?.

Muduh dob Qebgorobg

Muduh = Hop`rob Qrontjnuk Djironsj Njsj
Qebgorobg = ?) Bur Iodjhof (?964<1?1111?)
(?964<1?1111?)
<) Eno Hestorj (?964<1?11115)
(?964<1?11115)

<. Olstron
Lerdosornob perc`loob yobg tehof nokj honunob tebtobg djironsj njsj
debgob coro kebgobohjsjs fosjh perc`loob debgob kebggubonob ket`de
perlobdjbgob fosjh roto-roto 
roto -roto bjhoj pobmobg geh`klobg ( ) dorj netjgo njsj yobg
lerledo bjhoj n`bstobtobyo. Lerdosornob perc`loob yobg tehof djhonunob,
kebubmunnob lofwo sekonjb lesor bjhoj B (n`bstobto njsj) yobg djgubonob
kono onob sekonjb lesor puho pobmobg geh`klobg yobg djfosjhnob `hef
cofoyo hoser. Foh terselut djfjtubg lerdosornob roto-roto bjhoj pobmobg
geh`klobg dorj 3 nohj pebguhobgob perc`loob debgob kebggubonob njsj
djironsj yobg soko bjhoj n`bstobtobyo. Kesnjpub perledoobbyo sedjnjt, njsj
yobg djgubonob onob kekpebgorufj fosjh djironsj dorj cofoyo hoser.

3. Qebdofuhuob
o. Hotor Lehonobg
Qodo moron tertebtu koto njto suhjt kekledonob p`sjsj duo byoho
hokpu yobg sobgot lerdenotob. Gemoho jbj djnorebonob djoketer pupjh koto
njto sobgot sekpjt. Onjlotbyo odohof cofoyo duo hokpu terselut netjno
sokpoj ne koto njto kebgohokj djironsj. Djironsj cofoyo odohof perjstjwo
pehebturob cofoyo
cofo yo yobg onob termodj
termo dj mjno
m jno cofoyo kehohuj
keh ohuj cehof yobg sobgot
so bgot
sekpjt. Njto dopot kehjfot gemoho jbj debgob kudof podo cofoyo yobg
kehewotj seho morj-morj yobg njto ropotnob nekudjob njto orofnob podo
sukler cofoyo yobg mouf, kjsohbyo hokpu be`b. Otou debgob kehjfot
kehohuj njsj tebub nojb yobg ternebo sjbor hokpu yobg cunup mouf.
Debgob kehewotnob lernos sjbor hoser yobg n`fereb dob

k`b`nr`kotjn podo seluof tepj tomok kono onob terlebtun p`ho djironsj
podo hoyor.
ho yor. Q`ho djironsj mugo dopot termodj mjno sjbor hoser djhewotnob podo
cehof tubggoh, helor dorj cehof tubggoh yobg djgubonob dopot djunur debgob
kebgokotj p`ho djironsj yobg termodj. Cofoyo nekudjob onob kekleh`n
dob kebyelor debgob keklebtun sudut tertebtu. Opoljho yobg djhohuj `hef
cofoyo odohof cehof gobdo debgob moron pekjsofob tertebtu kono onob
termodj jbterierebsj norebo geh`klobg–geh`klobg cofoyo debgob irenuebsj
yobg soko onob sohjbg lertuklunob.
le rtuklunob.
Ubtun dopot kekpehomorj dob kekofokj ieb`kebo djironsj cofoyo
dob jbterierebsj serto p`ho yobg djfosjhnob yobg termodj podo soot djironsj
cofoyo, djperhunob suotu coro yobg dopot kebgjhustrosjnob djironsj cofoyo
dob jbterierebsj terselut. Sohof sotu coro kebgjhustrosjnob djironsj cofoyo
 dob jbterierebsj yobg termodj podo soot djironsj cofoyo odohof debgob
kehonunob prontjnuk djironsj njsj.

l. Tumuob
Tumuob dorj djhonsobonobbyo perc`loob jbj yojtu ubtun =

o) Kebgetofuj bjhoj pobmobg geh`klobg ( ) dorj cofoyo hoser kerof
l) Kebgetofuj bjhoj stobdor devjosj
devjosj

c. \ukusob Kosohof
Logojkobo pebgoruf bjhoj B (n`bstobto njsj djironsj) terfodop bjhoj pobmobg

geh`klobg ( ) dorj cofoyo hoser kerof0

d. \ukusob Fjp`tesjs
Sekonjb lesor bjhoj B (n`bstobto njsj djironsj) kono sekonjb lesor puho

bjhoj pobmobg geh`klobg ( ) yobg djfosjhnob dorj cofoyo hoser kerof

4. Dosor Te`rj
Geh`klobg kekjhjnj leleropo sjiot, sohof sotubyo odohof djironsj.
Djironsj odohof perjstjwo pekleh`nob otou pehebturob orof geh`klobg netjno
kehewotj pebgfohobg lerupo cehof. Mjno geh`klobg kehewotj cehof yobg
unurobbyo sekpjt, kono djironsj kebyelolnob cehof terselut se`hof-`hof
keruponob sukler geh`klobg kehjbgnor. yobg djselolnob `hef odobyo
pebgfohobg lerupo cehof. Sekonjb necjh fohobgob, pebyelorob geh`klobg
sekonjb lesor.Soko fohbyo debgob geh`klobg, cofoyo yobg djhewotnob podo
seluof cehof sekpjt mugo onob kebgohokj djironsj. Djironsj cofoyo termodj
mugo podo cehof sekpjt yobg terpjsof semomor sotu soko hojb podo moron yobg
soko.
Ljho cofoyo k`b`nr`kotjn (sotu worbo) djmotufnob podo cehof sekpjt,
kono cofoyo onob djleh`nnob otou djhebturnob. Sedobgnob ljho cofoyo

djmotufnob p`hjnr`kotjn (cofoyo putjf otou lobyon worbo), sehojb onob

kebgohokj perjstjwo djironsj, mugo onob termodj perjstjwo jbterierebsj. Fosjh
jbterierebsj kebgfosjhnob p`ho worbo pehobgj.
Lernos cofoyo motuf podo cehof tubggoh, onob djleh`nnob debgob sudut
leh`n ζ. Qodo hoyor
ho yor onob terhjfot p`ho gehop dob terobg. Q`ho gehop dob terobg
onob termodj ljho kebgohokj perjstjwo jbterierebsj.
Cofoyo yobg djhewotnob podo njsj djironsj onob keklebtun gorjs gehop
dob terobg debgob rukus selogoj lerjnut =

 
 
 ;    ;  … … … … . ?


 
  ; <+? ?< …<
 ;  
 Njsj djironsj keruponob suotu pjrobtj otou ohot ubtun kebgobohjsjs sukler
cofoyo. Njsj odohof cehof sekpjt yobg djluot debgob kebgg`res seluof
hekpebgob noco debgob jbtob. Seluof njsj dopot djluot 311 sokpoj 911 cehof
setjop ? kk. podo njsj, setjop g`resob keruponob cehof. Cehof djobtoro
g`resob-g`resob odohof trobsporob terfodop cofoyo dob orebo jtu lertjbdon
selogoj cehof-cehof yobg terpjsof.
Seluof njsj kekjhjnj n`bstobto otou tetopob njsj yobg kebyotonob
lobyonbyo g`resob tjop sotu sotuob pobmobg, yobg djhoklobgnob debgob d,
yobg mugo serjbg djnotonob kebmodj helor cehof otou moron obtor cehof. Seluof
njsj dopot kekpubyoj rjluob gorjs per sebtjketer. Lobyonbyo g`resob tjop
sotuob pobmobg djbyotonob debgob B. Mjno terdopot B gorjs per sotuob pobmobg,
pobmo bg,
kono tetopob njsj d odohof nelohjnob dorj B, yojtu=

 ; ? ….3
Mjno lernos cofoyo k`b`nfr`kotjs djmotufnob podo seluof njsj, selogjob
onob djterusnob sedobgnob selogjob hogj onob djleh`nnob. Onjlot pehebturob
terselut, opoljho njto kehjfot suotu sukler cofoyo k`b`nfr`kotjs debgob
perobtoroob seluof njsj, onob tokpon suotu p`ho djironsj lerupo pjto-pjto
(gorjs) terobg podo hoyor. Jbtebsjtos pjto-pjto terobg kebcopoj konsjkub podo
pjto pusot dob pjto-pjto hojbbyo yobg terheton djnjrj dob nobob pjto pusot.
Jbtebsjtos pjto lernurobg ubtun worbo yobg soko ljho pjtobyo mouf dorj pjto
pusot. Qjto-pjto terobg termodj ljho sehjsjf
sehj sjf hjbtosob dorj cofo
cofoyo
yo yobg nehuor dorj
duo cehof njsj yobg lerurutob kekebufj persokoob =
  ;  … …. .4
.4
otou

∉ ;  
  ;…5
 
Sedobgnob pjto gehop onob termodj ljho kekebufj persokoob =

  ; ( + ?<)…9
djkobo =
b ; `rde p`ho djironsj (1,?,<,………)
d ; moron obtoro duo gorjs njsj ( n`bstobto njsj)
ξ ; pobmobg geh`klobg cofoyo yobg djgubonob
ζ ; sudut hebturob (djironsj)
∉Z (Q) ; moron terobg pusot debgob `rde ne-b

H ; moron hoyor ne njsj djironsj

 Mjno cofoyo yobg djgubonob lerupo cofoyo p`hjnfr`kotjs, njto onob
kehjfot suotu spectruk worbo. Spentruk yob pohjbg mehos terhjfot odohof
spentruk dorj `rde pertoko (B;?). Gorjs gehop dob terobg otou peklebtunob
spentruk onob heljf mehos dob tomok mjno helor cehofbyo sekonjb sekpjt otou
n`bstobto njsjbyo sekonjb lobyon otou lesor. Gorjs gehop dob terobg dob
spentruk terselut keruponob fosjh jbterierebsj dorj cofoyo yobg lerosoh dorj
njsj terselut yobg motuf podo hoyor tjtjn otou tekpot tertebtu.

5. Ket`de Ensperjkeb
o. Ohot dob lofob
- Qebggorjs ?11ck
- Qebggorjs 31ck
- Hoser kerof
- Njsj ?11 gorjs/kk> 311 gorjs/kk> 911 gorjs/kk

l. Yorjoleh-vorjoleh dob Deijbjsj @perosj`boh Yorjoleh

Odopub vorjoleh yobg djgubonob dohok perc`loob jbj djobtorobyo odohof

selogoj lerjnut =
o) Yorjoleh kobjpuhosj = Njsj djironsj
l) Yorjleh n`btr`h = Worbo cofoyo hoser
c) Yorjoleh resp`b 
= Qobmobg geh`klobg ( ) dorj cofoyo hoser kerof

Odopub deijbjsj `perosj`boh vorjoleh yobg djgubonob dohok prontjnuk jbj

djobtorobyo odohof selogoj lerjnut =
o) DY@K =Njsj djironsj dohok perc`loob
perc`loob jbj djulof-ulof.
djulof-ulof. Qodo
perc`loob jbj kebggubonob 3 njsj djironsj debgob n`bstobto
njsj yobg lerledo yojtu ?11 gorjs/kk> 311 gorjs/kk> 911
gorjs/kk.
l) DY@N =Qodo perc`loob jbj worbo kerof dorj cofoyo sebter
djgubonob selogoj vorjoleh c`btr`h.
c) DY@\ =Qodo perc`loob jbj kebgfosjhnob bjhoj pobmobg geh`klobg

( ) yobg lerledo-ledo yobg djtjkluhnob dorj cofoyo hoser
kerof

c. Hobgnof perc`loob
?) Kebyjopnob 4 heklor nertos, hohu kebyoklubg nertos sotu debgob
hojbbyo kebggubonob js`hotjp.
<) Kebekpehnob nertos podo djbdjbg selogoj hoyorbyo.
3) Kebgunur moron njsj debgob hoyor semouf ?k kebggubonob keterob /
pebggorjs.
4) Kebgfjdupnob hoser dob kebgorofnob podo njsj selesor ?11 gorjs/kk.
5) Kebgokotj gorjs terobg dob gehop podo hoyor.
 9) Keklerj tobdo gorjs terobg podo hoyor kebggubonob pebsjh.
7) Kebgfjtubg helor cehof (d) podo njsj ?11 gorjs/kk.
6) Kebgfjtubg moron obtoro duo gorjs terobg lerurutob (Q) podo hoyor.
:) 
Kebcorj pobmobg geh`klobg ( ) yobg djgubonob obtoro duo gorjs terobg
yobg lerdenotob ubtun b;?, b;<, b;3.
?1) Kebguhobgj hobgnof debgob kebgulof njsj selesor 311 gorjs/kk dob
911 gorjs/kk, hohu kebcotot fosjh prontjnuk podo toleh pebgokotob.

9. Fosjh dob Obohjso

Toleh ?. Fosjh perc`loob ubtun njsj ?11 gorjs/kk

B`.
H B
d (k-?) B
Q 
(k) (gorjs/kk) (k) (k)
-5
? ? ?11 ?1 ? 7 x ?1-< 7 x ?1-4
< ? ?11 ?1-5 < ?,4 x ?1-? 7 x ?1-4
3 ? ?11 ?1-5 3 <,15 x ?1-? 9,63 x ?1-4
\oto pobmobg geh`klobg ( )  9,:4 x ?1-4
Stobdor Devjosj (S) :,6 x ?1-6

Toleh <. Fosjh perc`loob ubtun njsj 311 gorjs/kk

B`.
H B
d (k-?) B
Q 
(k) (gorjs/kk) (k) (k)
? ? 311
 x ?1-5 ? <,? x ?1-? 7 x ?1-4

< ? 311 x ?1-5 < 4,< x ?1-? 7 x ?1-4

-5
3 ? 311 9,< x ?1-? 9,: x ?1-4
 x ?1 3
\oto pobmobg geh`klobg ( )  9,:7 x ?1-4
Stobdor Devjosj (S) 5,6 x ?1-6

Toleh 3. Fosjh perc`loob ubtun njsj 911 gorjs/kk

B`.
H B
d (k-?) B
Q 
(k) (gorjs/kk) (k) (k)
? ? 911  x ?1-5 ? 4,<5 x ?1-< 7,16 x ?1-4
< ? 911
 x ?1-5 < 6,5 x ?1-? 7,16 x ?1-4
3 ? 911
 x ?1-5 3 ?<,9 x ?1-? 7 x ?1-4

\oto pobmobg geh`klobg ( )  7,15 x ?1-4
Stobdor Devjosj (S) 4,9 x ?1-6

Lerdosornob fosjh perc`loob yobg tehof djhonunob, djper`hef fosjh

yobg kebubmunnob lofwo terdopot perledoob pobmobg geh`klobg ( ) podo 
kosjbg-kosjbg njsj. Foh terselut terluntj lofwo podo perc`loob pertoko
debgob kebggubonob njsj debgob bjhoj n`bstobto selesor ?11 gorjs/kk
djper`hef roto-roto pobmobg geh`klobg ( ) selesor 9,:4 x ?1 -4k. Qodo

 perc`loob neduo debgob kebggubonob njsj debgob bjhoj n`bstobto selesor

311 gorjs/kk djper`hef roto-roto pobmobg geh`klobg ( ) selesor 9,:7 x ?1-4k.
Sedobgnob podo perc`loob netjgo debgob kebggubonob njsj debgob bjhoj
n`bstobto selesor 911 gorjs/kk djper`hef roto-roto pobmobg geh`klobg ( ) 
selesor 7,15 x ?1-4k. Fosjh terselut kebubmunnob lofwo sekonjb lesor bjhoj
B (n`bstobto njsj) yobg djgubonob kono sekonjb lesor bjhoj pobmobg
geh`klobg ( ) yobg djfosjhnob dorj cofoyo hoser. Kesnjpub perledoobbyo

tjdon terhohu lesor.
Dob lerdosornob stobdor devjosj yobg djfjtubg kehohuj rukus exeh
kebubmunnob lofwo podo perc`loob pertoko debgob kebggubonob njsj
debgob bjhoj n`bstobto selesor ?11 gorjs/kk djper`hef stobdor devjosj selesor
:,6 x ?1-6.. Qodo perc`loob neduo debgob kebggubonob njsj debgob bjhoj
n`bstobto selesor 311 gorjs/kk djper`hef stobdor devjosj selesor 5,6 x ?1 -6..
Dob podo perc`loob netjgo debgob kebggubonob njsj debgob bjhoj n`bstobto
selesor 911 gorjs/kk djper`hef stobdor devjosj selesor 4,9 x ?1 -6..
Lerdosornob fosjh yobg djper`hef kebubmunnob lofwo sekonjb lesor bjhoj B
(n`bstobto njsj) yobg djgubonob kono sekonjb necjh bjhoj stobdor devjosj yobg
djfosjhnob.

7. Djsnusj

?) Oponof odo perledoob pobmobg geh`klobg ( ) dorj kosjbg-kosjbg njsj0
Terdopot perledoob, sekonjb lesor bjhoj B (n`bstobto njsj) yobg
djgubonob kono sekonjb lesor bjhoj pobmobg geh`klobg ( ) yobg 
djfosjhnob dorj cofoyo hoser. Kesnjpub perledoobbyo tjdon terhohu lesor.
<) Logojkobo bjhoj stobdor devjosj dorj kosjbg-kosjbg njsj0
Sekonjb lesor bjhoj B (n`bstobto njsj) yobg djgubonob kono sekonjb
necjh bjhoj stobdor devjosj yobg djfosjhnob.

6. Nesjkpuhob
Lerdosornob fosjh perc`loob yobg tehof nokj honunob dopot djsjkpuhnob
lofwo sekonjb lesor bjhoj B (n`bstobto njsj) yobg djgubonob kono onob sekonjb
lesor puho pobmobg geh`klobg yobg djfosjhnob `hef cofoyo hoser. Foh terselut
djfjtubg lerdosornob roto-roto bjhoj pobmobg geh`klobg dorj 3 nohj pebguhobgob
perc`loob debgob kebggubonob njsj djironsj yobg soko bjhoj n`bstobtobyo.
Kesnjpub perledoobbyo sedjnjt, njsj yobg djgubonob onob kekpebgorufj fosjh
djironsj dorj cofoyo hoser.

:. Doitor Qustono
Gjobc`hj, D`ughos C. <11?. Ijsjno Mjhjd ? dob < Edjsj Jbd`besjo. Monorto =
Qeberljt Erhobggo.
Tjk Ijsjno Dosor IKJQO UBESO. <1?1. Qrontjnuk Ijsdos.Ijsdos. Qr`dj Qebdjdjnob
Sojbs IKJQO UBESO.
Tjpher, Qouh. O. ?::6. Ijsjno ubtun Sojbs dob Tenbjn. Monorto = Qeberljt
Erhobggo
]ekobsny, Seors. ?::4. Ijsjno Ubtun Ubjversjtos Jbd`besjo. Monorto =
Ubjversjtos ? Edjsj Jbd`besjo
QT. Ljbocjpto.
Hokpjrob Qerfjtubgob
Ubtun njsj ?11 gorjs/kk
Djnetofuj = B ; ?11 gorjs/kk
H ;?k
b ; ? ▽ TQ ne T? ▽ Q ; 7 ck ; 7 x ?1 -< k
b ; < ▽ TQ ne T< ▽ Q ; ?4 ck ; ?,4 x ?1-? k
b ; 3 ▽ TQ ne T3 ▽ Q ; <1,5 ck ; <,15 x ?1-? k
Djtobyo =  ; …0
Mowol =
o)  ; 
 ; ?11?
 ;?1∜
l) Ubtun b;?

 ∜ ∜ ; 
7?1 ??1  ; ?  ∜
 ; 7  ?1 k
Ubtun b;<

 ∜ ∜ ; 
?,4?1 ?1  ; < 
?
 ; 7  ?1∜ k
Ubtun b;3


 ; 
<,15?1 ?1  ; 3 
∜ ∜
?
 ; 9,6633  ?1∜ k
c) \oto-roto pobmobg geh`klobg  podo njsj ?11 gorjs/kk
; (7  ?1∜ + 7  ?1∜ + 9,63  ?1∜ ) = 3
; 9,:4  ?1∜ k
Ubtun njsj 311 gorjs/kk
Djnetofuj = B ; 311 gorjs/kk
H ;?k
b ; ? ▽ TQ ne T? ▽ Q ; <? ck ; <,? x ?1-? k
b ; < ▽ TQ ne T< ▽ Q ; 4< ck ; 4,< x ?1-? k
b ; 3 ▽ TQ ne T3 ▽ Q ; 9< ck ; 9,< x ?1-? k
Djtobyo =
Mowol =
 ; …0
o)  ; 
 ; 311?
 ; ?3 ?1∜
l) Ubtun b;?
 ; 

<,??1∜??3 ?1∜ ; ? 
 ; 7  ?1∜ k
Ubtun b;<
 ; 

4,<?1∜?3 ?1∜
? ;<
 ; 7  ?1∜ k
Ubtun b;3
 ; 
9,<?1∜?3 ?1∜ ; 3 
?
 ; 9,:  ?1∜ k
c) \oto-roto pobmobg geh`klobg  podo njsj 311 gorjs/kk
; (7  ?1∜ + 7  ?1∜ + 9,:  ?1∜ ) = 3
; 9,:7  ?1∜ k
Ubtun njsj 911 gorjs/kk
Djnetofuj = B ; 911 gorjs/kk
H ;?k
b ; ? ▽ TQ ne T? ▽ Q ; 4<,5 ck ; 4,<5 x ?1-< k
b ; < ▽ TQ ne T< ▽ Q ; 65 ck ; 6,5 x ?1-? k
b ; 3 ▽ TQ ne T3 ▽ Q ; ?<9 ck ; ?<,9 x ?1-? k
Djtobyo =
Mowol =
 ; …0
d)  ; 
 ; 911?
 ; ?9 ?1∜
e) Ubtun b;?
 ; 

4,<5?1∜? ?9 ?1∜ ; ? 
 ; 7,16
16  ?1∜ k
Ubtun b;<
 ; 

6,5?1∜?9 ?1∜
? ;<
 ; 7,16
16  ?1∜ k
Ubtun b;3
 ; 
?<,9?1∜?9 ?1∜ ; 3 
?
 ; 7  ?1∜ k
i) \oto-roto pobmobg geh`klobg  podo njsj 911 gorjs/kk
; (7,16  ?1∜ + 7,16  ?1∜ + 7  ?1∜ ) = 3
; 7,15  ?1∜ k