2023

MCEN3005: Fundamentals of
Mechanical Vibration

LAB DOCUMENT
KRISTOFFER MCKEE

CURTIN UNIVERSITY | Bentley, Australia

 Fundamentals of Mechanical Vibration Laboratory - Exercise 1 i

School of Civil & Mechanical Engineering

Assessment and Feedback Specification

Unit: Fundamentals of Mechanical Vibration (MCEN3005)

Title: Laboratory Exercise 1
Activity: This laboratory exercise tests two frequency-prediction models developed for one degree of freedom
vibrating systems. The activity will lead you to:
• Be able to collect and accurately record experimental data.
• Process the data to compare with model predictions.
• Estimate the damping co-efficient of the apparatus.
• Undertake an error analysis to determine the uncertainty of your result.
• Witness inertia excited resonance.
• Design a report to successfully communicate your investigation and its outcomes.

For a detailed Assessment description and specification of work to be done see the briefing sheet on Blackboard.

Assessment criteria, marking distribution and Engineers Australia competencies addressed

Value of the assessment based on the rubric provided below: 25% of unit grade.

The total assessment mark awarded consists of the sum of the marks awarded to each assessed element.
Each item of the assessment rubric shows the ENGINEERS AUSTRALIA Stage 1 competencies to be demonstrated. ‘Level
of learning’ (Levels of learning) is specified for those elements of the assignment when it is appropriate.

Detailed guidelines and feedback

This detailed assessment rubric sets out assessment expectations so that you will be aware of the competencies to
be developed and the standards expected. This table will also be used for assessing your work to provide feedback
on your performance against these standards. This sheet is NOT the assignment cover sheet.

Lab Report
Item Engineers Australia Excellent standard < Competency range > < Unsatisfactory

assessment
Percentage
competencies 1 standard
and (if appropriate) (meets all expectations Highest Lowest (fails to meet minimum
Level of Learning 2 set out below) expected)

of
Brief, but containing all No summary or limited
of the essential background information.
Executive 3.2. Communication information required. Little evidence of study’s 5%
summary Clear, concise and findings. Irrelevant or
appropriate writing style. wrong information.
1.1 Science/Engineering Experiment carefully Evidence that
Undertake
fundamentals executed and data experiment not done
accurate
1.2 Conceptual accurately and clearly carefully. Inaccurate
experimental 20%
understanding recorded data. Date recording
work and data
2.2 Use of techniques techniques deficient
collection
Data accurately Errors made in data
processed to extract the reduction. Missing
Reduce the data 2.1 Problem solving
derived quantities such derived quantity.
to the required 2.2 Use of techniques 25%
as stiffness, frequency,
results 2.3 Systematic use
damping and log
decrement
Draw Clear, convincing No explanation offered.
conclusions explanation of why the Unconvincing
concerning the 1.3 Specialist knowledge models are considered explanation of why the 5%
validity of the to be valid or invalid. models are considered
models to be valid or invalid.
A well thought out report Poor report structure
structure that facilitates that impedes
Design the 3.2. Communication
communication to the communication to the 10%
report 3.4 Information use
reader reader. Some gaps in
information.
Clear, easily interpreted Poorly presented
Reporting of 3.2. Communication
presentation of results. results. Information not 10%
results 3.4 Information use
easily found by reader

i
 Fundamentals of Mechanical Vibration Laboratory - Exercise 1 ii
Information easily found
by reader
Analysis and error Analysis and error
Undertake the analysis concluded analysis not undertaken
1.2 Conceptual accurately or has significant errors.
error analysis
understanding
And Undertake
2.1 Problem solving 15%
the proof of
2.2 Use of techniques
resonant
frequency ratio

High quality Poor presentation. Poor

presentation. reproduction of graphics.
Overall 3.4. Information use Reproduction of Referencing inadequate
presentation 3.5. Self-Conduct graphics of high quality. or incorrect. Too many
(see also line Referencing appropriate. grammatical errors. 10%
below) Grammar, spelling and
syntax good.
If the submission is deemed to be Up to (-40%) possible if
sufficiently below the acceptable rejected on this basis
Special note on 3.5. Self-Conduct
presentation standard, it may be
presentation
rejected (without marking) for re-
submission.

In-Lab Assessment
Item Engineers Australia Excellent standard < Competency range > < Unsatisfactory

assessment
Percentage
competencies 1 standard
and (if appropriate) (meets all expectations Highest Lowest (fails to meet minimum
Level of Learning 2 set out below) expected)

of
1.1 Science/Engineering Experiment carefully Evidence that
Undertake
fundamentals executed and data experiment not done
accurate
1.2 Conceptual accurately and clearly carefully. Inaccurate
experimental 40%
understanding recorded data. Date recording
work and data
2.2 Use of techniques techniques deficient
collection
Data accurately Errors made in data
Reduce the data 2.1 Problem solving
processed to extract the reduction. Missing
to the required 2.2 Use of techniques 30%
derived quantities such derived quantity.
results 2.3 Systematic use
as whirl speed
Draw Clear, convincing No explanation offered.
conclusions explanation of why the Unconvincing
concerning the 1.3 Specialist knowledge models are considered explanation of why the 30%
validity of the to be valid or invalid. models are considered
models to be valid or invalid.

Expected time required (after completion of all necessary preparation) to complete this
assessment: 8 hours of focused work outside of the lab.

Overall mark awarded _____________ out of a maximum of 20 for lab report

Overall mark awarded _____________ out of a maximum of 5 for Lab#3

Marker comments:

Marker: …………………………………… Date of return: …………….. Student ..........................................................

ii
Introduction:
Your learning of key ideas in MCEN3005, Fundamentals of Mechanical Vibrations, are
enhanced through the hands on experience provided in the lab component of this unit. This unit
has 3 labs that must be attended. The key concepts covered in the labs are:
1. Natural frequency and damping of single degree of freedom systems
2. Angular oscillations in one degree of freedom with inertial excitation and viscous
damping
3. Whirling of shafts

The first two labs are related, since they utilise the same laboratory equipment (Tecquipment:
universal vibration apparatus). The reason why they are placed in 2 different labs is due to the
amount of time it takes to complete each part. The third lab for this unit utilises another piece
of equipment (Tecquipment: whirling of shafts machine).

For this unit, it is expected that there will be 1 lab report that will be submitted based on the
information found in Lab#1 and #2. Lab #3 will have an in-lab assessment of your
understanding of what was covered in the lab, which will be on your ability to:
1. Participate in the conducting of the lab.
2. Analyse the data
3. Answer the questions at the end of the lab.

The lab handouts for all three labs are in this document

The breakdown of the grading for the lab assessments will be:
• Lab Report (covering Lab# 1 and Lab #2) : 20%
• Lab #3 in-lab assessment: 5%

Contents
Pre - Laboratory for Lab Session 1 ............................................................................................ 1
Lab Aim: .................................................................................................................................... 2
Laboratory Session 1 (Parts A through C) ................................................................................. 3
Laboratory Session 2 (Part D) .................................................................................................... 1
Laboratory Session 3: WHIRLING OF SHAFTS...................................................................... 1
Appendix 1 - Error Analysis ....................................................................................................... i
Appendix 2 – Uncertainty Of Spring Stiffness, K .................................................................... vi
Fundamentals of Mechanical Vibration Laboratory - Exercise 1 1

Pre - Laboratory for Lab Session 1

The following tasks are designed to prepare you for some aspects of the laboratory exercise.
You are to complete them prior to attending the laboratory session and submit your work to
the supervisor at the commencement of the session. It will be checked and returned to you by
the end of the session.

1. Study section 1.11 of the lecture notes and then reproduce the analysis showing that:

k k
Now massless
ms has a natural frequency spring
the same as →

1 k
For which f N =
2 M

2. Your Strength of Materials texts will show that the relationship between load and
stretch for a close-coiled (small helix angle) helical spring is:

8 PD 3 n
=
Gd 4
where:  = stretch P = axial load
D = mean coil diameter n = number of coils
G = shear modulus of wire d = wire diameter

From this expression, write the expression for the spring stiffness, k. Is it a linear
spring?

3. Do you understand what a vernier scale is and how it is read? If not, visit
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vernier_scale and
http://www.tresnainstrument.com/vernier_caliper_information.html

4. Read the following laboratory sheet through.

---oo0oo---

1
Fundamentals of Mechanical Vibration Laboratory - Exercise 1 2

Lab Aim:
The aim of the first and second lab sessions is to determine the natural frequency of a system
that is modelled under 3 conditions:
1. having a spring that is not considered massless,
2. having a small damping ratio
3. having viscous damping and inertial excitation.

For the first lab session, which covers parts A through C, we will cover the first 2 conditions.
We will do this by experimentally validating two of the theoretical expressions derived in the
lectures. In particular, we are going to check:
(a) Equation (1.26), which allows us to predict the natural frequency of oscillation of a
simple spring-mass oscillator whose spring is not massless.
(b) Equation (5.19) for small damping ratios. The theory predicts that when the damping
ratio () is small, the damped natural oscillation frequency is virtually the same as
the undamped natural oscillation frequency.
To complete these investigations we will also need to accurately measure the stiffness of a
helical spring and the damping coefficient of a viscous dashpot.

In the second lab session, which covers part D in the procedure section, we will cover the
third condition for the equipment. To do so, we are going to:
1. To measure the resonant frequency of angular oscillation of a system with one degree of
freedom, viscous damping and inertial excitation
2. To measure the angular amplitude of the above system at resonance
3. To compare the experimental results obtained in (1) and (2) with analytical values

Equipment:

Tecquipment universal vibration apparatus, digital counter, stop watches, accurate balance,
linear scale, stroboscope

2
Fundamentals of Mechanical Vibration Laboratory - Exercise 1 3
Procedure:

Laboratory Session 1 (Parts A through C)

Part A. Measuring the Stiffness of a Spring

For subsequent parts of our exercise we need to know accurately the magnitude of the spring
stiffness. This can be determined by measuring its stretch due to known loads. A convenient
known load is the static weight of a known mass. Select an appropriate mass increment and
number of increments such that an accurate plot of force versus deflection can be made. Ten
or so measurements should enable an accurate graph to be plotted. Record your data in the
table below.

i Total suspended Total force, Scale reading, Deflection, Increment in

mass, mi (kg) Fi=mig (N) i (mm) i-o (mm) deflection1 (mm)
0 0 0 0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

For your report you will plot these data accurately (abscissa = load, ordinate = deflection) and
determine the slope of the line of best fit. The slope will be the spring compliance, 1 k
(m/N).

Use the method of least squares to determine the slope2. The spring stiffness then will be
1/slope (N/m). Note that the origin (0,0) is a datum point known without any uncertainty.

1
If the relationship is linear, and the mass increments are identical, this column should contain entries that are
approximately constant. If not, perhaps an error has been made. It is a simple way to check as you go.

3
Fundamentals of Mechanical Vibration Laboratory - Exercise 1 4

Part B. Natural Frequency of Oscillation (without and with lumped mass correction)

Accurately measure the mass of the spring and the mass hanger using the scales provided.
You should check with your supervisor that the scales have been recently calibrated.

Mass of the spring, ms = ___________ kg. Mass of the hanger, mh = _____________ kg.

Reinstall the spring and hanger. Induce vertical oscillations with amplitude of about 10 mm
and time the number of cycles stipulated in the table below. Have as many students as there
are timing devices record the time taken to complete the number of cycles stipulated. Reject
any obvious outlying measurements and then take the mean of the remaining. Estimate the
tolerance.

Total Number Mean time for Period of mi + mh ms

mi + mh +
mass of of cycles, N oscillations, oscillation, (kg)½ 3
weights N t (sec) T=
t (sec) (kg)½
on N
hanger,  ______ sec
mi (kg)
0 120
0.4 90
0.8 80
1.2 70
1.6 60
2.0 55
2.4 50

For your report plot on the same set of axes, with T on the ordinate and m on the abscissa,
the following function and two sets of data: (Choose the scale such that any differences
between these three are clearly visible.)
 2 
• The ‘theoretical relationship’ where the spring is massless, T =   M , in which
 k
2
the slope, , is calculated using the value of k determined in the stiffness test, Part
k
A. Note: As this is a theoretical relationship, the value of T is defined at every value
of M and so is plotted as a continuous line.
• The experimental data points, T versus mi + mh . (i.e. the total mass attached to the
free end of the spring.) As the period has been measured at discrete points only, plot a
symbol at each datum point. A dotted line may join the points to guide the reader’s
eye but realise that nothing is actually known between measured points.
m
• The experimental data points, T versus mi + mh + s . (i.e. including an added
3
allowance for the inertia of the spring.) Plots datum points as above. Use different
symbol.

In your report, comment on the accuracy (or otherwise) of Equation (1.26) from our lecture
notes. Did inclusion of one third of the mass of the helical spring improve the predicted
oscillation period? When ms  mi , it may be unnecessary to make the correction. Make an

4
Fundamentals of Mechanical Vibration Laboratory - Exercise 1 5
ms
assessment of the value of above which, in your assessment, the correction should be
mi
made.

Part C. Viscous Damping and its Effect on Natural Frequency

For this part of the exercise we are going to make use of a rotational system consisting of a
beam pivoted at one end, supported horizontally by a vertical spring and damped with a
viscous dashpot.

As this one-degree-of-freedom (angle of rotation) system was not covered explicitly in the
lectures, we will use the analytical skills we have developed to predict its natural frequency
and damping ratio.

The configuration of the vibration apparatus is as shown schematically in Figure 1.

Helical k
Pivot spring

O Beam 

a
q
Viscous
dashpot

Figure 1. Schematic diagram of apparatus.

The beam is pivoted at O such that it can freely oscillate angularly about O. The moment of
inertia of the arm about O is I O . At distance a from O the linear dashpot acts tangentially. At
distance c from O the linear spring acts tangentially. When disturbed from its equilibrium
position and allowed to vibrate freely, it will execute damped angular oscillations  (t ) as
depicted in Figure 2.

5
Fundamentals of Mechanical Vibration Laboratory - Exercise 1 6

Figure 2. Typical time history of viscously damped oscillation

O c
 

Figure 3.

Now, let’s do some analysis. The rotational stiffness (moment/angle) about O due to the
spring, k, at radius c can be obtained as follows (refer to Figure 3): Rotate the beam through a
small angle , shown dotted in Figure 3. The point at which the spring is attached to the beam
will deflect vertically by distance  = c , and hence the tension in the spring will increase by
kc . The moment generated by this force, about O, will be M = kcc . Therefore the
M
equivalent torsional stiffness of this arrangement is = kc2 . Similarly, the torsional

M
damping coefficient is = qa 2 . Now, applying Newton II about the pivot at O:

 M O = I O
− kc 2 − qa 2 = I 
O

qa 2  kc 2
which can be re-written as  +
+ =0
IO IO
Comparing this with the standard form (see lecture 5)  + 2 N +  N2  = 0 we can show that

q 2a 4 kc2
2= and  N = .
4c 2 I o k Io

6
Fundamentals of Mechanical Vibration Laboratory - Exercise 1 7

The frequency of damped vibration will be (see lecture 5, page 9),

1 kc2  q 2a 4 
f damped = f undamped 1 −  2 = 1 −  (1)
2 I O  4kIO c 2 

Recall (Lecture 5, equations (5.23) and (5.24)) that the logarithmic decrement

1  2y  2
 = ln  0  =
n  2 yn  1
−1
2
which, if solved for  2 and equated to the expression for  2 above gives the damping co-
efficient

2c kI O
q= (2)
a2  2n 
2

  +1
 ln( 2 y o 2 y n ) 

where 2y o and 2y n are measured from a recording of the motion taken at a convenient
y
position along the arm in the tangential direction. Since only the ratio 0 appears in equation
yn
(2), it does not matter where along the beam this measurement is taken or what units are used.
But we don’t know the magnitude of I 0 . If the dashpot is drained of its oil (thus making it
entirely ineffective), q = 0 and so equation (1) becomes,

2
c k  c 
fN =  IO =   k (3)
2 IO  2f N 

Substitution of (3) into (2) gives,

2
k  c
 
f N  a 
q= (4)
2
 2n 
  +1
 ln( 2 y o 2 y )
n 

So, as long as we can measure the undamped natural frequency of oscillation, f N , and record
y
an amplitude-time trace of the damped free motion from which to extract 0 , equation (4)
yn
can be evaluated and the damping coefficient of the dashpot obtained.

7
Fundamentals of Mechanical Vibration Laboratory - Exercise 1 8
Undertake the following:

1. Measure a and c to the nearest mm.

2. Drain the oil from the dashpot. Using the digital counter and stop watch, record the time
for 40 complete oscillations. As done above, have several watches recording the time and
select the best three for averaging. Hence obtain an average value of the undamped natural
frequency, f N .
3. Calculate I O from equation (3).
4. Refill the dashpot. Ensure that the chart recorder is functioning. Displace the free end of
the oscillating arm about 35mm from the equilibrium position and release it. Record a
time trace of amplitude y versus time which contains about 20 cycles. (Note that y is
proportional to the angular motion .)
5. Calculate the damping coefficient q from equation (4). To obtain good accuracy, make
n  15 .
6. Use the digital counter and record the time for 40 complete oscillations with an initial
displacement of about 35mm. Average the best three results to determine the frequency of
damped free oscillations, f q .

In your report use the values of k, Io, and q, to calculate f q from equation (1) and compare the
result to the measured value from step 6. If equations (1) and (3) are combined we get:

fq q 2a 4
= 1− = 1−  2 (5)
fN 4kIO c 2

fq
Show that  is small compares to one and that is therefore close to one. i.e. small
fN
amounts of damping have little effect on the natural frequency of the system2. Did your
experiment confirm this modelled prediction?

Error Analysis

An important part of all experimental work is estimating the accuracy of the results which, of
course, are always subject to errors. To gain experience obtaining the amount of uncertainty
in derived quantities, we are going to estimate the uncertainty in q as determined from
equation (4) in step 5 above. You might be surprised at the size of the uncertainty for q.

The background material3 is contained in the following appendix 1.

2
In our lecture series, this result allowed us to estimate natural frequencies (lectures 1 to 4) while ignoring
damping - as long as we assumed damping was slight ( << 1).
3
An excellent reference that you should consult is Kirkup, L. (1994) Experimental Methods. John Wiley & Sons.

8
Fundamentals of Mechanical Vibration Laboratory - Exercise 2 1

Laboratory Session 2 (Part D)

Part D. Angular oscillations in one degree of freedom with inertial excitation and viscous
damping

k
y

H
O

a
q

b
c

Define I O to be the moment of inertia of the entire system about O (including the eccentric
mass m  . Also assume that r  b and  is small. Then the displacement y of the eccentric
mass is, approximately, y = b + r sin t and the system differential equation is

a 2 q  c2 k m  br 2
 + + = sin t
IO IO IO

It is known that the steady state solution (the particular solution) takes the form
 = A sin(t −  ) where A is the amplitude and  is the phase angle. Then using the phasor
method of solution, it can be shown that,

2
m  br   
 
IO   N 
A= radians
2
    2
 a q   
4 2
2

1 −    + 2  
   N   c kI O   N 

where  N is the natural circular frequency (i.e. without damping or forcing present) given by
c2 k
 2N = . A becomes a maximum (resonance) when
IO

1
Fundamentals of Mechanical Vibration Laboratory - Exercise 2 2
2
   1
  =
 N  a4q2
1− 2
2c kI O

so that the resonant forcing frequency is

N
 2
f = = Hz (or revs / sec)
2 a4q2
1− 2
2c kI O

Procedure:

Use values of a, c, k, q and I O obtained in the earlier experiment (This requires the use of the
same helical spring, dashpot oil and setting of the orifices of the dashpot piston). Measure b,
r, l and m  . Also, by trial and error, establish resonant conditions and then measure the
amplitude H (with the aid of the trace recorder) and the forcing frequency (with the aid of a
stroboscope). Calculate the angular amplitude from A = H l radians. Where a laser beam,
attached to the oscillating beam, is used, the peak to peak amplitude is easier to measured
from the projection screen and A = (peak to peak / 2l ) where l is the dimension from the beam
pivot, O, to the projection screen.

Also calculate A and f from the analytical relationships cited in the theory and compare
these values with the experimental results.

Requirements:

Show the necessary calculations presented in a systematic manner. Comment on any

significant differences between the analytical and experimental results. Also prove that the
resonant condition occurs when
2
   1
  =
 N  a4q2
1− 2
2c kI O

2
Fundamentals of Mechanical Vibration Laboratory - Exercise 3 1

Laboratory Session 3: WHIRLING OF SHAFTS

1. OBJECT:

To demonstrate whirling and measure the whirling speeds of a cylindrical shaft, for
various end constraints, and to compare these speeds with analytical predictions.

2. EQUIPMENT

'Tecquipment' whirling of shafts machine, tachometer, stroboscope, micrometer, steel

tape.
The special features of the 'Tecquipment' machine are:

(a) Variable speed drive, 0 to 8000 + rev/min.

(b) Kinematic motor-to-shaft coupling eliminating any significant directional

restraint on the shaft.

(c) Facility for a number of end conditions for the shaft: either position fixed only
(full-swivel) or position and direction fixed. In each case one bearing is
axially floating thus preventing development of any axial force in the shaft.

3. THEORY

The differential equation for the whirling, uniform cylindrical shaft is,
d 4r
−  4r = 0
dx 4
 2m
where  4 =
EI
 - rotational speed rad/s
m - mass per unit length kg/m
EI - flexural rigidity N·m2

The general solution is

r = A sin x + B cos x + C sinh x + D cosh x

Adapting the general solution to various particular end – conditions, whirling speeds
for the various cases may be deduced.

Case 1 End-condition: supported-supported

Mode: 1st
EI 60
1 = 2  rev/min
ml 4 2

1
Fundamentals of Mechanical Vibration Laboratory - Exercise 3 2

Case 2 End-conditions: supported-supported

Mode: 2nd

EI 60
2 =(2 ) 2  rev/min
ml 4 2

Case 3 End-conditions: fixed-supported

Mode: 1st
EI 60
3 =15.4182  rev/min
ml 4 2

Case 4 End-conditions: fixed-fixed

Mode: 1st
EI 60
4 = 22.3733  rev/min
ml 4 2

Notes: 1. Higher modes for cases 3 and 4 are not to be attempted as the shaft can easily be
damaged passing through the first mode.
2. The coefficients  , 2 , 15.4182 , and 22.3733 can be found in Figure 8.15 of
S.S. Roa, Mechanical Vibrations, 4th Ed. 2004, Prentice-Hall.

4. PROCEDURE

Measure: d= m
Case 1 & 2 * l= m
Case 3 l= m
Case 4 l= m

Assume, for steel, E = 205 GPa and  = 7840 kg/m3. Calculate the theoretical
whirling speeds for the four cases above and record the results in the table below.
Then measure, with the stroboscope, the actual whirling speeds for the same four cases
and tabulate the results. Then calculate the various ratios in the table.

* Note: The length of shaft l varies slightly for different cases, due to the design of
the various end fittings.

CASE END CONDITIONS WHIRLING SPEEDS SPEED RATIOS

(rev/min)
THEORY ACTUAL THEORY ACTUAL
1 1 = 1 = 1 1
= =
2 2 = 2 = 2 2
3 3 = 3 = 3 3
= =
4 4 = 4 = 4 4

2
Fundamentals of Mechanical Vibration Laboratory - Exercise 3 3
The reason for comparing the ratio of two whirling speeds can be seen when, for
example, the first ratio is calculated.

EI
2
1 ml 4 = 1 .
=
2 4
(2 )2 EI
4
ml

We notice that the parameters E, m (which we don’t measure) and I and l (which we
can measure, but with limited precision), will remain identical in the two cases and are
thus eliminated from the ratio. Hence, the poor precision to which they are known
does not affect the ratio. Note that cases 3 and 4 may have different shaft lengths and
so the ratio becomes:

EI
15.4182 2
3 ml34 l 
= = 0.6891 4 
4 EI  l3 
22.3733 4
ml4

5. LAB DISCUSSION

In the space below, discuss the results obtained, and compare between theory and
experiments and if they differ, offer reasons why.

3
Fundamentals of Mechanical Vibration Laboratory - Appendix i

Appendix 1 - Error Analysis

1.0 Introduction

The evaluation of information gained from an experiment is always influenced to a certain

extent by uncertainty. The skill in experimentation lies largely in developing an ability to
identify sources of uncertainty and, if possible, eliminating, or allowing for them by good
experimental design and technique. The desire to minimise uncertainty must be balanced
with the necessity to achieve maximum efficiency of information collected and experimental
yield with the resources available.

2.0 Types of Uncertainty

The uncertainty (or error) of measurement of a physical quantity is an estimate of the amount
by which the measured value may differ from the true value. The perturbations which
contribute to an uncertainty in measurement arise from a number of sources and cover such a
wide range that it is usually not possible to account for all of them. Uncertainty of
measurement may be divided into two broad categories, systematic errors and random
uncertainties.

Systematic errors occur when the observer, the measuring instrument, or the measurement
technique is biased in some way. In general the perturbation responsible for the systematic
error influences all measurements of a particular quantity equally. Systematic errors may go
undetected but once found they can usually be corrected or eliminated.

Random uncertainties are shown when repeated measurements of the same quantity give rise
to differing values. These variations are the collective result of a large number of
perturbations, usually of unknown origin.

3.0 Distribution of Random Uncertainties

The arithmetic mean x of a quantity obtained from a number (N) of readings x i is the best
estimate of that quantity. If the uncertainties are entirely random and N is large, then x is
close to the true value.
N
1
x=
N
x i (A1)
i =1

If the uncertainties of measurement are entirely random, an estimate of the precision is given
by the standard deviation.
N

(x − x)
2
i
= i =1
(A2)
N −1

where ( xi − x ) is the deviation of a reading x i from the mean x .

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Fundamentals of Mechanical Vibration Laboratory - Appendix ii

The standard error (S.E.) of the mean is S.E.=  and the error at a 95% confidence
N
level is 2(S.E.).

The significance of  can be seen by consideration of the distribution of a large collection of

random uncertainty measurements, known as the normal or Gaussian distribution. It can be
shown that for large N the probability of an individual reading differing from the mean by
more than  is about 32%, 2 is about 5% and 3 is less than 1%.

In practice, when N is less than 6 the statistical analysis is not appropriate and an estimate of
the uncertainty may be obtained from the range of values obtained.

4.0 Propagation of Uncertainties

The above discussion has dealt with types of uncertainties and the estimation of the
uncertainty in the measurement of a single quantity. Almost all experiments require
calculations to be performed which involve manipulation of these measured quantities. In
order to calculate the uncertainty in the final result it is necessary to know how the computed
or estimated uncertainties in each quantity combine or propagate.

4.1 Additions and Subtractions

It is usually easy to write down the possible uncertainty in any single measurement. Thus,
suppose that in an experiment with a spring, the length of the spring is measured with a metre
scale. With care such a scale allows measurement to about 1 mm. If a number of careful
readings are taken with the scale then they do not differ among themselves by more than this.
Thus for one particular reading it may be said:

Length of spring = 302  1 mm

If the spring was stretched by hanging weights from it and the spring re-measured, it may be
found,

New length of spring = 488  1 mm

Now, consider what is known about the change in length. According to the figures, the
change is equal to 186 mm. But each of the figures may have been wrong by 1 mm. If one of
them happened to be too high by this amount while the other was too low, then the
uncertainty in the difference would be 2 mm. To be on the safe side, assume that the worst
has happened, that is,

Change in length = 186  2 mm

The same thing applies when adding the two lengths. The worst possible case will be when
both figures were too high or both figures were too low. Assume that worst possible case and
say

Sum of lengths = 790  2 mm.

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Fundamentals of Mechanical Vibration Laboratory - Appendix iii
Thus, if adding or subtracting two figures, the actual uncertainty is the sum of the
separate uncertainties.

4.2 General Case.

In the general case, the magnitude of a parameter is determined by the substitution of

measured quantities, each subject to error, into an algebraic expression. The error in the new
parameter is some function of the algebraic expression, the measured quantities and their
respective uncertainties.

x dx
Define the absolute error in quantity x as dx and the fractional error in quantity x as = .
x x
Consider a general function  = f(w, x, y ...).

If w, x, y ... are the measured quantities with their associated errors dw, dx, dy ... , then the
error in  is

  
d =  dw +  dx +  dy +
w x y

The worst case will occur when all terms have the same sign and hence:

    
d =   dw +  dx +  dy +   (A3)
 w x y 

Example The volume of a right circular cylinder is expressed by V = r 2 l .

. mm and l = 103.3  0.2 mm then
If r = 29.0  01

dV =   2 r l dr +  r 2
dl 
dV =   2 ( 29.0)(103.3)( 0.1) +  ( 29.0) ( 0.2) 
2

=  2410.7 mm
 V = 272927  2411 mm 3
which should be then rounded to 273000  2400 mm3 since the ‘927’ digits are
now known to be insignificant.

Example The extension of a coil spring is given by:

8 PR 3 n
s = . Then: (note: r here is the wire diameter. This is to avoid using d.)
Gr 4

 R3n 3PR 2 n PR 3 − PR 3 n −4 PR 3 n 
ds =  8  4 dP + dR + dn + dG + dr 
 Gr Gr 4 Gr 4 G2r 4 Gr 5 

Note that this can be expressed as:

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Fundamentals of Mechanical Vibration Laboratory - Appendix iv
ds dP 3dR dn dG 4 dr
= + + + + (A4)
s P R n G r

Example The height of a tree

is estimated by sighting the angle  and
measuring the horizontal distance x. h
Determine the error in the height
estimate.

 = 42  2 x = 15.3  0.1 m

h = x tan 

 dh =  tan  dx + x sec 2  d 
 = 42  2  = 0.733  0.0349 radians

 dh =  tan( 0.733)( 0.1) + 15.3 sec 2 ( 0.733)( 0.0349) 
= 1057
. m

therefore h = 14  1 m

5.0 Significant Figures

The manner in which measurements are recorded implies information about their accuracy.
For example, if the diameter of a shaft is measured and recorded as 23.83 mm, it is implied
that the actual dimension of the shaft lies between 23.825 mm and 23.835 mm. If the length
of the shaft is now measured and recorded as 2292.3 mm, it is implied that the actual
dimension lies between 2292.25 mm and 2292.35 mm. Unless otherwise stated, the
uncertainty implied is half of the least significant figure.

Recording a value as 19.2 is said to be stating the quantity to three significant figures.
19.27307 is a quantity given to seven significant figures. As a final example 0.000127 is a
quantity given to three significant figures.

In general, measurements and results should be written such that only one uncertain figure is
retained. Consider the first example in Section 4.2. Given r = 29.0 mm and l = 103.3 mm,
the volume is calculated as 272926.804 mm3 to three decimal places. However, the error
calculation showed that the uncertainty was  2400 mm3. Hence, the volume calculated
should be stated as 273,000 mm3, indicating that the last significant figure, viz the ‘3’ is
uncertain.

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Fundamentals of Mechanical Vibration Laboratory - Appendix v
Alternatively, for more effective communication, the quantity could be stated unambiguously
as 273000  2400 mm3. Note that usually only one significant figure is reported in the
uncertainty, except where its value is 1 (or perhaps, as above, 2) where two significant figures
is appropriate.

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Fundamentals of Mechanical Vibration Laboratory - Appendix vi
Appendix 2 – Uncertainty Of Spring Stiffness, K

1.0 Introduction

When undertaking the error analysis to obtain the uncertainty of the derived quantity q, we
need to input the uncertainty of all of the contributing parameters. Considering equation (4)
of the laboratory sheet,

2
k  c
 
f N  a 
q= (A5)
2
 2n 
  +1
 ln( 2 y o 2 y n ) 

we note that a, c, y0, yn, and fN are parameters that were measured directly and their
uncertainties can be estimated. However, the spring stiffness k, is 1/slope of the line of best
fit through the experimental data where we assumed that the relationship between load and
stretch was linear. What then is the uncertainty that we should assign to k?

2.0 Special Case

The general answer to this question is not an easy one. Indeed, it remains a topic of debate
and several methods exist. But, a special case does exist that has a well-settled answer. Two
constraints apply to the special case:
• The input variable x (in our case load supported by the spring) is known accurately.
Since our load comes from masses that we can weight with uncertainty of about 0.02
g, even the smallest mass of about 400 g has a percentage uncertainty of only 0.005%.
This would be considered excellent in any experimental work.
• The uncertainty in the output variable y (in our case the stretch of the spring) is
constant for each value obtained. In our case, the output quantity is the measured
displacement of the mass using a scale and vernier. It seems likely that each of these
measurements will possess the same uncertainty. (The scale+vernier resolution is 0.1
mm. Its accuracy is probably about 0.2 mm.)

Without any derivation here4, the uncertainty in the slope (compliance) is:

n
 compliance =  y (A6)
n xi2 − ( xi )
2

where  y is the uncertainty in the individual y-values. “It is usual, when fitting a line to data
in which the uncertainty in each point is constant, to take the uncertainty to be the standard
deviation of the distribution of the y-values about the fitted line”5. This is given by:

2
1  1 
y = 
n−2 
 yi −   xi − b 
k  
(A7)

4
Again, a good reference is Kirkup, L. (1994) Experimental Methods. John Wiley & Sons.

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Fundamentals of Mechanical Vibration Laboratory - Appendix vii
where the best estimate of the slope is 1/k and the best estimate of the y-intercept is b (should
be zero in our case).

3.0 Finally, the Uncertainty of k.

From equation (A6) we now have an estimate of the uncertainty in the compliance 1/k. But
1
we want the uncertainty in k itself. Let’s put stiffness, k = . We simply use equation (A3).
C
k 1
dk =   dC =  2  dC =  k 2 compliance (A8)
C C

Here’s a sample calculation for a spring (probably not the one you will use!).

Spring Compliance

100.0
90.0
y = 2.7779x
80.0
R2 = 1
70.0
Extension (mm)

60.0

50.0

40.0
30.0

20.0

10.0
0.0
0.000 5.000 10.000 15.000 20.000 25.000 30.000 35.000
Applied Load (N)

vii