLE 3 Summary of various model predictive control modelling approaches in RBS

Modelling approach Major outcomes References

MPC with torque distribution
strategy
NMPC control approach
MPC with VSE approach
Model predictive control
allocation
PSO with nonlinear MPC
Nonlinear MPC with torque
distribution strategy
MPC with quadratic
programming
Linear and nonlinear MPC
strategy
MPC approach for blending
of braking systems
Stochastic model predictive
control
Two-level MPC
Nonlinear MPC strategy
• The optimal split of braking torque on front and rear axis is achieved for improved 84
road adhesion along with maximum energy recovery during braking.
• The NMPC is able to recuperate more regenerative braking energy and it improves 85
regeneration efficiency, stability and reliability of the vehicle
• The MPC and VSE combination successfully maximizes energy recuperation in 86
relation to various drivability demands in the vehicle.
• The MPC provides faster transient response, while maintaining the energy 87
regeneration efficiency of the vehicle.
• A novel steering and braking control strategy is proposed to track the driver's 88
intentions and optimize steering and braking coordination.
• Due to its ability to split brake torque intelligently to the wheels and recovers more 89
energy without sacrificing the vehicle's performance.
• The optimal power can be split according to the system dynamics and it can ensure 90
brake safety, strength and stability.
• The linear and nonlinear MPC designs is used to reduce the wheel slip errors by 91
adjusting optimal and actual slip ratios. Also, it can recover maximum regenerative
braking energy during braking and charge the battery.
• It states that the controllers smartly blend regenerative and friction braking to 92
maximize the regenerative braking while simultaneously preserving vehicle stability
and delivering the exact requested braking force.
• It can reduce the linear and nonlinear steady-state errors by adjusting optimal brake 93
force between braking systems.
• A two-level MPC approach in an F1 car powertrain is implemented for the minimum 94
lap time energy management.
• It can be presented for the front steering angle compensation and distribution of 95
traction force in 4WD EVs. Also, it can achieve higher energy efficiency and optimal
brake distribution between braking systems.

3.4 | Sliding mode control modelling
approaches
SMC is a nonlinear control approach that forces a non-
linear system to slide along a cross-section of its normal
performance by applying discontinuous control signals
and altering the dynamics of a nonlinear system, as
shown in Figure 9. The SMC works based upon the
required brake strength, which estimates the braking
torque required and feeds the data to the controller. Fur-
ther, the SMC optimizes the braking torque signals, and
depending on the brake torque requirement, it is distrib-
uted braking force between various braking systems in
the vehicle. Then, the sliding mode control along with
other modelling approaches is used in regenerative brak-
ing such as adaptive SMC,98 intelligent sliding mode
scheme (ISMS),99 SMC with fuzzy logic control
approach,100 and time-varying sliding mode control (TV-
SMC),101 which are mentioned in Table 4. Out of the
above-mentioned modelling approaches, SMC with FLC
is designed to change the sliding mode parameters based
on the slip ratio tracking error between the desired slip
ratio and the actual slip ratio.102 By estimating the brake
torque, the suggested torque distribution may incorpo-
rate the optimal battery state and energy recovery effi-
ciency.103 To tackle the problem of motor torque control
during regenerative braking operation in EVs, the adap-
tive SMC strategy is employed and it is observed that the
chattering phenomenon can be eliminated as compared
with other controllers like smooth SMC and high-gain
PID controller.104 Chattering is often observed in tradi-
tional SMC, which is occurrence of oscillations of finite
frequency amplitude. These oscillations are actually
undesirable, and hence chattering is a harmful phenom-
enon, which leads to low accuracies in control systems.
The fast dynamics that are often ignored in ideal control
models cause this issue.105,106 Also, due to the oscilla-
tions, the mechanical parts that respond to the oscilla-
tions may wear and get damaged, and in case of
regenerative braking, this can affect the motor parts and
unnecessary damage can occur. To avoid this, the adap-
tive SMC method acts as a good solution, which can
SAITEJA ET AL.
FIGURE 9 Sliding mode control in RBS for EVs
TABLE 4 Summary of various sliding mode control modelling approaches in RBS
Modelling approach
Sliding mode control (SMC)
with FLC approach
Adaptive SMC
Intelligent SMC
Sliding mode control
algorithm
RB control with MOOS
TV-sliding mode control
SMC based on H∞ theory
Two-time-scale brake control
with sliding mode
Super twisting algorithm
with SMC
Sliding mode robust
controller
Wheel slip control with SMC
Sliding mode with sensorless
control
13
Major outcomes References
• This method aimed at obtaining adequate energy efficiency and performance in 101
different braking conditions and also it can achieve better stability and energy
recovery.
• The adaptive SMC strategy tackles the issue of motor torque control during the 102
regenerative braking mode.
• It can achieve high energy regeneration efficiency and effective braking performance 103
of an EV.
• The Sliding mode control is capable to combine the pneumatic ABS control and help 104
to preserve the slip ratio of the vehicle in more accurate and ideal range.
• A comprehensive balance is achieved between the braking comfort, working distance 105
and battery life of EV by the implication of braking control based on multi-objective
optimization of drive system.
• As compared with a conventional SMC, the TV-SMC produced better results, which 106
track an optimal slip trajectory.
• It is more robust and shows superior dynamic performance as compared with others, 107
it is widely suitable for the nonlinear control of EV.
• The desired performance is maintained by this controller even in varying road 108
conditions including external disturbances, modelling errors and also CAN-induced
time-varying delays.
• Quick response to the driver's demands, maximum use of regenerative braking energy 109
and effectively improve vehicle drive range without sacrificing the brake power
• The aforementioned control technique has the potential to improve dynamic 110
performance and robust stability. Using the controller, you can even increase your
driving range.
• In both accelerating and braking operations performed on a slippery surface, 111
experimental results indicated good slip regulation and robustness to shocks.
• The PLL with a modified control function has improved the speed and position 112
estimation using a SMO and the regenerative braking capability of the PMSM drive
shows effective battery charging.
14
maintain the braking efficiency without having negative
effects on overall vehicle performance. Similar to adap-
tive SMC, the fuzzy SMC is also a modified SMC control
method, which reduces chattering effectively with the
parameter optimization FLC.107,108 Another control
strategy for RB in EVs and HEVs is the intelligent sliding
mode scheme (ISMS), which has a basic logic torque lim-
iter that maintains significant energy recovery without
overcharging the battery pack and produces a good
tracking of requested slip during an extreme braking sit-
uation with high braking performance.109,110 Similarly,
to enhance regenerative braking performance in EVs
with SRM,111 the MOOS112,113 is proposed to improve
regenerative braking performance under sliding braking
conditions. Under sliding braking situations, this MOOS-
based management technique may substantially improve
brake smoothness, expand working distance, and
lengthen the battery lifespan of EVs.90,114 This control
approach can attain maximum energy efficiency and per-
formance in different braking conditions. During the
vehicle operation optimal slip trajectory, chattering,
modelling errors and external disturbances are major
problems in the SMC. The optimal slip trajectory
changes based on the surface conditions of the vehicle
during vehicle operation because driving conditions are
constantly changing. Moreover, chattering is also one of
the major concerns in SMC, Chattering is a common
occurrence in traditional SMC and is caused by oscilla-
tions of finite frequency amplitude. These oscillations
are actually unacceptable, and thus chattering is a harm-
ful phenomenon that leads to low accuracies in control
systems.105 Also, another issue in the SMC is external
disturbances in different braking and operating condi-
tions of the vehicle. To avoid these parametric uncer-
tainties, the adaptive SMC method is a good solution for
maintaining braking efficiency without affecting overall
vehicle performance.
SAITEJA ET AL.
3.5 | Adaptive control modelling
approaches
This type of control strategy relates to a controller that
works based on a control law that adapts itself to chang-
ing conditions, and which has to adapt to continuously
changing and uncertain parameters in the system.115 In
the case of regenerative braking, the varying parameters
are related to the driver conditions like deceleration,
torque demand, speed, battery SOC, etc. These input
parameters are taken care of within the controller with
the help of driver model unit, as shown in Figure 10.
The respective output signals are sent to the optimum
power control unit, which splits the brake force between
the vehicle's braking systems based on driver demand.
Then, the adaptive control employs various modelling
approaches for maximizing the energy recuperation effi-
ciency such as adaptive MPC,116 modified direct torque
control,117 adaptive neuro-based FLC,118 back-stepping
based adaptive controller,119 and adaptive fuzzy
control,101 as mentioned below in Table 5. According to
a study aimed at control of regenerative braking of a
downhill cruising EV, the adaptive MPC is designed,
which can realize the adaptive control of the braking
systems with the change of the road gradient, stability,
and robustness.120 Similarly, in another experimental
investigation on RBS in an EV, a baseline robust con-
troller will be generated using the 2-step back-stepping-
based design technique to emphasize the model uncer-
tainties associated with the RBS.121 To decrease model
uncertainties caused by vehicle loads, SOC, vehicle
velocity, braking power, and road surface circum-
stances, parameter adaption utilizing the least-squares
estimation technique will be applied.122 Additionally, in
a BLDC motor EV, modification of the switching pattern
will increase the efficiency of the conventional direct
torque control (DTC) system as well as recuperate
FIGURE 10 Adaptive control in
RBS for EVs
SAITEJA ET AL. 15

TABLE 5 Summary of various adaptive control modelling approaches in RBS

Modelling approach Major outcomes References

RBS control with PWM
Adaptive MPC algorithm
Adaptive regenerative braking
controller
Modified direct torque control
Adaptive regenerative braking
controller
Observer-based hierarchy
controller
Adaptive neuro-based FLC
Cooperative adaptive cruise
control (CACC) strategy
Energy efficient adaptive cruise
control
Back-stepping based adaptive
controller
Adaptive fuzzy control
algorithm
Integrative braking control
strategy for adaptive control
• This control approach is used to produce higher braking current and pursue robust 116
braking force.
• The RBS and mechanical braking system can be used co-ordinately by the adaptive 117
model predictive control.
• In this study, the development of an integrated braking controller that maximizes 118
regenerative braking power for an EV with a motor at its front axle has been
presented.
• This control method showed good performance and improvement in the returned 119
energy to the batteries.
• To prevent the vehicle from losing control, the controller distributes an ideal RB 101
torque as well as additional mechanical friction brake torques.
• The upper layer controller monitors the intended vehicle velocity, while the lower 120
layer controller monitors the lower layer controller's signal and increases energy
recovery.
• By using the control logic, the RBS can dynamically distribute the electrical and 121
mechanical braking force is achieved.
• The CACC method increases the platoon's overall regenerative braking energy by 122
around 16.5%, providing drivers with significant economic benefits.
• By altering the gap between the leading and following cars, this control approach 123
may maintain high regenerative braking effectiveness while also providing smooth
acceleration and deceleration.
• It illustrates that, even in the presence of parameter variations, the brake control 124
input can precisely reflect the vehicle driver's braking purpose, and the output
vehicle can effectively track the target vehicle.
• The algorithm instructs the motor to deliver sufficient regenerative braking torque 57
at all times in order to meet the braking needs of the driver.
• The approach controls both braking systems forces based on the braking strength, 125
allowing the motor to run at maximum capacity.

braking energy.123 Using this modified DTC, negative
torque is supplied to the motor while brake, producing
electrical energy that is transmitted via reverse diodes to
charge the storage device.124 Furthermore, to take intel-
ligent control to the next level, an adaptive neuro-based
fuzzy control system is employed, which can update the
membership function parameters and linguistic rules
directly from data to improve system performance.57
The combination of NN with fuzzy logic systems is use-
ful since it can be trained and hence self-learn and
improve. As a result, it employs a fuzzy framework to
represent information in an interpretable manner and
derives learning ability.125 Also, the distribution of the
braking force accurately as per the changing demand is
one of the very fundamental functions of proper regen-
erative braking phenomenon, and an integrative control
strategy126 helps achieve that by sensing the brake pedal
position and the braking intensity. Finally, the braking
force splitting approach is executed to control the brak-
ing forces of regenerative and hydraulic braking
cooperatively.127 The CACC strategy improves the over-
all vehicle braking performance, regenerative braking
energy, and safety. As seen, the adaptive control can be
achieved in combination with other prominent control
strategies like FLC, NN to obtain the best performing
control system. Though adaptive controllers can handle
unknown parameters, they lack the ability to learn over
time and improve themselves. The self-learning ability
can be very fruitful in the long run as the control system
will obtain a very wide operational dataset and use is
accordingly for optimal results. Hence, learning-based
controls are a hot research topic and are implemented
for smart transportation systems.
3.6 | Learning-based control modelling
approaches
The learning-based control algorithm is another model-
ling approach that learns itself over time to achieve
16
perfection in braking performance. Few of these strate-
gies were implied in RBS and they also showed promis-
ing results. One of it is the fuzzy Q-learning algorithm,
which indicates that the strategy can easily adapt to var-
ious driving cycles and optimal regenerative braking
motor torques can be obtained.128 Furthermore, it is a
known issue that SRM causes torque ripples, which can
be corrected by using iterative learning control, which
continuously checks with reference torque and controls
the current with optimal torque controller.129 Further,
the model predictive iterative control approach helps
achieve fast convergence rate by considering the time-
wise feedback control along with real-time processing
capacity.130 The specialty of iterative learning is that it
learns from previous errors stored in the memory. More-
over, iterative learning control is implied in antilock
braking, as the motor torque gets optimized to keep the
tire slip in maximum traction region.131 Similarly, a
smart RBS based on RL algorithm automatically con-
trols the regeneration torque of the motor to slow down
the vehicle by recognizing the deceleration condi-
tions.132 Another RL based is used to adjust and
improve the fuzzy logic model, which showed improved
performance and even the regeneration factor (ratio of
energy recovered to the total braking energy) can be
obtained, which is otherwise difficult to be measured.133
Similar model-free RL method helps manage the battery
current flows, which equips the controller with the
information related to peak power and regenerative
power demand.134 Learning-based controls in braking
also act as advanced driver assisting systems in control
methods related to intelligent vehicles. Wherein, cloud
platforms are used for data storage and communication
so that there is no limitation in computing power of the
control system. Intelligent systems can also enable inter-
action between vehicle and help enhance energy man-
agement based on live road performance. In order to
promote sensorless design of braking control system, a
hybrid learning-based method is developed to classify
the brake intensity levels and estimate the brake pres-
sures. This will assist the controls and energy manage-
ment during the regenerative braking.135 Similarly,
while driving at traffic lights, Q-learning algorithms
derive optimal speed profiles, which consider all real-
time parameters using vehicle to infrastructure (V2I)
communication. The predicted speed profiles decide the
vehicle braking actions depending on the road condi-
tions, and this is experimentally verified to give better
results.136 These learning-based approaches in RBS can
prove effective in many ways since they are closely
related to human learning behaviour and tend to
improve over time.
SAITEJA ET AL.
3.7 | Comparative assessment of various
braking control strategies in EVs
All the above-discussed control methodologies are
unique in their way, and hence their application of
them varies to some extent. Table 6 summarizes the
benefits and drawbacks of various control approaches
for EV brake energy optimization. For instance, FLC
systems are known for their ease of computation and
the simplicity in applying updates to commercially pro-
duced vehicles, whereas the quality is completely depen-
dent on the professional level of a specialist who sets
them up.137 Hence, we can say that the FLC application
is favoured for simplicity and feasibility and showed sig-
nificant improvement in power and economic perfor-
mance.138 Another controller familiar for its strong
capacities of self-learning and self-adapting is the NN
controller. Due to multiple layers of neurons that
enhance its learning abilities, it is outstanding for the
control of non-linear systems, which is often a case in
actual braking scenarios.139,140 NN outperforms in terms
of response time, steady-state tracking error and can
increase the stability and reliability of EV. Further, The
MPC approach can deal with complicated optimization
issues as well as non-linearities and restrictions in the
regenerative braking control system in an effective man-
ner.141 Consider an EV that has to control numerous
signals involving speed, deceleration, torque demands,
etc., and other inputs making the whole system very
complex and hence can sometimes cause computational
complexities.142,143 MPC approaches can be successful
in extreme braking circumstances because they intelli-
gently mix regenerative and friction brakes to enhance
regenerative braking while maintaining vehicle stabil-
ity.144 An important task of ABS during braking is con-
trolling the slip ratio in the optimal range to prevent
wheel lock-up and a sliding mode controller focuses on
detecting this tendency of lock-up.145 Its robustness and
invariance make it capable of handling non-linearities,
and it is excellently insensitive to model error and con-
straints change of controlled object and external trouble
during intense operating conditions.146 Owing to its dis-
turbance rejection characteristics and helping maintain
slip ratio SMC plays an important role in improving
braking performance. Furthermore, under the adaptive
control technique, the system adjusts the intensity of
regenerative braking when the accelerator pedal is
released based on the driver type and intention.147
Although adaptive controller is capable of dealing with
unknown parameters, it lacks the ability to learn and
improve itself over time. The self-learning ability can be
very fruitful in the long run as the control system will
SAITEJA ET AL.
TABLE 6 Advantages and disadvantages of various control approaches for brake energy optimization in EV
Control strategy Advantages
Fuzzy logic control • Fuzzy logic control is a cost-effective
controls technique.
• The user interface is easy to understand
and interpret even for a non-expert
control engineer.
Neural Network • After NN training, the data may produce
output even with incomplete information.
• Artificial NN learn from identical events
and make decisions based on them.
Model predictive • It is used to regulate a variety of processes,
control including those with non-minimum
phase, long delay, or open-loop stability.
• It can handle multi-variable, input and
output processes along with single input
and output ones.
Sliding mode control • Applicable on wide range of non-linear
systems (including higher order).
• SMC is a robust control technique that is
used to control systems with uncertainties.
Adaptive control • Parameters can be changed fast in
response to changes in process dynamics.
• Are easy to apply and have good stability.
obtain a very wide operational dataset and use is accord-
ingly for optimal results. These learning-based
approaches in RBS can be beneficial in a variety of ways
because they are closely related to human learning
behaviour and tend to improve over time. It guarantees
the stability of the system as per changing condi-
tions.148,149 In addition, the performance analysis of var-
ious motors with numerous control strategies for brake
energy recovery in EVs, as mentioned in Table 7. Many
researchers combine two or more control strategies to
obtain the best results of both. Such approaches lead to
efficient and stable control systems, and as a result, the
energy recovery is improved. Finally, all of these men-
tioned strategies are unique in their own ways and have
different effects on energy recovery and braking perfor-
mance. Hence, a critical review of these control strate-
gies is essential because it can assist in verifying the
accuracy in various operating conditions and the maxi-
mum energy recovery along with better braking perfor-
mance. By weighing the advantages and disadvantages
of each control approach, researchers have the opportu-
nity to design the optimal control models for most effi-
cient energy recuperation and smooth braking. In the
review it is observed that many research works adopted
a combination of different control methods to produce
better results. Such initiatives can benefit from detailed
17
Disadvantages References
• They are fully reliant on human expertise 25,57-60
and understanding.
• A lot of manual tuning is required, which
is time-consuming when considering
complex large-scale applications.
• Design an acceptable network structure, 72-76
skill and trial and error are needed.
• According to its structure, ANN requires
processors with parallel processing
capabilities.
• A suitable model is required of the process 85-89
that is, high dependence on accurate
system model.
• Derivation of control law is complex.
• Limited to single input systems. 99-104
• Chattering occurrence is an undesirable
phenomenon in this control approach.
• The required design for employment is 101,118-121
enormous.
• Appropriate model of the system is
needed.
review studies for them to pursue and will act as a
guideline for developing better RBS in near future.
Moreover, as observed, the different control techniques
implied in RBS have their own pros and cons, and hence
it is of utmost importance to choose the correct control
approach. Here, it can compare these strategies based
on model complexity, development cost, extent of accu-
racy, performance, etc. The parallel comparison among
all parameters of these control strategies provides
insight on how to obtain best possible results in braking
performance. By such critical review, the positive quali-
ties of numerous control strategies can be combined in
order to obtain more efficient control strategy. As per
the chosen control approach, the specific output signals
are given to the respective components for energy recov-
ery while braking, which are discussed in further
section.
4 | REGENERATIVE BRAKING
SYSTEM CONTROLLER OUTPUTS
The essential output of the braking demand is estimated
by using a braking controller based on numerous model-
ling approaches (fuzzy, MPC, NN, SMC, etc). These
approaches are used to split braking demand torque
18 SAITEJA ET AL.

TABLE 7 Comparison and performance analysis of various motors for regenerative braking in EVs

% of
Vehicle Driving Energy
Type of motor Control strategy model cycle recovered Outcomes References
Brush less DC motor PID with fuzzy logic EV UDDS 15 • Dynamic braking force 25
(BLDC) control splitting is possible
between various
braking systems.
FLC with PI EV_HESS EUDC, FTP 8 to 25 • Improved regenerative 60
controller braking potential and
charging efficiency of
the battery.
Neural network EV UDDS 23.9 • Better regenerative 71
with self-adaptive braking performance
PID with respect to steady-
state errors, response
speed, etc.
ANN control EV US06_HWY 37 • Increased energy 72
recovery rate and EV
driving range.
Neural network EV FTP75 24 • High energy recovery 73
with SMC rate and increased
battery life. Also, it can
guarantee brake safety,
strength and stability.
Sliding mode robust State-space Urban drive 30 • Dynamic performance, 103
controller model of cycle good stability and
EV extended driving range
are achieved.
Back-stepping-based Hybrid City drive 17.6 • Effective regenerative 118
adaptive electric bus cycle brake control even in
controller the presence of
uncertainties and
steady-state errors.
Switched reluctance FLC with braking Nissan LEAF Real-time 3 to 5 • Good regeneration of 58
motor (SRM) force distribution VIL cycle brake energy and it can
strategy ensure brake safety,
strength and stability.
Fuzzy logic EV UDDS, FTP 25 to 26 • It is used to predict and 67
algorithm distribute appropriate
braking force between
different braking
systems in the vehicle.
Permanent magnet Brake control with EV with four NEDC 17.6 • Driver's requirements 66
brushless DC FLC in-wheel are successfully met
motor (PMSM) motors and maximum
percentage of braking
energy is recovered.
Non-linear MPC IWMD_EV FTP 13 • Prevents wheel lock on 86
strategy slippery surfaces and
regenerates more
braking energy than PI
controller.
SAITEJA ET AL. 19

TABLE 7 (Continued)

% of
Vehicle Driving Energy
Type of motor Control strategy model cycle recovered Outcomes References
MPC with torque EV with NEDC 17.2 • This control approach 85
distribution 4-IWM improves the energy
strategy recovery rate and
tracking the driver's
expectation.

Traction motor Sugeno's fuzzy logic EV CYC_UDDS 22.29 • Absorb braking energy 63
controller and guarantee safety
and stability of the
vehicle while braking.
Multilayer HEV NEDC 8.33 • Good display of 74
perceptron ANN regenerative braking
efficiency and smooth
transition of braking
forces between various
braking systems.
Model predictive EV with FTP 22.5 • Maximized energy 87
control with in- 4-IWM recuperation supported
wheel-motor with wheel slip control,
good stability and
extended driving range.
CACC strategy EV_CACC NEDC 16.5 • Quick response to 117
deceleration added
with energy recovery
from braking.

between regenerative and hydraulic braking systems in
the vehicle. The outputs of the regenerative braking con-
troller (braking torque demand) are sent to motor and
hydraulic control systems in the vehicle, as discussed in
below respective sections.
4.1 | Motor control system
The electric motor is the main driving unit that propels
an EV and also acts as a generator during energy recuper-
ation conditions. The motor control unit (MCU) acts as
the brain in controlling all the operations of the motor
and managing the outputs for delivering maximum tor-
que and power.150 The braking controller receives inputs
from various vehicle systems and MCU is used to opti-
mize the braking demands between braking systems in
the vehicle, as shown in Figure 11. The various inputs
from the driver, battery, motor, and other accessories
input signals are communicated to the controller through
the CAN bus.151,152 According to the driver requirement,
by sensing the drive mode and the pedal positions, the
braking torque demand is calculated. Along with the tor-
que calculation, the motor rotor position input is also fed
to the controller, and based on these the motor speed can
be varied.153 The pulse width modulator (PWM) genera-
tor gives the proper signals to the driver circuit, which
performs the motor working.154 Simultaneously, the
switching table also receives the signal of the motor
rotors position. Finally comes the inverter, which con-
verts the DC to AC and feeds it to the motor for propul-
sion.155 The driver continually controls the speed with
the pedal, while all other regulations for absorbing or
renewing energy are managed internally.156 The driver
instruction serves as a speed reference input to an MCU,
which in turn drives a controller. During regenerative
braking, the motor acts as a generator, converting the
generated current to direct current and charging the bat-
tery.157 In this way, the motor-inverter interaction is very
critical since the drive conditions may continuously
change and the inverter has to adapt to the changing situ-
ation. Simultaneously, the driver receives all the informa-
tion on the instrument cluster as different indicating
lights. It also displays warning signals if a fault in any of
the subsystems is detected by the diagnostic system so
that necessary action can be taken immediately.158,159 All
the internal signal transmission and communication is
achieved through the CAN as it serves as the prime
20
FIGURE 11 The overview of motor control system with regenerative braking in EVs
communication medium between various systems in the
vehicle.160 Here, the communication with the battery
management system (BMS) is necessary because if the
SOC falls below a certain level, the MCU will receive a
signal to control the motor work in the generator to
charge the battery, hence making sure that the SOC does
not drop below a certain value.161 Finally, the required
output is sent to the vehicle, and also braking controller
is sent to the driver's braking demand to the hydraulic
braking system, as mentioned in the following section.
4.2 | Hydraulic braking system
As discussed earlier, a regenerative brake usually co-exists
with the friction brakes. The control strategy determines
the brake force distribution between regenerative and fric-
tion braking as per the driver requirement.162,163 Friction
braking comes into working if an immediate deceleration
is required to slow down or stop the vehicle. EVs have a
separate hydraulic system consisting of brake fluid, master
cylinder, pistons, and fluid flow channels for this type of
friction braking actuation.164,165 Depending on the output
from the brake controller as per the driver demand, the
brake fluid is displaced from the master cylinder. This fur-
ther engages the pistons at the brake calipers, which holds
SAITEJA ET AL.
the disc brakes and brings the vehicle to a halt immedi-
ately.166,167 There are pressure sensors in the hydraulic line,
which monitor the fluid pressure and give constant feed-
back to the controller. The overall braking force is deliv-
ered by the friction and regenerative braking torque, which
can be represented as in Equation (1),168
Ttotal demand ¼ Tregenerative þ Tfriction ð1Þ
Where Ttotal demand is the total braking demand of
the vehicle, Tregenerative is the regenerative braking tor-
que and Tfriction is the friction braking torque provided
by the hydraulic braking system.169 During the decelera-
tion, the regenerative brake and the frictional brake
work effectively together and the braking deceleration
very gradually, ensuring the vehicle's efficient braking
performance. In this section the discussion includes out-
puts of RB controller (regenerative and hydraulic brak-
ing torque) is sent to motor and hydraulic control
systems in the vehicle. However, the idea behind the
section is to make the reader aware of the execution of
the braking action. As it's known that there must be a
balance between both hydraulic and regenerative brak-
ing for effective brake performance. Since the vehicle
motion is dynamic in nature, the outputs depend upon
the driving conditions, driver inputs and even on the
SAITEJA ET AL.
battery state.170 The vehicle braking performance and
the amount of energy recuperation depends on the dis-
tribution of braking torque between the braking systems
(motor and hydraulic systems) in the vehicle. For these
the major output braking systems are the motor, which
recuperates energy and the supplementary hydraulic
braking system for fast vehicle stopping. It is the har-
monic co-existence of these control systems that ensure
proper braking action (ie, there must be a balance
between both friction and regenerative braking for effec-
tive brake performance) in EVs.
5 | CALIBRATION P ARAMETERS
I N R E GEN ER AT I V E B R A KI N G
SYSTEM
The RBS is associated with numerous of calibration
parameters including speed, brake force estimation, brake
force distribution, etc, as shown in Figure 12. These are
used to enhance the braking performance as well as out-
put parameters including state of charge, demand power,
etc. In the next section, numerous RBS calibration param-
eters are discussed in more detail.
5.1 | Lookup table for driver torque and
vehicle speed
Calibration of driver's request torque and vehicle's speed
is essential to accomplish the different vehicle objectives.
It influences important outcomes such as braking
F I G U R E 1 2 Various lookup tables
in regenerative braking system for EVs
21
performance, speed, BPP, demand torque, etc.171 The ini-
tial phase in RBS calibration is the calculation of various
vehicle variables for constructing standard speed and
driver request torque lookup tables. The driver's request
torque and vehicle speed lookup tables are generated
based on the acceleration and brake pedal position of the
vehicle.172 These lookup tables are used to calibrate the
driver's request torque and vehicle's speed based on the
driver's accelerating and braking inputs.173 Also, it is
used to estimate and optimize the future brake com-
mands based on the vehicle's recent state and it enhances
the vehicle's overall braking efficiency.174 Furthermore, it
optimizes the speed inaccuracies in the vehicle based on
the different sensor commands from the vehicle, as a
result in significant improvement in the braking perfor-
mance.175 Moreover, these lookup tables are used to cali-
brate the variations in the braking force estimation and
splitting between a different braking system based on the
driver's demand power and actual speed of the vehicle as
explained in the following sections.
5.2 | Lookup table for brake force
estimation
In general, braking force estimation in RBS calibration is
crucial in determining optimal braking force between
friction and regenerative braking in the vehicle. It affects
significant outcomes such as SOC, braking performance,
and output characteristics of the vehicle.176 The RBS cali-
bration procedure begins with the creation of a baseline
lookup table for calculating brake force between friction
22
and regenerative braking systems. It is used to enhance
brake energy efficiency and also increases vehicle operat-
ing range. With the support of braking force split coeffi-
cients, brake force estimation, and velocity, the braking
force estimation lookup table is created.177 It optimizes
the flexibility and force proportion of braking between
braking systems to maintain vehicle braking safety.
Further, it ensures the best braking performance while
capturing as much energy as possible throughout the
braking operation. Moreover, it calibrates the impact of
braking behaviour and its properties such as speed of a
vehicle, braking force, deceleration rate, etc.178 Also, it
provides instantaneous information by recognizing the
driver's braking intention based on the opening of
the BPP, speed, battery state of charge, etc.179 As a result,
the RB is determined based on vehicle state and brake
pedal position, as well as braking dynamics of the vehi-
cle, maximum RB power, etc. Finally, the purpose of this
lookup table is to optimize brake energy recovery and
prolong EV driving range while meeting EV braking per-
formance and stability standards.180
5.3 | Lookup table for brake force
distribution
The brake force splitting between friction and regenera-
tive braking systems is a critical lookup table of the
RBS that must be calibrated. It has a substantial influ-
ence on key outcomes including demand brake force,
vehicle status, speed, braking power, deceleration rate,
etc.181 The first step in RBS calibration is to estimate
the parameters for the creation of a baseline brake force
distribution lookup table. The estimation of vehicle
characteristics, such as brake pedal opening and speed
of the vehicle, is crucial for recognizing braking
intention. The brake pedal opening reflects the driving
aim, while the speed indicates the degree of brake
urgency.182-184 It is estimated using the following
parameters: speed, vehicle status, pedal angle, battery
state of charge, vehicle braking behaviour, maximum
energy recovery, torque, etc. According to the vehicle's
current state and brake pedal position, the required
braking force is distributed between friction and regen-
erative braking in the vehicle. These calibration param-
eters are used to enhance acceleration performance,
deceleration rate, and state changes between braking
and driving, etc. It continuously searches for the best
compromise among the different brake energy recovery
modes in the EV. Further, it optimizes the deviation
between the required and actual velocity of the vehicle,
and also, it calibrates the different energy recovery
modes during RB operation.185 Moreover, the RBS
SAITEJA ET AL.
includes additional lookup tables based on the vehicle
type, battery SOC, brake selection, and other vehicle
system characteristics. These lookup tables are used to
calibrate the effective outputs of the vehicle in aspects
of performance and energy recovery. Since the vehicle
operation is dynamic in nature and the act of braking
cannot be predicted but is instantaneous, so the calibra-
tion of the various mentioned parameters is quite
essential. These parameters are directly affecting the
different outputs characteristics of the vehicle, and
therefore readers must have knowledge of the role of
lookup tables. Hence, the calibration of the control sys-
tem parameters being important topic is discussed,
showcasing the role of lookup tables in RBS. Further-
more, the section that follows explains the RBS design
and development procedure, which is intended to assist
in the optimization of the vehicle lookup tables.
6 | DE V E L O P M E NT P R O C E SS O F
REGENERATIVE BRAKING
CONTROL S YSTEM
An efficient RBS is necessary to assure the vehicle's safety
and robustness against abrupt braking and stability. A
regenerative braking virtual simulation environment is
required to assist with vehicle calibration and validation,
as shown in Figure 13, which also depicts the many steps
involved.186 The procedure consists of four phases; the
first phase is to calculate the numerous parameters of the
vehicle, as well as other critical factors such as the motor,
battery, brake, etc. With the support of these multiple
parameters, different systems in the vehicle will execute
the necessary control operations.187 Then, during the sec-
ond phase, the vehicle influential input characteristics
are used to build an efficient RBS model. In model-in-
loop (MIL) simulation, the base RBS model is used to
improve the accuracy of the original model and to predict
the performance of the updated model. The purpose of
this phase is to verify and enhance the vehicle's numer-
ous models.188 Then, the control parameters of the brak-
ing system are improved with the help of a generated
model to increase brake performance under different
energy recovery modes. Further, the control characteris-
tics of the battery and electric motor (EM) have been
fine-tuned for better power across a wide operating
range.189 This RB model is designed to coordinate differ-
ent driver actions such as optimal braking power, brake
energy recovery modes, etc. This model ensures that opti-
mum data for each model is regularly updated as well as
the elimination of errors.
Moreover, in the third phase, the RB model optimal
data are sent into the software platform for simulation
SAITEJA ET AL. 23

F I G U R E 1 3 Development procedure of
regenerative braking system in EVs

and testing of the vehicle. The first phase in the simula- the optimized models are converted to codes and func-
tion process is to perform software and processor-in-loop tion individually in their energy recovery working
(SIL & PIL) simulations. In software-in-loop simulation, modes.190,191 The aim of this phase is to run and evaluate
24
the models' source code on real-time systems. It is neces-
sary to incorporate the vehicle total driver's demand
brake torque and different energy regeneration modes.
During energy regeneration, the RBS model is used to
calculate the driver's demand brake torque based on sev-
eral sensor commands from the vehicle. Based on the
real-time sensor commands, the controller unit (proces-
sor in loop [PIL] simulation) is used to estimate the
essential driver's brake torque in the vehicle.192 Then, the
brake controller is used to distribute the optimal brake
torque between hydraulic and RBS. Also, it can estimate
the vehicle operating state for maximum braking by
observing the driver's request.
Moreover, the second phase of simulation is testing
simulated and fine-tuned models in the vehicle using
hardware-in-loop (HIL) Simulation. To eliminate
defects in the enhanced models, one must check the
self-generated program with hardware in a loop simula-
tor. Each HIL simulator operation necessitates the vali-
dation of simulated and optimized models. If mistakes
are discovered during the validation process, the costs
associated with erroneous models are reduced.193,194
This validation approach continually analyses and ver-
ifies better models by utilizing real-time technology. In
the RBS development procedure, vehicle-in-loop (VIL)
simulation is the final phase, which comprises inserting
optimized models with controllers into the vehicle and
verifying and calibrating the finished product. This
way, before a real-time model is implemented, it can be
analysed for its performance. Hence, these development
stages play a crucial role because nearly every time the
designed RBS has to be verified for its performance and
has to follow the mentioned process.157 Moreover, this
procedure integrates various modelling tools and tech-
niques for recreating the regenerative braking model in
a virtual analytical environment, which is required for
successful testing, calibration and validation of the
model. Also, it covers a broad spectrum of applications
in different segments such as the design phase, which
includes the simulation, control system design, etc. If
there are any faults in the developed control system
models, it is detected in the validation process, and it
can be corrected in the early steps itself.195 Due to
advanced simulation platforms, the control models can
be tested numerous times using real-time drive cycles
allowing the developers to make necessary changes and
test in quick intervals. This RBS development process
increases the model perfection, eliminates the model
inaccuracies, and improves the performance of the
vehicle. Further, the obstacles encountered throughout
the RBS development process are detailed in the next
section.
SAITEJA ET AL.
7 | C HA L L E NGE S I N DE SI GNIN G
AND DEVELOPING A
REGENERATIVE BRAKING
CONTROL S YSTEM
The RBS has various beneficial impacts on brake and
vehicle output parameters, as detailed in previous sec-
tions. However, a few issues are mentioned during the
design of RBS, such as energy recovery, distribution of
braking energy, braking stability, maximum regenerative
braking, system integration, brake controller design, con-
trol strategy optimization, brake control, emergency brak-
ing, and response time for all operating conditions,196-199
as illustrated in Figure 14. More consideration should be
given to the RBS design process, particularly in terms of
energy recovery during the braking phase. Also, the brak-
ing energy distribution between brake systems is more
complex due to its brake safety and stability in the vehi-
cle.200 It affects the energy efficiency and braking perfor-
mance of the RB system. Hence, the challenge on the RB
stability and design of the controller is more difficult
because of incorporation among the other current braking
systems (ABS, VSC, etc) in the vehicle.201 The estimation
of wasted energy during braking is required to develop an
effective RB controller and anticipate energy efficiency.202
Then, the energy efficiency of RBS, which is based on sev-
eral control techniques, may be influenced by the suitable
hardware controller. In addition, different control
approaches influence the various energy recovery modes
and brake energy distribution between both brake systems
in the vehicle under all operating conditions.203,204 The
braking force distribution has two phases: the first is to
split the maximum forces between the wheels, which
affect braking stability; the second is to split the brake
force between the regenerative and friction braking, which
influences the amount of braking energy that may be
recovered. Moreover, the brake control and energy distri-
bution between both brake systems become more com-
plex, when the RBS is to improve regenerative brake
efficiency and boost the range of EV.205 The brake control
during emergency braking becomes much more complex
than friction and RBS. Besides, RBS is able to optimize
power demand fluctuation and manage the brake energy
distribution to meet the driver's braking demand in the
vehicle.
Furthermore, a few obstacles arise during the devel-
opment of RBS, such as parameter identification, model-
ling, optimization, etc. The preliminary or influential
input and output parameters of the vehicle such as real-
time speed, torque requirement, brake force distribution,
battery SOC, etc, influence the vehicle's braking perfor-
mance under different operating conditions. Moreover,
SAITEJA ET AL.
FIGURE 14 Challenges in design and development aspects of RBS in EVs200-203
the operating point estimation, system optimization,
braking efficiency, and stability present additional obsta-
cles throughout the model development process.206 It has
an impact on the vehicle's braking efficiency, comfort,
stability, and dependability. Also, the simulation might
be influenced by improved models in the vehicle under
various operating conditions. However, simulation incor-
porates a number of optimization techniques that may be
used to analyse the performance of power flow, stability,
distribution, etc.207 As a result, addressing the aforemen-
tioned problems can aid in the efficient design and imple-
mentation of RBS to achieve maximum energy efficiency,
superior vehicle braking performance, and safety. During
the design and development of RBS, several challenges
arise, including energy recovery, braking stability, system
integration, brake controller design, modelling, optimiza-
tion, and response time for all operating conditions.
Hence it is necessary to address all these issues as each
one may have a significant effect on the performance if
not corrected properly. As discussed earlier, the design
and testing stage is essential as it allows to verify the
models and remove the possibilities of any system fail-
ures. Also, continuous research work is carried to ensure
that such issues in RBS are eliminated for improved vehi-
cle performance since it has a direct effect on the compo-
nent life. The future research prospects in RBS revolve
around addressing such challenges and implementing
those developments in future EVs. As a result, addressing
the aforementioned problems can aid in the efficient
design and implementation of RBS to achieve maximum
energy efficiency, superior vehicle braking performance,
and safety.
25
8 | SUMMARY AND FUTURE
SCOPE
This review article is a compilation of numerous studies
focused on the energy recovery of EVs. It gives the reader
a broad overview of the RBS and its related components
in a holistic manner. The studies reviewed in this paper
are based on experimental work, which is performed
with the intent to improve the RBS performance and effi-
ciency. This performance specifically depends on the con-
trol system architecture of the vehicle RBS, which
includes the interrelation among hardware and software
subsystems like motor, battery, brakes, etc. Moreover, in-
depth investigation is performed on the brain of the
entire RBS, that is, the brake controller wherein various
control strategies (fuzzy logic control, NN, model predic-
tive, sliding mode, adaptive control and learning-based
control) are discussed and their key functions are eluci-
dated. These control approaches are used to enhance
energy regeneration while maintaining vehicle perfor-
mance. In FLC approach is used to improve the regenera-
tive braking performance with respect to steady-state
errors and recovers maximum possible energy (25%) dur-
ing braking. Further, NN is self-adaptability and recovers
more energy (24%) in the braking process. Also, it
improves regeneration efficiency, stability and reliability
of the vehicle. Moreover, MPC and SMC are used to track
the driver's intentions and optimize steering and braking
coordination, but it cannot eliminate the vehicle wheel
spin problem in various driving conditions and it success-
fully maximizes the energy recuperation. In SMC, the
external disturbances in different braking and operating
26
conditions of the vehicle are one of the issues. To avoid
these parametric uncertainties, the adaptive SMC method
is a good solution for maintaining braking efficiency
(32%) without affecting overall vehicle performance. In
addition, adaptive and learning-based control approaches
are used to handle unknown parameters, but they lack
the ability to learn over time and improve themselves.
These approaches are dynamically distributed the
braking energy between various braking systems in the
vehicle, and also, it can achieve maximum regenerative
braking energy (35%) during braking and deceleration. It
is observed that every control strategy has its advantages
and disadvantage. Also, to gain maximum output, some
research studies showed an implication of a combination
of strategies in their modelling approaches. Furthermore,
the fundamental operational behaviour of other vehicle
systems like motor control, hydraulic control also plays a
decisive role in performance evaluation. These systems'
optimal functioning is also necessary because they are
responsible for energy storage and transmission during
vehicle operation. Moreover, RBS associated with various
parameters like speed, brake force estimation, etc, which
are used to improve the output characteristics of the vehi-
cle. Then, the real-time RBS development procedures, as
well as essential features of regenerative braking for the
effective operation of EV, have been studied. The review
study also emphasizes various challenges in the design
and development of efficient RBS. This review article
attempts to enlighten a broad overview of the RBS and
investigate the performance dependence on various com-
ponents. Evolving technologies in the E-mobility domain
will encourage the readers to bridge some research gaps,
and we can hope to see improved energy recovery tech-
niques in the near future. Higher energy conversion rates
can ensure an extended driving range, which is the
demand of time seeing the promising shift towards
E-mobility. Further mentioned are some suggestions on
which future studies can be carried out to enhance the
performance of the RBS.
1. Future research should concentrate on the real-time
use of the maximum adhesion offered by the ground,
as well as a quicker and more reliable controller, to
meet the drivers' braking demands sensitively and cor-
rectly, and to achieve shorter braking distances and
faster energy recovery.
2. To reduce transmission losses and boost efficiency,
new inventions in the form of new electric motors
may be developed and installed in many automobiles,
which can help in saving energy for a greener future.
Another area for development is to reduce the weight
of the system, which would boost efficiency and
reduce energy consumption.
SAITEJA ET AL.
3. More study is needed to solve the problem of regener-
ative braking and ABS mutual collaboration. One
interesting area for researchers to look into is how to
eliminate torque variation in a vehicle that employs
non-zero RB torque during ABS events. Furthermore,
all-wheel RB systems and the regulation of RB on the
road with a split adhesion coefficient may be of inter-
est as research topics.
4. Currently, new and additional braking technology
includes the electro-mechanical brake, electric-
hydraulic brake, etc. The integration of the RBS and
regular FBS appears to be problematic due to the lat-
ter's delayed reaction. However, an advanced braking
system must respond quickly and work flawlessly at
high speeds. As a result, more study should be done
on the combination of the RBS and the advanced
braking system.
5. The development of a fully electronic brake-by-wire
hybrid braking system is currently in progress. In this
system, the motor and braking force on wheels can be
individually and cooperatively controlled. While driv-
ing on any road, this braking system is completely
used to quickly slow down the vehicle, maintain vehi-
cle stability and recover the maximum braking energy.
It is also integrated with the steering system to ensure
vehicle stability.
6. To achieve optimum energy efficiency in EVs/HEVs,
the EMS is essential. However, for the time being,
EMS is entirely dependent on onboard sensor data.
We can develop intelligent energy management and
recovery system if we consider using off-board infor-
mation to optimize the energy flow under any dynam-
ically fluctuating road traffic. As a result, additional
research should be concentrated on intelligent energy
management and recovery systems that will increase
the energy savings achieved by regenerative braking.
ORCID
Bragadeshwaran Ashok https://orcid.org/0000-0003-
4488-1391
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
Pemmareddy Saiteja: Writing—original draft, Atharva san-
jay wagh: writing—review & editing. B. Ashok and
Mohamed Emad Farrag: Conceptualization, Investigation,
Data curation, Project administration, Validation, Formal
analysis, Writing—review and editing.
A C KN O WL ED G EME N T S
The authors would like to thank the Management of VIT
University, Vellore for the facilities provided during the
execution of this work. This research is supported by the
funding from Royal Academy of Engineering,
SAITEJA ET AL.
United Kingdom under the scheme of Transforming Sys-
tems through Partnership (Grant No: RAE TSP - T2I
\100100).
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The authors declare that they have no known competing
financial interests or personal relationships that could
have appeared to influence.
R EF E RE N C E S
1. Zhang X, Göhlich D, Li J. Energy-efficient toque allocation
design of traction and regenerative braking for distributed
drive electric vehicles. IEEE Trans Vehic Technol. 2017;67(1):
285-295. doi:10.1109/TVT.2017.2731525
2. Zhang J, Li Y, Lv C, Gou J, Yuan Y. Time-varying delays com-
pensation algorithm for powertrain active damping of an elec-
trified vehicle equipped with an axle motor during
regenerative braking. Mech Syst Signal Process. 2017;87:45-63.
doi:10.1016/j.ymssp.2015.10.008
3. Qiu C, Wang G. New evaluation methodology of regenerative
braking contribution to energy efficiency improvement of
electric vehicles. Energy Conver Manage. 2016;119:389-398.
doi:10.1016/j.enconman.2016.04.044
4. Lin C, Liang S, Chen J, Gao X. A multi-objective optimal tor-
que distribution strategy for four in-wheel-motor drive electric
vehicles. IEEE Access. 2019;7:64627-64640. doi:10.1109/
ACCESS.2019.2917313
5. Xu W, Chen H, Zhao H, Ren B. Torque optimization control
for electric vehicles with four in-wheel motors equipped with
regenerative braking system. Mechatronics. 2019;57:95-108.
doi:10.1016/j.mechatronics.2018.11.006
6. Junzhi Z, Yutong L, Chen L, Ye Y. New regenerative braking
control strategy for rear-driven electrified minivans. Energy
Conver Manage. 2014;82:135-145. doi:10.1016/j.enconman.
2014.03.015
7. Bayindir KÇ, Gözüküçük MA, Teke A. A comprehensive over-
view of hybrid electric vehicle: powertrain configurations,
powertrain control techniques and electronic control units.
Energy Conver Manage. 2011;52(2):1305-1313. doi:10.1016/j.
enconman.2010.09.028
8. Kasimalla VK, Velisala V. A review on energy allocation of
fuel cell/battery/ultracapacitor for hybrid electric vehicles. Int
J Energy Res. 2018;42(14):4263-4283. doi:10.1002/er.4166
9. Zhao D, Chu L, Xu N, Sun C, Xu Y. Development of a cooper-
ative braking system for front-wheel drive electric vehicles.
Energies. 2018;11(2):378. doi:10.3390/en11020378
10. Zhao Q, Zhang H, Xin Y. Research on control strategy of
hydraulic regenerative braking of electrohydraulic hybrid
electric vehicles. Math Probl Eng. 2021;2021:1-9. doi:10.1155/
2021/5391351
11. Peng H, Wang W, Xiang C, Li L, Wang X. Torque coordinated
control of four in-wheel motor independent-drive vehicles
with consideration of the safety and economy. IEEE Trans
Vehic Technol. 2019;68(10):9604-9618. doi:10.1109/TVT.2019.
2935617
12. Chen J, Yu J, Zhang K, Ma Y. Control of regenerative braking
systems for four-wheel-independently-actuated electric vehicles.
27
Mechatronics. 2018;50:394-401. doi:10.1016/j.mechatronics.2017.
06.005
13. Liu W, Qi H, Liu X, Wang Y. Evaluation of regenerative brak-
ing based on single-pedal control for electric vehicles. Front
Mech Eng. 2020;15(1):166-179. doi:10.1007/s11465-019-0546-x
14. Yu Z, Feng H, Meng Y, Xu E, Wu Y. Braking energy manage-
ment strategy for electric vehicles based on working condition
prediction. AIP Adv. 2022;12(1):15220. doi:10.1063/5.0074496
15. Guo L, Gao B, Gao Y, Chen H. Optimal energy management
for HEVs in eco-driving applications using bi-level MPC. IEEE
Trans Intell Transp Syst. 2016;18(8):2153-2162. doi:10.1109/
TITS.2016.2634019
16. Geetha A, Subramani C. A comprehensive review on energy
management strategies of hybrid energy storage system for
electric vehicles. Int J Energy Res. 2017;41(13):1817-1834. doi:
10.1002/er.3730
17. Guo H, Wang X, Li L. State-of-charge-constraint-based energy
management strategy of plug-in hybrid electric vehicle with
bus route. Energy Conver Manage. 2019;199:111972. doi:10.
1016/j.enconman.2019.111972
18. Wang Y, Wang X, Sun Y, You S. Model predictive control
strategy for energy optimization of series-parallel hybrid elec-
tric vehicle. J Clean Prod. 2018;199:348-358. doi:10.1016/j.
jclepro.2018.07.191
19. Tie SF, Tan CW. A review of energy sources and energy man-
agement system in electric vehicles. Renew Sustain Energy
Rev. 2013;20:82-102. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2012.11.077
20. Zhu Y, Wu H, Zhang J. Regenerative braking control strategy
for electric vehicles based on optimization of switched reluc-
tance generator drive system. IEEE Access. 2020;8:76671-
76682. doi:10.1109/ACCESS.2020.2990349
21. Hannan MA, Azidin FA, Mohamed A. Hybrid electric vehi-
cles and their challenges: a review. Renew Sustain Energy Rev.
2014;29:135-150. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2013.08.097
22. Qiu C, Wang G, Meng M, Shen Y. A novel control strategy of
regenerative braking system for electric vehicles under safety
critical driving situations. Energy. 2018;149:329-340. doi:10.
1016/j.energy.2018.02.046
23. Krithika V, Subramani C. A comprehensive review on choice
of hybrid vehicles and power converters, control strategies for
hybrid electric vehicles. Int J Energy Res. 2018;42(5):1789-
1812. doi:10.1002/er.3952
24. Lv C, Zhang J, Li Y, Yuan Y. Novel control algorithm of brak-
ing energy regeneration system for an electric vehicle during
safety–critical driving maneuvers. Energy Conver Manage.
2015;106:520-529. doi:10.1016/j.enconman.2015.09.062
25. Mei P, Karimi HR, Yang S, Xu B, Huang C. An adaptive fuzzy
sliding-mode control for regenerative braking system of elec-
tric vehicles. Int J Adapt Control Signal Process. 2022;36(2):
391-410. doi:10.1002/acs.3347
26. Liu H, Lei Y, Fu Y, Li X. An optimal slip ratio-based revised
regenerative braking control strategy of range-extended
electric vehicle. Energies. 2020;13(6):1526. doi:10.3390/en130
61526
27. Liu H, Lei Y, Fu Y, Li X. Multi-objective optimization study of
regenerative braking control strategy for range-extended elec-
tric vehicle. Appl Sci. 2020;10(5):1789. doi:10.3390/app10051789
28. Xu Q, Zhou C, Huang H, Zhang X. Research on the coordi-
nated control of regenerative braking system and ABS in
28
hybrid electric vehicle based on composite structure motor.
Electronics. 2021;10(3):223. doi:10.3390/electronics10030223
29. He Q, Yang Y, Luo C, Zhai J, Luo R, Fu C. Energy recovery
strategy optimization of dual-motor drive electric vehicle
based on braking safety and efficient recovery. Energy. 2022;
248:123543. doi:10.1016/j.energy.2022.123543
30. Zhu J, Wang Z, Zhang L, Dorrell DG. Braking/steering coordi-
nation control for in-wheel motor drive electric vehicles based
on nonlinear model predictive control. Mech Mach Theory.
2019;142:103586. doi:10.1016/j.mechmachtheory.2019.103586
31. Xin Y, Zhang T, Zhang H, Zhao Q, Zheng J, Wang C. Fuzzy
logic optimization of composite brake control strategy for
load-isolated electric bus. Math Probl Eng. 2019;2019:1-14.
doi:10.1155/2019/9735368
32. Sulaiman N, Hannan MA, Mohamed A, Majlan EH,
Daud WW. A review on energy management system for fuel
cell hybrid electric vehicle: issues and challenges. Renew Sus-
tain Energy Rev. 2015;52:802-814. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2015.
07.132
33. Park SH, Lee CS. Applicability of dimethyl ether (DME) in a
compression ignition engine as an alternative fuel. Energy
Conver Manage. 2014;86:848-863. doi:10.1016/j.enconman.
2014.06.051
34. Lv C, Zhang J, Li Y, Yuan Y. Mechanism analysis and evalua-
tion methodology of regenerative braking contribution to
energy efficiency improvement of electrified vehicles. Energy
Conver Manage. 2015;92:469-482. doi:10.1016/j.enconman.
2014.12.092
35. Mariani V, Rizzo G, Tiano FA, Glielmo L. A model predictive
control scheme for regenerative braking in vehicles with
hybridized architectures via aftermarket kits. Control Eng
Pract. 2022;123:105142. doi:10.1016/j.conengprac.2022.105142
36. Ma Z, Sun D. Energy recovery strategy based on ideal braking
force distribution for regenerative braking system of a four-
wheel drive electric vehicle. IEEE Access. 2020;8:136234-
136242. doi:10.1109/ACCESS.2020.3011563
37. Zhang J, Lv C, Gou J, Kong D. Cooperative control of regener-
ative braking and hydraulic braking of an electrified passen-
ger car. Proceed Instit Mech Eng Part D: J Autom Eng. 2012;
226(10):1289-1302. doi:10.1177/0954407012441884
38. Permana DA, Sholahuddin U, Hamdani D, Rachmildha TD.
Study of supercapacitor utilization on regenerative braking
system: design and simulation. Paper presented at: 2018 5th
International Conference on Electric Vehicular Technology
(ICEVT) 2018 Oct 30 (pp. 88-94). IEEE. doi: 10.1109/ICEVT.
2018.8628374
39. Partridge J, Abouelamaimen DI. The role of supercapacitors
in regenerative braking systems. Energies. 2019;12(14):2683.
doi:10.3390/en12142683
40. Jamadar NM, Jadhav HT. A review on braking control and
optimization techniques for electric vehicle. Proceed Instit
Mech Eng Part D J Autom Eng. 2021;235(9):2371-2382. doi:10.
1177/0954407021996906
41. Chandak GA, Bhole AA. A review on regenerative braking in
electric vehicle. Paper presented at: 2017 Innovations in
Power and Advanced Computing Technologies (i-PACT).
2017: 1–5. IEEE. doi: 10.1109/IPACT.2017.8245098
42. Sathishkumar A, Soundararajan R, Vel TJ, Arjith MB,
Sakthivel G. Review on regenerative braking system. In
SAITEJA ET AL.
E-Mobility. Switzerland AG: Springer, Cham; 2022:149-163.
doi:10.1007/978-3-030-85424-9_9
43. Vodovozov V, Raud Z, Petlenkov E. Review on braking energy
management in electric vehicles. Energies. 2021;14(15):4477.
doi:10.3390/en14154477
44. Delgado AC, Solaque L, Gutiérrez R, dos Santos AA,
Mastelari N. Proposal of an energy management architecture
applied into a regenerative braking system. IEEE Andescon.
2010;2010:1-6. doi:10.1109/ANDESCON.2010.5633433
45. Xiao B, Lu H, Wang H, Ruan J, Zhang N. Enhanced regenera-
tive braking strategies for electric vehicles: dynamic perfor-
mance and potential analysis. Energies. 2017;10(11):1875. doi:
10.3390/en10111875
46. Lv C, Zhang J, Li Y, Yuan Y. Regenerative braking control
algorithm for an electrified vehicle equipped with a by-wire
brake system. SAE Tech Paper. 2014;2014:1-10. doi:10.4271/
2014-01-1791
47. Li L, Ping X, Shi J, Wang X, Wu X. Energy recovery strategy
for regenerative braking system of intelligent four-wheel inde-
pendent drive electric vehicles. IET Intell Trans Syst. 2021;
15(1):119-131. doi:10.1049/itr2.12009
48. Rosenberger M, Uhlig RA, Koch T, Lienkamp M. Combining
regenerative braking and anti-lock braking for enhanced
braking performance and efficiency. SAE Tech Paper. 2012;
1-14. doi:10.4271/2012-01-0234
49. Ahn JK, Jung KH, Kim DH, Jin HB, Kim HS, Hwang SH.
Analysis of a regenerative braking system for hybrid electric
vehicles using an electro-mechanical brake. Int J Autom Tech-
nol. 2009;10(2):229-234. doi:10.1007/s12239-009-0027-z
50. Oleksowicz SA, Burnham KJ, Southgate A, et al. Regenerative
braking strategies, vehicle safety and stability control systems:
critical use-case proposals. Vehic Syst Dynam. 2013;51(5):684-
699. doi:10.1080/00423114.2013.767462
51. Wang F, Ye P, Xu X, Cai Y, Ni S, Que H. Novel regenerative
braking method for transient torsional oscillation suppression
of planetary-gear electrical powertrain. Mech Syst Signal Pro-
cess. 2022;163:108187. doi:10.1016/j.ymssp.2021.108187
52. Yildiz A, Özel MA. A comparative study of energy consump-
tion and recovery of autonomous fuel-cell hydrogen–electric
vehicles using different powertrains based on regenerative
braking and electronic stability control system. Appl Sci. 2021;
11(6):2515. doi:10.3390/app11062515
53. Zhao L, Ye M, Xu X. Intelligent optimization of EV comfort
based on a cooperative braking system. Proceed Instit Mech
Eng Part D J Autom Eng. 2021;235(10–11):2904-2916. doi:10.
1177/09544070211004461
54. Sarrafan K, Muttaqi KM, Sutanto D, Town GE. A real-time
range indicator for EVs using web-based environmental data
and sensorless estimation of regenerative braking power.
IEEE Trans Vehic Technol. 2018;67(6):4743-4756. doi:10.1109/
TVT.2018.2829728
55. Nian X, Peng F, Zhang H. Regenerative braking system of
electric vehicle driven by brushless DC motor. IEEE Trans
Indus Electron. 2014;61(10):5798-5808. doi:10.1109/TIE.2014.
2300059
56. Hamid J, Sheeba R, Sofiya S. Energy harvesting through
regenerative braking using hybrid storage system in electric
vehicles. Paper presented at: IEEE International Conference
on Intelligent Techniques in Control, Optimization and Signal
SAITEJA ET AL.
Processing (INCOS). 2019: 1–6.doi: 10.1109/INCOS45849.
2019.8951323
57. Maia R, Mendes J, Araújo R, Silva M, Nunes U. Regenerative
braking system modeling by fuzzy Q-learning. Eng Appl Artif
Intel. 2020;93:103712. doi:10.1016/j.engappai.2020.103712
58. Zhang S, Gao K, Zhou Y, Zhu C, Xiao Y, Huang Z. Regenera-
tive braking control strategy of electric vehicle based on com-
posite power supply. Paper presented at: 37th Chinese
Control Conference (CCC). 2018: 7588–7593. doi: 10.23919/
ChiCC.2018.8482789.
59. Ye M, Tan G, Lei F, Chen K, Feng J, Zhao FA. Research on
parallel regenerative braking control of the electric commer-
cial vehicle based on fuzzy logic. SAE Tech Paper. 2021;1-10.
doi:10.4271/2021-01-0119
60. Chen YC, Chang YC, Cheng JF, Yu WC, Lin CL. Regenerative
braking-driving control system. Paper presented at: 13th IEEE
Conference on Industrial Electronics and Applications
(ICIEA). 2018: 887–892. doi: 10.1109/ICIEA.2018.8397838
61. Harshavarthini S, Divya M, Bongarla R, Priya CH, Balaji R. A
critical investigation on regenerative braking energy recover-
ing system on HEV based on electric and natural extracted
fuel. Mater Today: Proceed. 2021;2021. doi:10.1016/j.matpr.
2020.12.075
62. Cao J, Cao B, Chen W, Xu P. Neural network self-adaptive
PID control for driving and regenerative braking of electric
vehicle. Paper presented at: IEEE international conference on
automation and logistics. 2007: 2029–2034. doi: 10.1109/ICAL.
2007.4338908
63. Aswathi ER, Prathibha PK, Nair JR. Regenerative braking of
BLDC motor using fuzzy control for electric vehicles. Paper
presented at: Second International Conference on Inventive
Communication and Computational Technologies (ICICCT).
2018: 1661–1665. doi: 10.1109/ICICCT.2018.8473242
64. Angundjaja CY, Wang Y, Jiang W. Power Management for
Connected EVs using a fuzzy logic controller and artificial neu-
ral network. Appl Sci. 2021;12(1):52. doi:10.3390/app12010052
65. Li P, Jiao X, Li Y. Adaptive real-time energy management
control strategy based on fuzzy inference system for plug-in
hybrid electric vehicles. Control Eng Pract. 2021;107:104703.
doi:10.1016/j.conengprac.2020.104703
66. Çeven S, Albayrak A, Bayır R. Real-time range estimation in
electric vehicles using fuzzy logic classifier. Comput Electr
Eng. 2020;83:106577. doi:10.1016/j.compeleceng.2020.106577
67. Wen HH, Chen W, Hui J. A single-pedal regenerative braking
control strategy of accelerator pedal for electric vehicles based
on adaptive fuzzy control algorithm. Energy Procedia. 2018;
152:624-629. doi:10.1016/j.egypro.2018.09.221
68. Rodriguez R, Trovão JP, Solano J. Fuzzy logic-model predic-
tive control energy management strategy for a dual-mode
locomotive. Energy Conver Manage. 2022;253:115111. doi:10.
1016/j.enconman.2021.115111
69. Gao H, Gao Y, Ehsani M. A neural network based SRM drive
control strategy for regenerative braking in EV and HEV.
Paper presented at: IEEE International Electric Machines and
Drives Conference (Cat. No. 01EX485). 2001: 571–575. doi: 10.
1109/IEMDC.2001.939368
70. Shetty SS, Karabasoglu O. Regenerative braking control strat-
egy for hybrid and electric vehicles using artificial neural net-
works. In international Conference on Engineering
29
Applications of Neural Networks, Springer, Cham. 2014: 103–
112. doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-11071-4_10
71. Won H, Li S. Analysis of neural network vector control for
IPM machine in electric vehicles. Paper presented at: IEEE
Power and Energy Society General Meeting (PESGM). 2016:
1–5. doi: 10.1109/PESGM.2016.7741142
72. Cao JB, Zhu XL, Jiang HK, Cao BG. Simulation research on
neural network sliding mode control of energy-regenerative
braking of electric vehicle. Applied Mech Mater Trans Tech
Publ Ltd. 2010;37:1187-1190. doi:10.4028/www.scientific.net/
AMM.37-38.1187
73. Wang M, Yu H, Dong G, Huang M. Dual-mode adaptive
cruise control strategy based on model predictive control and
neural network for pure electric vehicles. Paper presented at:
5th International Conference on Transportation Information
and Safety (ICTIS). 2019: 1220–1225. doi: 10.1109/ICTIS.2019.
8883435
74. Vodovozov V, Aksjonov A, Petlenkov E, Raud Z. Neural
network-based model reference control of braking electric
vehicles. Energies. 2021;14(9):2373. doi:10.3390/en14092373
75. Cheng CH, Ye JX. GA-based neural network for energy recov-
ery system of the electric motorcycle. Exp Syst Appl. 2011;
38(4):3034-3039. doi:10.1016/j.eswa.2010.08.093
76. Gounis K, Bassiliades N. Intelligent momentary assisted con-
trol for autonomous emergency braking. Simul Modell Pract
Theory. 2022;115:102450. doi:10.1016/j.simpat.2021.102450
77. Shijil P, Sindhu MR. Braking control strategies based on
single-pedal regenerative braking and neural network for
Electric Vehicles. Paper presented at: IEEE International
Power and Renewable Energy Conference (IPRECON). 2021:
1–7. doi: 10.1109/IPRECON52453.2021.9640722
78. Ge G, Wang T, Lv Y, Zou X, Song W, Zhang G. Energy-
efficient braking torque distribution strategy of rear-axle drive
commercial EV based on fuzzy neural network. SAE Int J Adv
Curr Pract Mobil. 2021;3:2136-2145. doi:10.4271/2021-01-0783
79. Kanchev H, Hinov N, Gilev B, Francois B. Modelling and con-
trol by neural network of electric vehicle traction system.
Elektronika ir Elektrotechnika. 2018;24(3):23-28. doi:10.5755/
j01.eie.24.3.20974
80. Xu Q, Wang F, Zhang X, Cui S. Research on the efficiency
optimization control of the regenerative braking system of
hybrid electrical vehicle based on electrical variable transmis-
sion. IEEE Access. 2019;7:116823-116834. doi:10.1109/
ACCESS.2019.2936370
81. Cao J, Cao B, Xu P, Bai Z. Regenerative-braking sliding mode
control of electric vehicle based on neural network identifica-
tion. Paper presented at: ASME International Conference on
Advanced Intelligent Mechatronics. IEEE Access. 2008: 1219–
1224). doi: 10.1109/AIM.2008.4601836
82. Quintero-Manriquez E, Sanchez EN, Antonio-Toledo ME,
Munoz F. Neural control of an induction motor with regener-
ative braking as electric vehicle architecture. Eng Appl Artif
Intel. 2021;104:104275. doi:10.1016/j.engappai.2021.104275
83. Sajadi-Alamdari SA, Voos H, Darouach M. Nonlinear model
predictive control for ecological driver assistance systems in
electric vehicles. Robot Auton Syst. 2019;112:291-303. doi:10.
1016/j.robot.2018.12.001
84. Zhao H, Ren B, Chen H, Deng W. Model predictive control
allocation for stability improvement of four-wheel drive
30
electric vehicles in critical driving condition. IET Control The-
ory Appl. 2015;9(18):2688-2696. doi:10.1049/iet-cta.2015.0437
85. Basrah MS, Siampis E, Velenis E, Cao D, Longo S. Wheel slip
control with torque blending using linear and nonlinear
model predictive control. Vehic Syst Dynam. 2017;55(11):1665-
1685. doi:10.1080/00423114.2017.1318212
86. Wagner D, Steinsträter M, Förth M, Stohwasser M,
Hoffmann J, Lienkamp M. Battery independent regenerative
braking using model predictive control with auxiliary power
consumers. Forschung im Ingenieurwesen. 2019;83(4):843-852.
doi:10.1007/s10010-019-00383-0
87. Huang X, Wang J. Model predictive regenerative braking con-
trol for lightweight electric vehicles with in-wheel motors.
Proceed Inst Mech Eng Part D: J Autom Eng. 2012;226(9):1220-
1232. doi:10.1177/0954407012440934
88. Li L, Zhang Y, Yang C, Yan B, Martinez CM. Model predictive
control-based efficient energy recovery control strategy for
regenerative braking system of hybrid electric bus. Energy
Conver Manage. 2016;111:299-314. doi:10.1016/j.enconman.
2015.12.077
89. Yu K, Mukai M, Kawabe T. Model predictive control of a
power-split hybrid electric vehicle system. Artif Life Robot.
2012;17(2):221-226. doi:10.1007/s10015-012-0046-0
90. Wei H, Fan L, Ai Q, Zhao W, Huang T, Zhang Y. Optimal
energy allocation strategy for electric vehicles based on the
real-time model predictive control technology. Sustain Energy
Technol Assess. 2022;50:101797. doi:10.1016/j.seta.2021.101797
91. Hu Q, Amini MR, Wiese A, Seeds JB, Kolmanovsky I, Sun J.
A multirange vehicle speed prediction with application to
model predictive control-based integrated power and thermal
management of connected hybrid electric vehicles. J Dynam
Syst Measurem Control. 2022;144(1):011105. doi:10.1115/1.
4052819
92. Tang Q, Yang Y, Luo C, Yang Z, Fu C. A novel electro-
hydraulic compound braking system coordinated control
strategy for a four-wheel-drive pure electric vehicle driven by
dual motors. Energy. 2022;241:122750. doi:10.1016/j.energy.
2021.122750
93. Caiazzo B, Coppola A, Petrillo A, Santini S. Distributed non-
linear model predictive control for connected autonomous
electric vehicles platoon with distance-dependent air drag for-
mulation. Energies. 2021;14(16):5122. doi:10.3390/en14165122
94. Pan C, Huang A, Wang J, et al. Energy-optimal adaptive
cruise control strategy for electric vehicles based on model
predictive control. Energy. 2022;241:122793. doi:10.1016/j.
energy.2021.122793
95. Shi Y, Wang H. Research on dynamic optimization algorithm
of electric car composite energy storage system based on
model predictive control. Forest Chem Rev. 2021;2021:109-117.
doi:10.17762/jfcr.vi.149
96. Ma H, Chu L, Guo J, Wang J, Guo C. Cooperative adaptive
cruise control strategy optimization for electric vehicles based
on SA-PSO with model predictive control. IEEE Access. 2020;
8:225745-225756. doi:10.1109/ACCESS.2020.3043370
97. Zhang J, Yang Y, Qin D, Fu C, Cong Z. Regenerative braking
control method based on predictive optimization for four-
wheel drive pure electric vehicle. IEEE Access. 2020;9:1394-
1406. doi:10.1109/ACCESS.2020.3046853
SAITEJA ET AL.
98. Long B, Lim ST, Ryu JH, Chong KT. Energy-regenerative
braking control of electric vehicles using three-phase brush-
less direct-current motors. Energies. 2013;7(1):99-114. doi:10.
3390/en7010099
99. Rajendran S, Spurgeon S, Tsampardoukas G, Hampson R.
Time-varying sliding mode control for ABS control of an elec-
tric car. IFAC-Papers Online. 2017;50(1):8490-8495. doi:10.
1016/j.ifacol.2017.08.823
100. Rajendran S, Spurgeon S, Tsampardoukas G, Hampson R.
Intelligent sliding mode scheme for regenerative braking con-
trol. IFAC-Papers Online. 2018;51(25):334-339. doi:10.1016/j.
ifacol.2018.11.129
101. Geraee S, Mohammadbagherpoor H, Shafiei M, Valizadeh M,
Montazeri F, Feyzi MR. Regenerative braking of electric vehi-
cle using a modified direct torque control and adaptive control
theory. Comput Electr Eng. 2018;69:85-97. doi:10.1016/j.
compeleceng.2018.05.022
102. Guo J, Jian X, Lin G. Performance evaluation of an anti-lock
braking system for electric vehicles with a fuzzy sliding mode
controller. Energies. 2014;7(10):6459-6476. doi:10.3390/
en7106459
103. Utkin V, Lee H. Chattering problem in sliding mode control
systems. Paper presented at: International Workshop on Vari-
able Structure Systems, 2006. IEEE Access. 2006: 346–350.
doi: 10.1109/VSS.2006.1644542
104. Lee H, Utkin VI. Chattering suppression methods in sliding
mode control systems. Ann Rev Control. 2007;31(2):179-188.
doi:10.1016/j.arcontrol.2007.08.001
105. Fridman LM. Chattering analysis in sliding mode systems
with inertial sensors. Int J Control. 2003;76(9–10):906-912. doi:
10.1080/0020717031000099074
106. Ren L, Xie S, Zhang Y, Peng J, Zhang L. Chattering analysis
for discrete sliding mode control of distributed control sys-
tems. JSyst Eng Electron. 2016;27(5):1096-1107. doi:10.21629/
JSEE.2016.05.17
107. He L, Ye W, He Z, Song K, Shi Q. A combining sliding mode
control approach for electric motor anti-lock braking system
of battery electric vehicle. Control Eng Pract. 2020;102:104520.
doi:10.1016/j.conengprac.2020.104520
108. Li W, Zhu W, Zhu X, Guo J. Two-time-scale braking control-
ler design with sliding mode for electric vehicles over CAN.
IEEE Access. 2019;7:128086-128096. doi:10.1109/ACCESS.
2019.2939412
109. Yuan J, Gao S, Wang L, Xiu G. Sliding mode control for two-
degree-of-freedom fractional zener oscillator. J Dynam Syst
Measure Control. 2022;144(2). doi:10.1115/1.4052530
110. Khan MS, Ahmad I, Armaghan H, Ali N. Backstepping sliding
mode control of FC-UC based hybrid electric vehicle. IEEE
Access. 2018;6:77202-77211. doi:10.1109/ACCESS.2018.
2879881
111. Lin CL, Hung HC, Li JC. Active control of regenerative brake
for electric vehicles. Actuat Multidisciplin Digital Publ Instit.
2018;7(4):84. doi:10.3390/act7040084
112. Zhang L, Cai X. Control strategy of regenerative braking sys-
tem in electric vehicles. Energy Procedia. 2018;152:496-501.
doi:10.1016/j.egypro.2018.09.200
113. Liu W, He H, Sun F, Wang H. Optimal design of adaptive
shaking vibration control for electric vehicles. Vehic Syst
SAITEJA ET AL.
Dynam. 2019;57(1):134-159. doi:10.1080/00423114.2018.
1447676
114. Yang C, Liu K, Jiao X, Wang W, Chen R, You S. An adaptive
firework algorithm optimization-based intelligent energy
management strategy for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles.
Energy. 2022;239:122120. doi:10.1016/j.energy.2021.122120
115. Pritima D, Rani SS, Rajalakshmy P, Kumar KV,
Krishnamoorthy S. Artificial intelligence-based energy manage-
ment and real-time optimization in electric and hybrid electric
vehicles. In E-Mobility. Cham: Springer; 2022:219-242. doi:10.
1007/978-3-030-85424-9_12
116. Yin G, Jin X. Cooperative control of regenerative braking and
antilock braking for a hybrid electric vehicle. Math Probl Eng.
2013 Jan;1:2013-2019. doi:10.1155/2013/890427
117. Arslan M, Ahmad I, Azeem MK, Liaquat M. Dual-stage adap-
tive control of hybrid energy storage system for electric vehi-
cle application. J Energy Storage. 2021 Nov;1(43):103165. doi:
10.1016/j.est.2021.103165
118. Singh KV, Bansal HO, Singh D. Development of an adaptive
neuro-fuzzy inference system–based equivalent consumption
minimisation strategy to improve fuel economy in hybrid elec-
tric vehicles. IET Electr Syst Transp. 2021 Sep;11(3):171-185.
doi:10.1049/els2.12020
119. Wen JP, Zhang CW. Research on modeling and control of
regenerative braking for brushless DC machines driven elec-
tric vehicles. Math Probl Eng. 2015;1:2015-2016. doi:10.1155/
2015/371725
120. Yin Y, Zhang L, Zhan S, Ma Y, Ma S. A novel state energy
spatialization regenerative braking control strategy based on
Q- learning algorithm for a super-mild hybrid electric vehicle.
Int J Green Energy. 2021;18(12):1263-1276. doi:10.1080/
15435075.2021.1904402
121. Chandak GA, Bhole AA. A review on regenerative braking in
electric vehicle. In innovations in power and advanced com-
puting technologies (i-PACT). IEEE Access. 2017;21:1-5. doi:
10.1109/IPACT.2017.8245098
122. Guo HQ, Liu CZ, Yong JW, Cheng XQ, Muhammad F. Model
predictive iterative learning control for energy management
of plug-in hybrid electric vehicle. IEEE Access. 2019;29(7):
71323-71334. doi:10.1109/ACCESS.2019.2919684
123. Mi C, Lin H, Zhang Y. Iterative learning control of antilock
braking of electric and hybrid vehicles. IEEE Trans Vehic
Technol. 2005;54(2):486-494. doi:10.1109/TVT.2004.841552
124. Min K, Sim G, Ahn S, Park I, Yoo S, Youn J. Multi-level decel-
eration planning based on reinforcement learning algorithm
for autonomous regenerative braking of EV. World Electr Veh
J. 2019;10:57. doi:10.3390/wevj10030057
125. Lv C, Xing Y, Lu C, et al. Hybrid-learning-based classification
and quantitative inference of driver braking intensity of an
electrified vehicle. IEEE Trans Vehic Technol. 2018;67(7):5718-
5729. doi:10.1109/TVT.2018.2808359
126. Zhang Y, Xie H, Song K, An optimal vehicle speed planning
algorithm for regenerative braking at traffic lights intersec-
tions based on reinforcement learning. Paper presented at:
2020 4th CAA International Conference on Vehicular Control
and Intelligence (CVCI). 2020: 193–198. doi: 10.1109/
CVCI51460.2020.9338590
127. Behrooz F, Mariun N, Marhaban MH, Mohd Radzi MA,
Ramli AR. Review of control techniques for HVAC systems—
31
nonlinearity approaches based on fuzzy cognitive maps. Ener-
gies. 2018 Mar;11(3):495. doi:10.3390/en11030495
128. Roberts PD. A brief overview of model predictive control. IET.
2000;1. doi:10.1049/ic:20000113
129. Fursht G, Idan M. Experimental evaluation of sliding-mode
controller for seeker-head line-of-sight stabilization. J Guid
Control Dynam. 2016;39(10):2434-2438. doi:10.2514/1.G001799
130. Cao X, Ishikawa T. Optimum design of a regenerative braking
system for electric vehicles based on fuzzy control strategy.
IEEJ Trans Electr Electron Eng. 2016;11:S186-S187. doi:10.
1002/tee.22254
131. Tao Y, Xie X, Zhao H, Xu W, Chen H. A regenerative braking
system for electric vehicle with four in-wheel motors based on
fuzzy control. Paper presented at: 36th Chinese Control Con-
ference (CCC), IEEE Access. 2017 Jul 26: 4288–4293. doi: 10.
23919/ChiCC.2017.8028032.
132. Wang Y, Su Y. A research for brake strategy based on fuzzy
control in pure electric vehicles. Paper presented at: 4th Inter-
national Conference on Computer Science and Network Tech-
nology (ICCSNT). IEEE Access. 2015 19: 689–693. doi: 10.
1109/ICCSNT.2015.7490838
133. Zhang L, Yu L, Pan N, Zhang Y, Song J. Cooperative control
of regenerative braking and friction braking in the transient
process of anti-lock braking activation in electric vehicles.
Proceed Instit Mech Eng Part D: J Autom Eng. 2016;230(11):
1459-1476. doi:10.1177/0954407015613193
134. Zgheib R, Al-Haddad K. Neural network controller to manage
the power flow of a hybrid source for electric vehicles. Paper
presented at: IEEE Vehicle Power and Propulsion Conference
(VPPC). IEEE Access. 2015 19: 1–6. doi: 10.1109/VPPC.2015.
7352983
135. Munoz PM, Correa G, Gaudiano ME, Fernandez D. Energy
management control design for fuel cell hybrid electric vehi-
cles using neural networks. Int J Hydrogen Energy. 2017;
42(48):28932-28944. doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2017.09.169
136. Vajedi M, Azad NL. Ecological adaptive cruise controller for
plug-in hybrid electric vehicles using nonlinear model predic-
tive control. IEEE Trans Intell Transp Syst. 2015;17(1):113-
122. doi:10.1109/TITS.2015.2462843
137. Wang B, Xu J, Wai RJ, Cao B. Adaptive sliding-mode with
hysteresis control strategy for simple multimode hybrid
energy storage system in electric vehicles. IEEE Trans Indus
Electron. 2016;64(2):1404-1414. doi:10.1109/TIE.2016.2618778
138. Dominguez X, Camacho O, Leica P, Rosales A. A fixed-
frequency sliding-mode control in a cascade scheme for the
half-bridge bidirectional DC-DC converter. Paper presented
at: IEEE Ecuador Technical Chapters Meeting (ETCM). IEE
Access. 2016: 1–6. doi: 10.1109/ETCM.2016.7750835
139. Li W, Du H, Li W. A new torque distribution strategy for
blended anti-lock braking systems of electric vehicles based
on road conditions and driver's intentions. SAE Int J Passeng
Cars-Mech Syst. 2016;9(1):107-116. doi:10.4271/2016-01-0461
140. Lu D, Ouyang M, Gu J, Li J. Instantaneous optimal regenera-
tive braking control for a permanent-magnet synchronous
motor in a four-wheel-drive electric vehicle. Proceed Instit
Mech Eng, Part D: J Autom Eng. 2014;228(8):894-908. doi:10.
1177/0954407014521173
141. Ye M, Huangfu Y. Power electronics design and application
for the energy recovery controller of a battery electric vehicle.
32
Int J Electric Hybrid Vehic. 2014;6(4):315-334. doi:10.1504/
IJEHV.2014.067620
142. Wang Y, Fujimoto H, Hara S. Torque distribution-based range
extension control system for longitudinal motion of electric
vehicles by LTI modeling with generalized frequency variable.
IEEE/ASME Trans Mechatron. 2015;21(1):443-452. doi:10.
1109/TMECH.2015.2444651
143. Peng Q, Du Q. Progress in heat pump air conditioning sys-
tems for electric vehicles—a review. Energies. 2016;9(4):240.
doi:10.3390/en9040240
144. Malla P. Sliding mode speed control of induction motor using
SVPWM technique for hybrid electric vehicles. Simulation.
2022;8(1):1-7. doi:10.5120/10681-5563
145. Maheswari KL, Kavitha S, Kathiresh M. Introduction to elec-
tric vehicles and hybrid electric vehicles. In E-Mobility. Cham:
Springer; 2022:1-29. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-85424-9_1
146. Ma J, Sun Y, Zhang S, Li J, Li S. Experimental study on the
performance of vehicle integrated thermal management sys-
tem for pure electric vehicles. Energy Conver Manage. 2022;
1(253):115183. doi:10.1016/j.enconman.2021.115183
147. Zhao W, Wang C. Consistency optimization control of electro-
hydraulic composite brake-by-wire system. Nonlinear Control
Technology of Vehicle Chassis-by-Wire System. Singapore:
Springer; 2022:89-143. doi:10.1007/978-981-16-7322-1_3
148. Nguyen DN, Nguyen TA, Dang ND. A novel sliding mode
control algorithm for an active suspension system considering
with the hydraulic actuator. Latin Am J Solids Struct. 2022;
19(1):1-6. doi:10.1590/1679-78256883
149. Miraglia M, Tannous M, Inglese F, Brämer B, Milazzo M,
Stefanini C. Energy recovery from shock absorbers through a
novel compact electro-hydraulic system architecture. Mechatro-
nics. 2022;1(81):102701. doi:10.1016/j.mechatronics.2021.102701
150. Hong J, Ma F, Xu X, Yang J, Zhang H. A novel mechanical-
electric-hydraulic power coupling electric vehicle considering dif-
ferent electrohydraulic distribution ratios. Energy Conver Manage.
2021;1(249):114870. doi:10.1016/j.enconman.2021.114870
151. Yang J, Zhang T, Hong J, Zhang H, Zhao Q, Meng Z.
Research on driving control strategy and fuzzy logic optimiza-
tion of a novel mechatronics-electro-hydraulic power coupling
electric vehicle. Energy. 2021;15(233):121221. doi:10.1016/j.
energy.2021.121221
152. Yu Y, Do TC, Park Y, Ahn KK. Energy saving of hybrid
hydraulic excavator with innovative powertrain. Energy Con-
ver Manage. 2021;15(244):114447. doi:10.1016/j.enconman.
2021.114447
153. Lin X, Zhou B, Xia Y. Charging path planning strategy of elec-
tric vehicles with integrating dynamic energy consumption
and network information. China Mech Eng. 2021;32(6):705.
doi:10.3969/j.issn.1004-132X.2021.06.010
154. Wang J, He R. Varying charge voltage in the steps control
method of ABS for in-wheel motors driven electric vehicles
based on an improved LQG scheme. IEEE Access. 2018;13(6):
15039-15050. doi:10.1109/ACCESS.2018.2815561
155. Xu X, Sun W, Cai T, Liu Y, Han X. Design of a hydraulic con-
trol unit for a two-speed dedicated electric vehicle transmis-
sion. Autom Innov. 2018;1(4):300-310. doi:10.1007/s42154-018-
0039-3
156. Sun B, Wang P, Gao S, Yu J, Wang Z. Development of braking
force distribution strategy for dual-motor-drive electric
SAITEJA ET AL.
vehicle. J Eng Technol Sci. 2018;50(2):179-201. doi:10.5614/j.
eng.technol.sci.2018.50.2.3
157. Yuan Y, Zhang J, Li Y, Li C. A novel regenerative electrohy-
draulic brake system: development and hardware-in-loop
tests. IEEE Trans Vehic Technol. 2018;67(12):11440-11452. doi:
10.1109/TVT.2018.2872030
158. Ji F, Pan Y, Zhou Y, Du F, Zhang Q, Li G. Energy recovery
based on pedal situation for regenerative braking system of
electric vehicle. Vehic Syst Dynam. 2020;58(1):144-173. doi:10.
1080/00423114.2019.1567927
159. Wager G, Whale J, Braunl T. Performance evaluation of regener-
ative braking systems. Proceed Instit Mech Eng Part D: J Autom
Eng. 2018;232(10):1414-1427. doi:10.1177/0954407017728651
160. Fiori C, Montanino M, Nielsen S, Seredynski M, Viti F. Micro-
scopic energy consumption modelling of electric buses: model
development, calibration, and validation. Transp Res Part D:
Transp Environ. 2021;1(98):102978. doi:10.1016/j.trd.2021.
102978
161. Bao R, Baxter J, Revereault P. Using design of experiments to
size and calibrate the powertrain of range-extended electric vehi-
cle. Detroit Michigan, USA: Society of Automotive Engineers
(SAE); 2020. doi:10.4271/2020-01-0849
162. Tamai G, Palaparthy S, Wang B, Ilunga R. Electrified drive-
unit parametric mechanical-loss model development and cali-
bration. SAE Int J Adv Curr Pract Mobil. 2019;
1(2019-01-1298):1352-1363. doi:10.4271/2019-01-1298
163. Hartley J, Day A, Campean I, McLellan RG, Richmond J.
Braking system for a full electric vehicle with regenerative
braking. Paper presented at: SAE 2010 Annual Brake Collo-
quium and Engineering Display 2010 Oct 10 (No. 2010-01-1680).
doi: 10.4271/2010-01-1680
164. Duan BM, Wang QN, Wang JN, Li XN, Ba T. Calibration effi-
ciency improvement of rule-based energy management system
for a plug-in hybrid electric vehicle. Int J Autom Technol.
2017;18(2):335-344. doi:10.1007/s12239-017-0034-4
165. Bauer C, Hofer J, Althaus HJ, Del Duce A, Simons A. The
environmental performance of current and future passenger
vehicles: life cycle assessment based on a novel scenario anal-
ysis framework. Appl Energy. 2015;1(157):871-883. doi:10.
1016/j.apenergy.2015.01.019
166. Croce AI, Musolino G, Rindone C, Vitetta A. Traffic and
energy consumption modelling of electric vehicles: parameter
updating from floating and probe vehicle data. Energies. 2021;
15(1):82. doi:10.3390/en15010082
167. Sathya B, Neelaveni R, Kathiresh M. Control systems for
hybrid electric vehicle. In E-Mobility. Cham: Springer; 2022:83-
98. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-85424-9_5
168. Doulgeris S, Toumasatos Z, Prati MV, Beatrice C, Samaras Z.
Assessment and design of real-world driving cycles targeted to
the calibration of vehicles with electrified powertrain. Int J Eng
Res. 2021;22(12):3503-3518. doi:10.1177/14680874211038729
169. Zhang J, Lv C, Yue X, Qiu M, Gou J, He C. Development of
the electrically-controlled regenerative braking system for
electrified passenger vehicle. SAE Tech Paper. 2013;8:1-1463.
doi:10.4271/2013-01-1463
170. Lin M, Yu Z, Zhao L, Chen Y. Working cycle identification–
based braking control strategy and its application for hydraulic
hybrid loader. Adv Mech Eng. 2018;10(5):1687814018773160.
doi:10.1177/1687814018773160
SAITEJA ET AL.
171. Nadeau J, Micheau P, Boisvert M. Collaborative control of a dual
electro-hydraulic regenerative brake system for a rear-wheel-
drive electric vehicle. Proceed Inst Mech Eng Part D J Autom
Eng. 2019;233(4):1035-1046. doi:10.1177/0954407018754678
172. Geng C, Ning D, Guo L, Xue Q, Mei S. Simulation research on
regenerative braking control strategy of hybrid electric vehi-
cle. Energies. 2021;14(8):2202. doi:10.3390/en14082202
173. Ko J, Ko S, Bak Y, et al. Development of regenerative braking
co-operative control system for automatic transmission-based
hybrid electric vehicle using electronic wedge brake. World
Electric Vehic J. 2013;6(2):278-282. doi:10.3390/wevj6020278
174. Kahar MI, Othman RN, Khamis A, Abdullah N, Shukor FA,
Tat LS. Effect of slot-pole numbers on the performance of a BLDC
Motor for Agro-EV application. ECTI Trans Electr Eng Electron
Commun. 2022;20(1):51-61. doi:10.37936/ecti-eec.2022201.246104
175. Xu S, Zhao X, Yang N, Bai Z. Control strategy of braking
energy recovery for range-extended electric commercial vehi-
cles by considering braking intention recognition and electro-
pneumatic braking compensation. Energy Technol. 2020;8(9):
2000407. doi:10.1002/ente.202000407
176. Zhu Y. Design and control of regenerative braking system.
The Key Technologies for Powertrain System of Intelligent Vehi-
cles Based on Switched Reluctance Motors. Singapore: Springer;
2022:157-214. doi:10.1007/978-981-16-4851-9_5
177. Kumar M, Ojha A. Design consideration for e-Rikshaw with
regeneration capability. Advancement in Materials,
Manufacturing and Energy Engineering. Vol 1. Singapore:
Springer; 2022:161-175. doi:10.1007/978-981-16-5371-1_15
178. Ko J, Ko S, Son H, Yoo B, Cheon J, Kim H. Development of
brake system and regenerative braking cooperative control
algorithm for automatic-transmission-based hybrid electric
vehicles. IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology. 2014;
64(2):431-440. doi:10.1109/TVT.2014.2325056
179. Peng D, Zhang Y, Yin CL, Zhang JW. Combined control of a
regenerative braking and antilock braking system for hybrid
electric vehicles. Int J Autom Technol. 2008;9(6):749-757. doi:
10.1007/s12239-008-0089-3
180. Riyadi S, Setianto YD. Analysis and design of BLDC motor
control in regenerative braking. Paper presented at: 2019
International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engi-
neering (ISEE). IEEE Access. 2019: 211–215. doi: 10.1109/
ISEE2.2019.8920962
181. Saiteja P, Ashok B. Critical review on structural architecture,
energy control strategies and development process towards
optimal energy management in hybrid vehicles. Renew Sus-
tain Energy Rev. 2022;1(157):112038. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2021.
112038
182. Wang F, Zhuo B. Regenerative braking strategy for hybrid
electric vehicles based on regenerative torque optimization
control. Proceed Inst Mech Eng Part D: J Autom Eng. 2008;
222(4):499-513. doi:10.1243/09544070JAUTO654
183. Han JF, Tao J, Lu HJ, Xin DH. Development and prospect of
regenerative braking technology of electric vehicles. Appl
Mech Mater Trans Tech Publ Ltd. 2014;448:3164-3171. doi:10.
4028/www.scientific.net/AMM.448-453.3164
184. Tawadros P, Zhang N, Boretti A. Integration and perfor-
mance of regenerative braking and energy recovery tech-
nologies in vehicles. Alter Fuels Adv Vehic Technol Improv
33
Environ Perform. 2014;1:541-563. doi:10.1533/97808570
97422.2.541
185. Bannatyne RT. Advances and challenges in electronic braking
control technology. SAE Trans. 1998;1:2324-2328. www.jstor.
org/stable/44741190
186. Guo J. Development of regenerative braking for electric vehi-
cles in China: a review. Int J Electr Hybrid Vehic. 2015;7(2):
120-138. doi:10.1504/IJEHV.2015.071081
187. Pavlovic T, Zupan I, Šunde V, Ban Ž. HIL simulation of a
tram regenerative braking system. Electronics. 2021 Jan;
10(12):1379. doi:10.3390/electronics10121379
188. Fajri P, Prabhala VA, Lotfi N, Ferdowsi M, Shamsi P. Emulat-
ing electric vehicle regenerative and friction braking effect
using a Hardware-in-the-Loop (HIL) motor/dynamometer test
bench. Paper presented at: IECON 2014-40th Annual Confer-
ence of the IEEE Industrial Electronics Society 2014
(pp. 2997–3003). IEEE. doi: 10.1109/IECON.2014.7048936
189. Bayar K, McGee R, Yu H, Crombez D. Regenerative braking
control enhancement for the power split hybrid architecture
with the utilization of hardware-in-the-loop simulations. SAE
Int J Altern Powertrain. 2013;2(1):127-134. www.jstor.org/
stable/26167726
190. Yuan Y, Zhang J, Li Y, Lv C. Regenerative brake-by-wire sys-
tem development and hardware-in-loop test for autonomous
electrified vehicle. SAE Tech Paper. 2017;2017:1-9. doi:10.
4271/2017-01-0401
191. Fathy HK, Filipi ZS, Hagena J, Stein JL. Review of hardware-
in-the-loop simulation and its prospects in the automotive
area. Model Simul Milit Appl. 2006;6228:117-136. doi:10.1117/
12.667794
192. Arof S, Diyanah NH, Yaakop NM, Mawby PA, Arof H. Proces-
sor in the Loop for Testing Series Motor Four Quadrants Drive
Direct Current Chopper for Series Motor Driven Electric Car.
Advanced Engineering for Processes and Technologies. Cham:
Springer; 2019:59-76. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-05621-6_5
193. Yeo H, Kim H. Hardware-in-the-loop simulation of regenera-
tive braking for a hybrid electric vehicle. Proceed Instit Mech
Eng Part D J Autom Eng. 2002;216(11):855-864. doi:10.1243/
095440702321031405
194. Yang H, Li X, Li P, Gao Y. The Driver-in-the-Loop Simulation
on Regenerative Braking Control of Four-Wheel Drive HEVs.
Paper presented at: International Conference on Mechanical
Design, Springer, Singapore, 2019 Aug 12 (pp. 214–222). doi:
10.1007/978-981-32-9941-2_18
195. Yong J, Gao F, Ding N, He Y. Design and validation of an
electro-hydraulic brake system using hardware-in-the-loop
real-time simulation. Int J Autom Technol. 2017;18(4):603-612.
doi:10.1007/s12239-017-0060-2
196. Von Srbik MT, Martinez-Botas RF. Vehicle optimization for
regenerative brake energy maximization. Sustain Vehic Tech-
nol. 2012;2012:165-174. doi:10.1533/9780857094575.4.165
197. Patel P, Chandra H, Sahoo T. Study on regenerative braking
system, considerations of design, safety and associated effects.
Paper presented at: International Transportation Electrifica-
tion Conference (ITEC). IEEE Access. 2015 27: 1–8. doi: 10.
1109/ITEC-India.2015.7386930
198. Chau KT. Pure electric vehicles. Alternative fuels and
advanced vehicle technologies for improved environmental
34
performance. Vol 1. Pune, India: Woodhead Publishing; 2014:
655-684. doi:10.1533/9780857097422.3.655
199. Oleksowicz S, Ruta M, Burnham K, Curry E, Garces H. Legal,
safety and practical regenerative braking control challenges.
Measurem Control. 2013;46(9):283-288. doi:10.1177/
0020294013506825
200. Doyle A, Muneer T. Traction energy and battery performance
modelling. Electric vehicles: Prospects and challenges. Vol 1.
India: Elsevier; 2017:93-124. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-803021-9.
00002-1
201. Hancock M, Assadian F. Impact of regenerative braking on
vehicle stability. IET. 2006;2006:173-184. doi:10.1049/cp:
20060607
202. Yao Y, Zhao Y, Yamazaki M. Integrated regenerative braking
system and anti-lock braking system for hybrid electric vehi-
cles & battery electric vehicles. SAE Int J Adv Curr Pract
Mobil. 2020;2(2020-01-0846):1592-1601. doi:10.4271/2020-01-
0846
203. Subramaniyam KV, Subramanian SC. Electrified vehicle
wheel slip control using responsiveness of regenerative brak-
ing. IEEE Trans Vehic Technol. 2021;70(4):3208-3217, 3217.
doi:10.1109/TVT.2021.3066095
204. Lv C, Zhang J, Li Y. Extended-Kalman-filter-based regenera-
tive and friction blended braking control for electric vehicle
equipped with axle motor considering damping and elastic
View publication stats
SAITEJA ET AL.
properties of electric powertrain. Vehic Syst Dynam. 2014;
52(11):1372-1388. doi:10.1080/00423114.2014.938663
205. Aijaz I, Ahmad A. Electric vehicles for environmental sustain-
ability. Smart Technologies for Energy and Environmental Sus-
tainability. Cham: Springer; 2022:131-145. doi:10.1007/978-3-
030-80702-3_8
206. Sanguesa JA, Torres-Sanz V, Garrido P, Martinez FJ,
Marquez-Barja JM. A review on electric vehicles: technologies
and challenges. Smart Cities. 2021;4(1):372-404. doi:10.3390/
smartcities4010022
207. Ahmed AA, Edbeib OA, Douma A, Imbayah II. Electric vehi-
cles revolution: the future, challenges, and prospects in the
Arab countries. Glob J Eng Technol Adv. 2021;6(3):81-87. doi:
10.30574/gjeta.2021.6.3.0040
How to cite this article: Saiteja P, Ashok B,
Wagh AS, Farrag ME. Critical review on optimal
regenerative braking control system architecture,
calibration parameters and development
challenges for EVs. Int J Energy Res. 2022;1‐34.
doi:10.1002/er.8306