The Perfect Answer Biology Revision Guide Edexcel IGCSE 9 1 Double Award Second Edition Prn1b2

The Perfect Answer
Revision Guide To... BIOLOGY

By SwH Learning
EDEXCEL
IGCSE 9-1
4SD0
Double Award
2nd Edition
HAZEL LINDSEY &
MARTIN BAILEY
For use by Elena Gandara elenagandara207@gmail.com ONLY. Not for redistribution.

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Hazel Lindse Martin Baile
Hazel is the creator of the Science with Hazel Martin is the co-founder of SwH Learning.
YouTube channel and a professional science tutor. Together, he and Hazel create and edit numerous
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& workbooks, and run the SwH Learning revision
A quali ed secondary school science teacher, courses
Hazel graduated with a degree in Pre-Clinical
Veterinary Sciences from St. John’s College, Martin graduated with a degree in Natural
University of Cambridge, where she subsequently Sciences from Trinity College, University of
completed her PGCE (Post-Graduate Certi cate Cambridge. He has thousands of hours of
of Education) experience tutoring students of all levels, from
GCSE up to degree level
Through her tuition and YouTube channel, Hazel is
responsible for helping hundreds of thousands of Whilst at Cambridge, Martin specialised in
students from around the globe achieve their pathology and biological anthropology. He also
dream results in their GCSEs, IGCSEs, A Levels studied chemistry, maths, geology and history &
and IB examinations. philosophy of science
1st Edition
Hazel Lindsey, Martin

For use by Elena Gandara elenagandara207@gmail.com Bailey
ONLY. Not for redistribution.
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Contents
1. The nature and variety of living organism .......................................................3
a. Characteristics of living organism ................................................................................3
b. Variety of living organism .............................................................................................3
2. Structure and functions in living organism .....................................................6
a. Level of organisatio .....................................................................................................6
b. Cell structur .................................................................................................................7
c. Biological molecule ......................................................................................................7
d. Movement of substances into and out of cell .............................................................11
e. Nutritio .......................................................................................................................12
Plant .......................................................................................................................................12
Human ....................................................................................................................................15
f. Respiratio ...................................................................................................................18
g. Gas exchang .............................................................................................................19
Human ....................................................................................................................................19
h. Transpor .....................................................................................................................21
Plant .......................................................................................................................................21
Human ....................................................................................................................................21
i. Excretio .......................................................................................................................26
Plant .......................................................................................................................................26
Human ....................................................................................................................................26
j. Co-ordination and respons .........................................................................................26
Plant .......................................................................................................................................26
Human ....................................................................................................................................27
3. Reproduction and inheritanc ..........................................................................32
a. Reproductio ...............................................................................................................32
Plant .......................................................................................................................................32
Human ....................................................................................................................................35
b. Inheritanc ...................................................................................................................39
4. Ecology and the environmen ...........................................................................44
a. The organism in the environmen ................................................................................44
b. Feeding relationship ..................................................................................................44
c. Cycles within ecosystem ............................................................................................47
d. Human in uences on the environmen ........................................................................47
5. Use of biological resource ..............................................................................50
a. Food productio ..........................................................................................................50
b. Selective breedin .......................................................................................................52
c. Genetic modi cation (genetic engineering .................................................................52
Practical skills assessed in a written examinatio .............................................54
Copyright © 2022 Hazel Lindsey, Martin Bailey. All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means without prior permission from Science with Hazel Ltd
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Front cover image: 7activestudio from Getty Images Pro!
Copyright © 2022 Hazel Lindsey & Martin Bailey 2

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1. THE NATURE AND VARIETY OF LIVING ORGANISM
a. Characteristics of living organism
The following characteristics all living organisms share

- Movemen
- Respiratio
- Sensitivity (respond to surroundings)
- Control internal conditions (homeostasis
- Nutritio
- Excretio
- Reproduc
- Gro
b. Variety of living organism
What does eukaryotic mean

- Has membrane bound organelles e.g. animal cell has mitochondria, ribosomes and a nucleu
What does prokaryotic mean
- No membrane bound organelle
- e.g. bacteria
Both animal and plant cells contain
- Nucleu
- Controls the activities of the cel
- Cell membran
- Controls entry and exit of substances into the cel
- Cytoplas
- Where chemical reactions take plac
- Mitochondri
- Where aerobic respiration takes place - release energy
- Ribosome
- Protein synthesi
Plant cell only
- Vacuol
- Filled with cell sap contains dissolved sugars, and mineral ion
- Chloroplast
- Carry out photosynthesi
- Cell wal
- Protects and supports the cell, made out of cellulose
Give examples of different types of plan
- Flowering e.g. cereals (such as maize
- Herbaceous legume e.g. peas, bean
Give examples of mammals and insect
- Mammals - human
- Insects - house y, mosquito

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Credit: Martin Bailey for SwH Learning

Animal Cell
Cell membrane
Mitochondria
Nucleus
Cytoplasm
Ribosome
Plant Cell
Ribosome
Cytoplasm Mitochondria
Nucleus Cell wall
Vacuole
Cell membrane
Chloroplast Starch grain
Bacterial Cell
Credit: Aldona Griskeviciene for Shutterstock

Capsule
Ribosome Plasmid
Cytoplasm Nucleoid (DNA)

Cell membrane Cell wall
How are carbohydrates stored in a) animals, b) plants, c) fungi

a) As glycoge
b) As starc
c) As glycoge
What are the 5 kingdoms

- Plant
- Animal
- Fung
- Protoctist
- Bacteri

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What does multicellular mean

- Contains many cell
De ne pathoge
- A microorganism which causes diseas
Common features of microorganisms
Virus Bacteria Protoctist Fungi
- Cell wall made

- Cell wall - Variabl of chiti
- No distinct - Can be - Contain usual
- Protein coat nucleus - have similar to organelles (e.g.
surrounds DNA or
Structure circular animal cells cytoplasm, cell
RN
chromosomes (protozoa) or membrane etc
- Non-living
(nucleoid) and plant cells - Hyphae form a
often plasmids (algae) network called
mycelium
Unicellular - Can be either

or - Unicellular - Unicellular (most are - Can be either
multicellular unicellular)
Pathogenic? - Always - Sometimes - Sometimes - Sometimes
- HIV (causes AIDS) - Chlorella

(have
- In uenza
- Pneumococcus chloroplasts,
- Cold viru
(causes plant-like),
- Measles, mumps,
pneumonia
rubella - Plasmodium
- Mushroom
Examples - Lactobacillus (causes
- Tobacco mosaic
bulgaricus (used
- Mucor
malaria
virus (prevents
in yoghurt - Alga
chloroplast
making) - Amoeba
production -
(more animal-
discolours leaves)
like)
- Can only
reproduce inside
another living cel
- Uses
Extra notes saprotrophic
- Non-living - don’t
nutrition
excrete, respire,
move, grow etc
De ne saprotrophic nutritio
- The use of digestive enzymes to extracellularly break down dead matte

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2. STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS IN LIVING ORGANISM
a. Level of organisatio
What is a cell
- Group of organelles working together to perform the same functio
What is a tissue
- Group of cells working together to perform the same function
What is an organ
- Group of tissues working together to perform the same function
What is an organ system?
- Group of organs working together to perform the same function
Credit: Virginia Caddick for SwH Learning

Levels Of Organisation
What are the main organs in plants

- Leave
- Root
- Stem
- Flowers

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What are the 7 main organ systems found in humans

- Reproductive system
- Circulatory syste
- Digestive syste
- Gas exchange syste
- Nervous syste
- Excretory syste
- Endocrine syste
List some organs found in the digestive syste
- Oesophagus
- Stomac
- Small intestine
- Large intestine
b. Cell structur
See section 1b for the functions of common organelles
What is a zygote
- Single cell formed after fertilisation occurs
How is a 16 cell embryo formed
- By mitosis (cell division
- 2 cells → 4 cells → 8 cells → 16 cells
c. Biological molecule
What elements are found in lipids (fats)

- Carbon, hydrogen, oxyge
What is the structure of a lipid
- 3 fatty acids
- 1 glycerol molecule

Structure Of A Lipid
What are oils

- Plant lipid
- Liquids at room temperatur

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What is the test for lipids

- Add ethano
- Add water and shake
- Positive result: milky white emulsion form
-

Testing For Lipids
Shake
Positive result = Milky

White Emulsion
What elements are found in proteins

- Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen (and sometimes sulfur
What are proteins made up of
- Long chains of amino acids
- There are 20 different amino acid

Structure Of A Protein
Give some examples of proteins found in the human bod

- Collagen and keratin found in skin and nail
- All enzyme
- Haemoglobi
What is the test for protein
- Add Biuret reagent
- Positive result: purple
Testing For Protein
Add Biuret Reagent Positive Result =

To Sample Purple

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What elements are found in carbohydrates

- Carbon, hydrogen and oxyge
What is the test for glucose
- Heat with water and Benedict’s solution
- Positive result: brick red
Credit: Wikimedia Commons

Testing For Glucose (A Reducing Sugar)
Heat In Water Bath
5 Minutes
95°C
Add Sample To Water Positive Result =

And Benedict’s Solution Brick Red
What are starch and glycogen made up of

- Simple sugars (e.g. glucose) joined togethe
What is the test for starch
- Add iodine
- Positive result: turns blue/black

Testing For Starch
De ne enzym
- Biological catalys
- Speeds up a reactio
- Without being used u
De ne metabolis
- Rate at which chemical reactions take place in the body
- Metabolic reactions catalysed by enzyme
Key enzyme terms
- Substrate - molecule an enzyme acts upo
- Active site - area on an enzyme where substrate attache
- Optimum - temperature or pH at which enzyme activity rate is fastes
- Denature - when enzyme changes shape so substrate no longer ts active sit

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Lock & Key Mechanism Of Enzyme Action
Describe and explain the effect of too high temperature on enzyme activit
- Decreases activit
- Enzyme denatures and substrate can no longer t the active site
Why does decreasing the temperature below the optimum decrease enzyme activity
- Lower kinetic energy
- Fewer collisions between enzymes and substrate

Effect Of Temperature On Enzyme Activity
Optimum temperature
Enzyme activity
Temperature
Why is it important that we control our internal temperature
- Too high - enzymes denature
- Too low - enzymes work too slowly (little kinetic energy) and can’t catalyse chemical reactions
fast enoug
Describe and explain the effect of too high or too low pH on enzyme activit
- Decreases activity
- Enzyme denatures and substrate can no longer t the active sit
Effect Of pH On Enzyme Activity

Optimum pH
Enzyme A Enzyme B
Enzyme activity
pH

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d. Movement of substances into and out of cell
De ne diffusio
- Net movement of particles from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentratio
- Down a concentration gradient
What factors affect the rate of diffusion
- Concentration gradient
- Surface area to volume rati
- Diffusion distance
- Temperatur
What factors increase the rate of diffusion
- Steep concentration gradien
- High surface area to volume rati
- Shorter diffusion distance
- Higher temperature due to increased kinetic energy of particles
De ne active transpor
- Net movement of particles from an area of low concentration to an area of high concentratio
- Requires energy from AT
Give examples of active transport
- Root hair cells absorbing mineral ion
- Movement of glucose through the lining of the small intestine
De ne osmosi
- Net movement of wate
- From an area of high water potential to low water potentia
- Through partially permeable membran
What happens to a plant cell placed in salty solution and why
- Shrinks ( accid
- Cell membrane pulls away from cell wall (plasmolysis
- Higher water potential in cell than surrounding solution - water leaves cell by osmosi
What happens to a plant cell placed in pure water and why
- Swells (turgid
- Because higher water potential in surrounding solution compared with inside the cell so water
enters the cell by osmosis
- Cell wall prevents bursting
What happens to an animal cell placed in pure water and why
- Bursts
- Because higher water potential in surrounding solution compared with inside the cell so water
enters the cell by osmosis
- No cell wall so burst
Examples of large surface area to volume ratios for movement of substance
- Alveoli in lungs for absorption of oxyge
- Villi in small intestine for absorption of soluble products of digestion
- Root hair cells for absorption of mineral ion

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e. Nutritio
Plant
What is the word equation for photosynthesis

- Carbon dioxide + water (+ light energy) → oxygen + glucose
What is the balanced symbol equation for photosynthesis
- 6CO2 + 6H2O → 6O2 + C6H12O6
What is a limiting factor
- Factor in a reaction which is in shortest supply
- Lack of this factor is the reason why the rate of reaction no longer increases
What are the limiting factors of photosynthesis
- Carbon dioxid
- Light intensit
- Temperature
- Increasing any of the above will increase the rate of photosynthesis until another factor
becomes limitin
Why is the rate of photosynthesis low in the morning

- Temperature is the limiting facto
- Low temperatures inhibit enzyme activit
- Carbon dioxide levels are hig
Why is the rate of photosynthesis high at midday
- High temperature maximises enzyme activity
- Carbon dioxide is the limiting factor as it’s in the shortest suppl

Structure Of A Leaf

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How is the leaf adapted for its role

- Waxy cuticle - prevents evaporation of water and stops pathogen entr
- Upper epidermis - transparent to allow light to enter the lea
- Palisade mesophyll - contains lots of chloroplasts for photosynthesis
- Air spaces in spongy mesophyll - allow gases to diffuse
- Xylem - allows entry of water and mineral ions by transpiration strea
- Guard cells - control opening and closure of stomat
- Stomata - allow carbon dioxide to enter, oxygen and water to leav
- Thin and broad (large surface area
Design an investigation to measure the effect of light intensity on the rate of photosynthesi
- Use Elodea or Camboba pondwee
- Oxygen bubbles produced by photosynthesis released
- Count number of bubbles produced over one minute to record rat
- More bubbles produced per minute = faster rate of photosynthesi
- Move a lamp different distances away from beaker to measure effect of light intensit
- Improve accuracy by collecting oxygen released in test tube over longer period of tim

Investigating The Effect of Light Intensity On Rate Of Photosynthesis
Give the independent variable in this investigatio

- Distance of lamp from pondwee
Give the dependent variable in this investigatio
- Number of oxygen bubbles released per minut
- OR volume of oxygen collected
List some control variables in this investigatio
- Species of pondweed use
- Number of leaves on pondwee
- Temperature of wate
- Wattage of lam
- Concentration of CO2 in wate
- Controlled by dissolving sodium hydrogencarbonat

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Describe how to test leaves for starch to show photosynthesis has taken place
- Remove leaf from plan
- Boil beaker of water using Bunsen burne
- Place leaf in boiling water for 20 second
- Remove leaf and place into boiling tube of ethano
- Boil ethanol by placing boiling tube in beaker of very hot wate
- Remove leaf when colourles
- Wash in cold wate
- Place leaf on white tile and add dilute iodine solution with a pipett
- Any starch present will turn brown iodine solution blue/blac
Why is the leaf placed in boiling water?
- To denature enzymes involved in cellular processe
Why is the leaf placed in boiling ethanol before testing for presence of starch?
- To remove green pigment (chlorophyll) in lea
- Colour change can be seen when iodine added
- Removes waxy cuticl

Testing Leaves For The Presence Of Starch
What safety precautions should be taken when boiling in ethanol

- Use a water bath (do not heat with naked ame
- Ethanol is ammabl
- Use forceps or tong
- Protects ski
Explain why chloroplasts appear green
- Chlorophyll absorbs red / blue light
- Re ects green ligh
Explain why di erent colours of light a ect the rate of photosynthesis
- Green is re ected (not absorbed
- Results in low rate of photosynthesi
- Blue & red is absorbe
- Results in faster rate of photosynthesis

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What does the plant use glucose for

- Making cellulose cell walls
- Making proteins and DN
- Making starch for storag
- Making sucrose for transpor
Give the role of nitrate and magnesium ions in plant
Mineral ion Use De ciency symptom
Making amino acids and protein

Nitrate Making DN Stunted growth
Growth
Magnesium Making chlorophyll Yellow leaves
Human
Outline the components of a balanced die

Nutrient Role Food rich in nutrient De ciency disease
Protein - Growth/repair of - Meat, sh, eggs, cheese - Kwashiorkor

muscles
- Glucose - fruits and

vegetable
Carbohydrates - Energy store
- Lactose - mil
- Sucrose - table suga
- Starch - rice, potato,
wheat
Lipids - Insulation and long- - Butter, cheese

term energy store
Water - Supports chemical

reactions inside cells
- Prevents constipatio
Fibre - Helps move food - Fruit and vegetables
through gut
Calcium - Strong teeth and - Milk, cheese

bones
Iron - Used to make - Red meat - Anaemia

haemoglobin
Vitamin A - Good vision - Fish liver oils, butter, - Night blindness

carrots
Vitamin C - Sticks together cells - Lemons, oranges - Scurvy - bleeding

lining the mouth gums
Vitamin D - Strong bones - Fish liver oils, made by - Rickets

skin in sunlight

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Why is a balanced diet important

- Helps maintain good healt
Give the consequences of having a diet that contains too much fa
- Obesit
- Blockage of arterie
- High blood pressure / heart diseas
- Diabete
How do energy requirements vary with activity levels
- Age - older people need less food than young people as activity levels are lowe
- Pregnant women need more food, iron, and calcium to support growing bab
Why is food needed
- For growth and repair of tissue
- Fight diseas
- Supply fuel needed to release energy
What is digestion
- The break down of large, insoluble molecules into small, soluble one
- For absorption through the wall of the small intestine
What is mechanical digestion
- Physical breakdown of food
- e.g. teeth chew food, muscles in stomach churn foo
What is chemical digestion
- Enzymes act as biological catalysts
- Break down large, insoluble molecules into small, soluble one

The Human Digestive System
How does digestion start in the mouth

- Mechanical breakdown of food by teet
- Amylase released - digests starch into maltose

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What is peristalsis
- Contraction and relaxation of circular and longitudinal muscles which push food along the gut
What is the role of the stomach
- Secretes hydrochloric acid to kill pathogen
- Muscular walls churn food (mechanical digestion
What is the role of hydrochloric acid (HCl)
- Kills pathogens
What is the role of bile
- Emulsi es - breaks down large lipid droplets into small ones to increase the surface are
- Neutralises hydrochloric aci
Where is bile made, stored, and released into
- Made - live
- Stored - gall bladder
- Released into - small intestin

Effect Of Bile On Lipids
What is the role of maltase

- To digest maltose into glucose
What is role of amylase
- To digest starch into maltos
Where is amylase made
- Salivary glands, pancrea
Where does amylase act
- Mouth, small intestin
What is the role of lipase
- To digest lipids into fatty acids and glycero
Where is lipase made
- Pancrea
Where does lipase act
- Small intestin

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What is the role of protease

- To digest proteins into amino acid
Where is protease made
- Stomach, pancrea
Where does protease act
- Stomach, small intestin
How is the small intestine adapted for its function
- Large surface area provided by villi and microvill
- Lots of capillarie
- Thin wall - short diffusion distance
- Lacteals - absorption of fat

Structure Of A Villus
What is the role of the rectum?

- Stores faece
What is ingestion
- When food enters the mout
What is absorption
- The movement of soluble food through the wall of the small intestine into the blood stream
What is assimilation
- When small food molecules are used to build large ones
What is excretion
- The removal of waste products of metabolis
What is egestion
- The removal of faeces from the anu
f. Respiratio
What is respiration
- Makes ATP
- ATP used to release energy
What is the energy in ATP used for
- Contraction of muscle
- Cell divisio
- Building large molecules from small one
- Active transport

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What is the equation for respiration

- Glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water + (energy
What is the symbol equation for respiration
- C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2
What is aerobic respiration
- Release of energy using oxyge
- Carried out by mitochondri
What is anaerobic respiration
- Respiration without the use of oxygen
- Glucose incompletely broken down
Give 2 examples of anaerobic respiratio
- Yeas
- Muscle cells during strenuous exercis
What is the equation for anaerobic respiration in yeast
- Glucose → ethanol + carbon dioxide (+ little energy
How can the products of anaerobic respiration in yeast be used commercially
- Ethanol - beer-makin
- Carbon dioxide - helps bread dough rise
Summary of anaerobic respiration in muscle cells
- Due to insuf cient oxygen delivery to muscles e.g. when sprinting
- Glucose → lactate (+ little energy
- Oxygen debt builds u
What is an oxygen debt
- Volume of oxygen needed to completely breakdown the lactate
What substance can be used to remove carbon dioxide
- Soda lime
Hydrogen carbonate indicator colours
- Atmospheric carbon dioxide (0.04%) = red/orang
- High levels of carbon dioxide = yellow
- Low levels of carbon dioxide = purple
g. Gas exchange
Human
How are the airways kept clean

- Goblet cells secrete mucu
- Mucus traps the dirt/bacteri
- Cilia (cells with hairlike structures) waft mucus up to mouth
- Mucus is swallowed and destroyed by hydrochloric acid in stomac
What is ventilation
- Movement of air into and out of the lung

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Structure Of The Lungs
Describe the process of breathing in (inhalation

- External intercostal muscles contrac
- Ribs move up and ou
- Diaphragm contracts and atten
- Volume inside thorax increase
- Pressure decreases
- Air is sucked into the lung
Describe the process of breathing ou
- Internal intercostal muscles contrac
- Ribs move down and i
- Diaphragm relaxes and become dome shape
- Volume inside thorax decrease
- Pressure increases
- Air is forced out of the lung
Compare inhaled and exhaled ai
- Inhaled air contains more oxygen and less carbon dioxide than exhaled air
How are the alveoli adapted for gas exchange
- Large surface are
- Good blood suppl
- Thin walls - short diffusion pathway
- Moist - dissolve gases
Describe the effects of smoking on the bod
- Cilia are paralysed → build up of mucus and pathogens → smoker’s cough → bronchitis
- Smoke damages alveolar walls → walls break down → decreased surface area for gas
exchange → emphysem
- Carcinogens → tumour growth → lung cance
- Carbon monoxide combines irreversibly with haemoglobin in red blood cells → forms
carboxyhaemoglobin → less oxygen transported → reduced respiration rate

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h. Transpor
Why can unicellular organisms (e.g. amoeba) rely on diffusion for movement of substances into
and out of the cell
- Large surface area to volume rati
- Short diffusion distanc
Why do animals need circulatory systems
- Surface area to volume ratio is too smal
- Diffusion is too slo
- Circulatory system needed to transport oxygen
Plant
What is the role of the phloem

- Transports sugars from leaves to growing regions/roots for storage i.e. Both up and down the
shoo
Describe the structure of phloe

- Sieve tubes with sieve plates in betwee
- Companion cells contain lots of mitochondria for release of energ
What is the role of the xylem
- Transports mineral ions and water from roots to owers i.e. Up the shoot only
Describe the structure of xyle
- Hollow forming a continuous column - no cytoplas
- Lignin gives the xylem strength and suppor
Human
List the components of the bloo

- Plasm
- White blood cells (phagocytes and lymphocytes
- Red blood cell
- Platelets
What does the blood transport
- Oxygen from the lungs to other parts of the bod
- Carbon dioxide from other parts of the body to the lung
- Nutrients from the gut to all parts of the bod
- Urea from liver to kidney
List substances transported in the plasm
- Carbon dioxid
- Ure
- Glucos
- Amino acid
- Hormone
How are red blood cells adapted for their function
- Biconcave disc shape - large surface area for transport of oxyge
- Haemoglobin binds to oxygen forming oxyhaemoglobin
- No nucleus - more space for haemoglobi

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Structure Of A Red Blood Cell
How does the body prevent pathogen entry

- Skin acts as a barrie
- HCl in stomach destroys pathogen
- Hairs prevent entr
- Platelets clot the blood at the site of a wound
How do white blood cells attack invading pathogens
- Phagocytes engulf pathogen
- Lymphocytes recognise antigens and produce antibodies which destroy pathogens
- Antitoxins mad
How do lymphocytes destroy pathogens
- Recognise antigen
- Make antibodies (proteins) which destroy pathogens by
- Causing bacteria to stick together
- Label pathogen so it’s easily recognisable by phagocyte
- Produce antitoxins
- Cause bacteria to burs
Phagocytosis Of A Pathogen

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Explain how the body usually responds to foreign protein

- White blood cells recognise antigen
- Ingest foreign proteins by phagocytosis
- Antibodies produced
- Memory cells produce
- Provide faster response upon reinfectio
Describe the movement of the blood around the body starting at the right atriu
- Deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium via the vena cav
- Right atrium contracts forcing blood through tricuspid valve into right ventricle
- Blood enters the right ventricle and leaves via the pulmonary arter
- Blood ows to the lungs and becomes oxygenate
- Blood returns to the heart and enters the left atrium via the pulmonary vei
- Left atrium contracts forcing blood through bicuspid valve into the left ventricle
- Left ventricles contracts forcing blood into the aorta
- Oxygenated ows around the body and is used in respiration

Simplified Diagram Of The Heart

Structure Of The Heart
How is our heart rate increased

- Adrenaline increases heart rate
- When we exercise, muscles produce carbon dioxide
- Receptors in aorta and carotid artery detect increase in carbon dioxide
- Electrical impulses sent to medulla
- Accelerator nerve raises heart rat

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What is the coronary artery

- Blood vessel that supplies the heart with oxygen
What factors contribute to coronary heart disease
- Heredit
- High blood pressure
- Diet - high levels of saturated fat and cholesterol
- Smokin
- Stres
- Lack of exercis
Explain how coronary heart disease can cause deat
- A lot of cholesterol can block coronary arter
- Less oxygenated blood to heart muscle cell
- Less aerobic respiration, more anaerobic respiratio
- Lactic acid build up causes heart attac
What does single circulation mean
- Blood is pumped from the heart to the lungs and then to rest of the bod
What does double circulation mean
- Blood ows twice into the heart for every once around the bod
What does the circulatory system consist of
- Hear
- Arteries, veins and capillarie
- Bloo
Why is the wall of the ventricles thicker than that of the atria
- The ventricles have to pump the blood furthe
Why is the wall of the left ventricle thicker than that of the right ventricle
- Blood from the right ventricle is only pumped to the lung
- Blood from the left ventricle is pumped much further - around the whole bod
Describe the structure of arterie
- Thick muscle and elastic bre wall
- Narrow lume
- High blood pressur
Why are the artery walls so thick
- To withstand the high pressure of the blood owing insid
Describe the structure of the vein
- Thin muscle and elastic bre wall
- Large lume
- Lower blood pressur
- Semi-lunar valves prevent the back ow of blood
Describe the structure of the capillarie
- Thin walls - one cell thic
- Short diffusion distanc
- Narrow lume

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Structure Of Blood Vessels
Credit: Martin Bailey for Science with Hazel Ltd

Human Circulatory System
Head & neck
Upper limbs
Pulmonary artery Pulmonary vein

Lungs
Vena cava
Right Left
atrium atrium
Aorta
Arteries
Right Left
Veins
ventricle ventricle
Hepatic vein Hepatic artery

Liver
Hepatic portal vein
Stomach & intestines
Renal vein Renal artery

Kidneys
Lower limbs
Deoxygenated blood Oxygenated blood
Name the blood vessel that takes oxygenated blood to the kidne
- Renal arter
Name the blood vessel that takes deoxygenated blood from the kidne
- Renal vei

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Name the blood vessel that takes oxygenated blood to the live
- Hepatic arter
Name the blood vessel that takes deoxygenated blood from the live
- Hepatic vei
i. Excretio
Plant
De ne excretio
- Removal of waste products of metabolism
What are the waste gas products from respiration and photosynthesis
- Respiration: Carbon dioxide
- Photosynthesis: Oxyge
How are waste gas products exported from the leaf
- Stomata allow diffusion of gases out of the leaf
- From high concentration gradient to low concentration gradien
Human
What substances are excreted from the body

- Urea from kidney
- Carbon dioxide from lungs
- Sweat from ski
- Note: faeces is NOT excreted, it is egested
j. Co-ordination and respons
What is homeostasis
- Maintenance of a constant internal environment e.g. water content, temperatur
What is a stimulus
- Change in the environment
Plant
What are auxins

- Plant hormones
What is a tropism
- The response of a plant to a directional stimulus
List different types of tropis
- Phototropism - a plant’s response to ligh
- Geotropism - a plant’s response to gravit
Describe the roots and shoots response to light
- Roots - negative phototropis
- Shoots - positive phototropis

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Describe the roots and shoots response to gravit

- Roots - positive geotropis
- Shoots - negative geotropism
What is a coleoptile
- Simple plants used to investigate tropis
- Cereal seedling
What is a clinostat
- Apparatus used to remove the effect gravity/light/wate
Describe how a stem may bend towards the ligh
- Auxins concentrate on the side furthest from the light
- Causes cell elongation
- Stem bends towards ligh

The Action Of Auxins In Shoots
Human
What are the sense organs in a human

- Eye - receives light energ
- Ear - receives sound and kinetic energ
- Muscle - receives kinetic energ
- Tongue - receives chemical energy
- Nose - receives chemical energ
- Skin - receives kinetic and heat energy
What is the difference between hormonal and nervous responses
- Nervous involves electrical impulses, hormonal involves chemicals carried in the bloo
- Nervous response faster, hormonal slowe
- Nervous response short-lived, hormonal long-live
- Nervous response very localised, hormonal wide-sprea
What is the CNS
- Brain and spinal cor
- Linked to sense organs by nerve

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Structure Of A Nerve Cell (Neurone)
What is the list of responses in a nervous response

- Stimulus - receptor - sensory neurone - CNS - motor neurone - effector - respons
- Involves electrical impulses and synapse
What is the list of responses in a re ex action
- Stimulus - receptor - sensory neurone - relay neurone - motor neurone - effector - response
- Involves electrical impulses and synapse
- e.g. withdrawal of nger from hot objec
Credit: Aldona Griskeviciene for Shutterstock

Human Reflex Arc
Receptor
Sensory neurone (e.g. skin)
Relay neurone
Motor neurone
Effector
(e.g. muscle)
Segment of spinal cord
What is a synapse
- Gap between two neurones
- Neurotransmitter diffuses and binds to post-synaptic membrane
How is a re ex action different to a regular response
- Re ex action is faster, involuntary, and involves relay neurone
What is an effector
- Muscle (contracts) or a gland (secretes a hormone

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Structure Of The Eye
What is the role of

- Choroid - stops light being re ected inside the ey
- Cornea - refracts ligh
- Lens - refracts ligh
- Conjunctiva - protects ey
- Sclera - tough outer casing - protects ey
- Retina - contains photoreceptors (rods (dim light) and cones (detect colour)) which are sensitive
to ligh
- Iris - contains radial and circular muscles which control the size of the pupi
- Pupil - allows light to enter the ey
- Suspensory ligament and ciliary muscles - control the shape of the len
- Optic nerve - takes electrical impulses from the eye to the brai
- Blind spot - where the the optic nerve enters the eye
What is accommodation
- Changes that take place within the eye
- Enable us to focus on objects at different distances
How does the eye focus on a nearby object
- Ciliary muscle contract
- Suspensory ligaments slacke
- Lens fa
- Light refracted strongl
How does the eye focus on a faraway object
- Ciliary muscle rela
- Suspensory ligaments tau
- Lens thi
- Light refracted less strongly
How does the pupil constrict in bright light and why is this necessary
- Circular muscles contrac
- Radial muscles rela
- Pupil constricts
- Protects the retina from the bright light

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How does the pupil dilate in dim light and why is this necessary
- Circular muscles rela
- Radial muscles contrac
- Pupil dilates
- Allows more light to enter the ey
What is the role of the skin
- Sense organ for pain, touch and pressur
- Tough outer laye
- Controls heat los
- Barrier - prevents entry of pathogens
- Prevents water los
Explain what happens when your body temperature is too hig
- Hair erector muscles rela
- Hairs lay a
- Less insulating air trapped close to the body
- Vasodilation (arterioles dilate
- Blood ows closer to skin surfac
- More heat radiated
- Sweat evaporates and cools the bod
Explain what happens when your body temperature is too lo
- Hair erector muscles contract
- Hairs stand u
- More insulating air trapped close to the bod
- Vasoconstriction (arterioles constrict)
- Less blood ows to surface of ski
- Less heat radiated
- Shiver - contraction of muscle releases heat
Credit: healthline.com
Structure Of The Skin
Hair follicle
Capillary
Sweat gland Hair erector muscle
Where is adrenaline produced

- Adrenal glan
What is the effect of adrenaline on the body
- Prepares the body for ‘ ight or ght
- Pupils dilate - allows more light to enter the ey
- Hairs stand up on end - to appear more intimidatin
- Breathing rate increases - to allow more oxygen into the bod
- Heart rate increases - to deliver more oxygen around the bod
- Blood diverted from gut to muscles

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How is blood sugar level decreased

- Pancreas secretes insuli
- Insulin converts soluble glucose into insoluble glycoge
Where is testosterone made and what is its function
- Teste
- Stimulate secondary sexual characteristics e.g. voice deepening, sperm production, pubic hair
Where is oestrogen made and what is its function
- Ovarie
- Stimulates secondary sexual characteristics e.g. hips widening, breast growth, pubic hai
- Repairs uterus linin
- Inhibits FSH production, stimulates LH productio
Where is progesterone made and what is its function
- Initially corpus luteum, later in pregnancy the placent
- Maintains uterus lining
For more information on the hormonal control of the menstrual cycle, see Section 3

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3. REPRODUCTION AND INHERITANC
a. Reproduction
Summary of sexual reproduction

- 2 parents needed to make gametes (sex cells - sperm and eggs
- Sperm and egg fuse at fertilisatio
- Zygote formed
- Divides by mitosis to form embry
- Produces genetically varied offsprin
Summary of asexual reproduction
- 1 parent only
- No gamete
- No fertilisation
- Cells from parent divide by mitosis and then break awa
- Forms new organism which is identical to parent (clone
Comparison of sexual and asexual reproduction
Sexual Reproduction Asexual Reproduction
Sex cells produced Yes No
Fertilisation takes place Yes No
Variation in offspring Yes No
Helps survival in: Changing environment Stable environment
How does sexual reproduction make it more likely that a species can adapt to a changing
environment?
- Produces genetically varied offspring by
- Random fertilisation of gametes
- Mixing of alleles from both parent
- Meiosi
What is fertilisation
- Fusion of male (sperm) and female (egg) gamete
- Zygote forme
- Undergoes mitosis
- Embryo formed
What is a zygote
- Single cell formed after fertilisation occur
Plant
What is pollination
- When pollen from the anther lands on the stigma
What is self pollination
- When pollen from the anther lands on the stigma in the same owe
What is fertilisation
- When pollen fuses with the egg in the ovary

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Describe the features of an insect pollinated ower that help it attract insect
- Large petals - attract insect
- Coloured petals - attract insect
- Scent - makes insects push past stame
- Nectar - makes insects push past stamen
- Sticky pollen grains - attach to insec
Credit: CC BY-NC-ND for pixy.org

Structure Of A Flower Carpel
Stigma ♀
Stamen Anther Style
♂
Filament Ovary
Petal
Sepal
Ovule
Receptacle
Describe the features of a wind pollinated owe

- Exposed stamens - allow pollen grains to be easily release
- Feathery stigma - catches drifting pollen grain
- Small petals - allows stamens and stigmas to be expose
- Small pollen grains - easily carried by the win
Describe the events that lead to seed formation
- Pollen lands on stigm
- Pollen tube grows down style into ovar
- Male gamete (pollen) fuses with female gamete (egg
- Ovule becomes see
- Ovule wall becomes seed coat
- Ovary becomes frui
Structure Of A Seed
Plumule
Cotyledon
(Food store)
Radicle
Testa
(seed coat)
What is germination
- Food store in seed is used u
- Radicle grows dow
- Plumule grows up towards light and starts photosynthesis

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What conditions are needed for germination

- Water - to activate enzyme
- Oxygen - for respiratio
- Warm temperature - optimum temperature for enzyme-controlled reaction
Describe an investigation into the factors needed for germinatio
- Set up 4 test tubes, with each containing 15 cress seeds on cotton woo
- In one test tube (A) leave cotton wool dr
- In one test tube (B) add water to cotton wool to make it mois
- In one test tube (C) add water to cotton wool, then add layer of oil on top
- In one test tube (D) add water to cotton wool to make it moist, then place in fridg
- Leave tubes A, B and C at room temperatur
- Leave all tubes for set period of time (e.g. 5 days
- Compare results and see which tube has the greatest number of germinated seed
What is the purpose of the layer of oil in test tube C
- Prevent oxygen reaching seed
Which test tube would you expect to see the greatest number of seeds germinating
-
- Only tube to provide water, oxygen and warmt
- All others missing at least one facto
Give the independent variable for this investigatio

- Abiotic conditions in which seeds are germinating (water, oxygen, temperature
Give the dependent variable for this investigatio
- Number of seeds germinating after 5 day
Give control variables for this investigatio
- Temperature of tubes A, B and
- Species of cress seeds use
- Parent plant of cress seed
- Type of water used (boil rst then cool
- Light intensit
Give examples of natural asexual reproduction in plant
- Strawberry runner
- Tuber
Describe how strawberry runners reproduce asexuall
- Runners = horizontal stems that grow sideways from parent plan
- When runners touch the soil, plantlets grow roots
- New plantlets grow and become independent from parent plan
Give an example of an arti cial method of asexual reproduction in plant
- Taking a cuttin
Describe the process of taking a cuttin
- A piece of a plant’s stem is cut of
- Dipped in rooting powde
- Contains plant growth hormone
- Transferred to soi
- Grow into genetically identical plants

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Human
Describe the structure and function of the male reproductive system

Structure Function
- Passes urine out of the body from the bladde

Penis - Allows semen to enter into the vagina of a woman during
sexual intercourse
Testis
- Contained in the scrotu
- Produces sperm and testosterone
Sperm Duct (Vas Deferens)

- Sperm passes through the sperm duct where it mixes with
uids produced by the sex gland
Sex Gland - Produces semen (provides sperm cells with nutrients)
- Exports urine or semen from the bod

Urethra - Ring of muscle in the urethra prevents mixing of urine and
semen

The Male Reproductive System
Where is testosterone made and what is its function

- Teste
- Stimulate secondary sexual characteristics e.g. voice deepening, sperm production, pubic hair

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Describe the structure and function of the female reproductive system

Structure Function
Oviduct
- Connects the ovary to the uterus
(Fallopian Tube)
- Lined with ciliated cells to push the ovum towards uterus for
fertilisation
Ovary - Contains female gametes (ova) which mature and develop

when FSH is released
Uterus - Muscular structure with a soft lining

- Fertilised egg cell implanted there to develop into a foetus
Cervix - Ring of muscle at lower end of uteru

- Keeps foetus in place during pregnancy
Urethra - Tube that passes urine out of the body
Vagina - Muscular tube that the male’s penis enters during sexual
intercourse

The Female Reproductive System
Oviduct /
How long does the menstrual cycle last

- Approximately 28 day
On which day is the egg usually released (ovulation)
- 1
What is menstruation
- Breakdown of thickened uterus linin
- Occurs when egg has not been fertilise
How long does menstruation last
- 5 - 7 day

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Where is oestrogen made and what is its function

- Ovarie
- Stimulates secondary sexual characteristics e.g. hips widening, breast growth, pubic hai
- Causes thickening of uterus linin
Where is progesterone made and what is its function
- Initially corpus luteum, later in pregnancy the placenta
- Maintains uterus lining
Credit: Marochkina Anastasiia for Shutterstock

The Menstrual Cycle
Explain the hormonal control of menstruatio

- Oestrogen causes growth and repair of uterus lining
- When oestrogen reaches high enough level → causes ovulation (approximately day 14 of cycle
- Follicle becomes corpus luteum → starts producing progesteron
- Progesterone maintains uterus lining
- If the ovum not fertilised → corpus luteum breaks down, progesterone levels dro
- Causes menstruatio
- Uterus lining breaks down and is removed through the vagin
- If fertilisation occurs → corpus luteum continues to produce progesteron
- Prevents uterus lining from breaking down and aborting pregnanc
- After placenta develops, it secretes progesterone throughout pregnanc
Describe the changes that take place in the uterus during the menstrual cycl
- Uterus lining thickens
- Progesterone maintains lining
- If fertilisation has not occurred, lining breaks down and is shed
- If egg is fertilised, lining not broken dow
Describe the passage of sperm in the female huma
- Semen (contains sperm and uid from seminal vesicles) is ejaculated into the vagin
- Sperm swim through uterus to oviduc
Where does fertilisation take place
- Oviduc
What is the function of the acrosome in the head of a sperm cell
- Contains digestive enzyme
- To break through egg membran

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Why does a sperm cell require mitochondria

- For respiratio
- To provide energy for tai
What is the function of the sperm cell’s tail?
- Allow sperm cell to mov

Structure Of A Sperm Cell
Explain why avoiding sexual intercourse at certain times of the menstrual cycle may not be a
reliable method of birth contro
- Ovulation may vary within a woma
- Sperm can survive for a number of day
Give the different stages of development during human reproductio
- Gametes → Zygote → Embryo → Foetus → Bab
De ne gamet
- A sex cell e.g. sperm or egg
Explain how an 8 cell embryo is forme
- Sperm and egg made by meiosi
- Fertilisation in oviduc
- Zygote implants in uterus wal
- Divides by mitosis
What is the role of the placenta
- Provides embryo with oxygen and nutrients from the mother’s bloo
- Removes urea and CO2 from embry
- Releases progesterone in late pregnanc
Describe how a developing foetus is supplied with nutrient
- Nutrients (e.g. glucose, oxygen, amino acids) from mother’s bloo
- Diffuse through placent
- Placenta has large surface area and thin wall
- Umbilical cord joins foetus blood supply to placent
How is the placenta adapted for ef cient exchange of substances
- Villi - large surface are
- Good blood supply from capillaries - steep concentration gradient
- Thin walls - short diffusion distanc

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What is the role of the amnion/amniotic uid

- Protects foetus from physical impac
- Acts as shock absorbe
Where does the amniotic sac develop
- Uteru
b. Inheritanc
What is a genome
- The entire DNA of an organis
What is a gene
- Section of DNA which codes for a protei
Where are genes found
- In chromosomes within the nucleus
What is the role of genes
- Control the activities of the cell
- Determine which proteins are mad
What is an allele?
- Different form of the same gene which gives rise to different characteristics
- e.g. B = brown eyes, b = blue eyes
De ne homozygou
- Having two copies of the same allele
De ne heterozygou
- Having two different copies of the same allele
Describe genotyp
- The alleles an organism has
De ne phenotype
- The physical appearance of an individual
De ne recessiv
- Allele only expressed if the dominant allele is not present
De ne dominan
- Allele expressed even if only one is present
De ne monohybrid inheritanc
- Single gene responsible for phenotyp
De ne polygenic inheritanc
- Many genes combine to give phenotyp
- Most phenotypic features are a result of polygenic inheritanc

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Genetic Crosses - Punnett Squares (ALWAYS SET OUT YOUR ANSWER LIKE THIS)
Example 1
A mother is recessive and has blonde hair (bb), and a father is heterozygous, and brown haired
(Bb). Calculate the probability of their children having blonde hair
First, create a table with the information provide
Mother Father
Phenotype Blonde Brown
Genotype bb Bb
Gametes b or b B or b
Then carry out your Punnett squar
Father
B b
B b
b
(Brown hair) (Blonde hair)
Mother
B b
b
(Brown hair) (Blonde hair)
Result: 50% blonde hair, 50% brown hair
Example 2
Draw a Punnett square to show how sex is inherited in humans. Females are XX, males are XY
Mother Father
Phenotype Female Male
Genotype XX XY
Gametes X or X X or Y
Father
X Y
X X X
(Female) (Male)
Mother
X X X
(Female) (Male)
Result: 50% female, 50% male

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What is a carrier
- Someone who has a gene for a disease but does not suffer from any symptoms
Example 3
Cystic brosis is a recessive genetic disorder. A mother and father are both carriers for the
recessive cystic brosis gene (c). Calculate the ratio of the phenotypes of their children
Mother Father
Phenotype Carrier Carrier
Genotype Cc Cc
Gametes C or c C or c
Father
C c
C CC Cc
Mother
c Cc cc
Result: 1 : 2 : 1 (Healthy : Carrier : Cystic brosis)
What is a pedigree diagram

- Shows how a genetic condition is passed from generation to generatio
- Possible to work out which is the dominant allele
- Can then work out genotype of each person/animal in the pedigre

Example Of A Pedigree Chart For A Recessive Genetic Disorder Allele
Ff Ff
F = health
f = recessive disorder allele
ff Ff Ff ff FF FF
Ff ff ff Ff ff FF FF FF
Ke Healthy femal Carrier femal Affected female
Healthy mal Carrier mal Affected male

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What are the genotypes for males and females

- Male: X
- Female: X
How is sex inherited
- X chromosome from mothe
- All eggs contain one X chromosom
- X or Y chromosome from father
- 50% of sperm cells contain one X chromosome, 50% contain one Y chromosom
Credit: Hakan Gurkan et al.Balkan Journal of Medical Genetics

Genetic Diagram (Karyogram) Of Male And Female Chromosomes
Male (XY)
Female (XX)
De ne haploi
- Contains 1 set of chromosomes e.g. 23 in human
- Gametes are haploi
De ne diploi
- Contains 2 sets of chromosomes e.g. 46 in human
De ne clon
- Genetically identical cell/organis
Give examples of when mitosis occur
- Growth, repair
- Clonin
- Asexual reproductio
Main steps of mitosis
- Prophas
- Metaphas
- Anaphas
- Telophas

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What is the product of one round of mitosis

- 2 genetically identical cell
- Cells are diploi
Where does meiosis occur
- Sex organ
- Meiosis produces gamete
What is the product of one round of meiosis
- 4 genetically varied cell
- Haploi
Compare the features of mitosis and meiosi
Feature Mitosis Meiosis
Number of cell divisions 1 2
Number of daughter cells formed 2 4
Number of chromosomes in cells

Diploid Haploid
formed
Type of cells formed Body cells Sex cells (gametes)
Genetic variation in cells formed None Variation
How is variation within a species brought about

- Genetics (e.g. hair colour
- Environmental conditions (e.g. reduced growth due to poor diet when young
- Or a combination of bot
How does genetic variation occur
- Random fertilisation of gametes
- Mixing of alleles from both parent
- Meiosi
What is a mutation
- A rare, random change in the genetic material that can be inherite
De ne evolution
- All organisms alive today, and many more which are now extinct, evolved from simple life forms
which rst developed more than 3.2 billion years ag
Describe the mechanism of Natural Selectio

- Variation within a species due to mutatio
- Individuals better adapted more likely to survive and reproduc
- Alleles passed onto offsprin
- Repeats over many generation
- Selected for alleles become more prominent in populatio
How may bacteria become resistant to antibiotics
- Some bacteria have mutations which make them more likely to surviv
- The bacteria reproduce and pass on these favourable alleles to future bacteri
- Soon the whole population of bacteria is resistant to the antibiotic

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4. ECOLOGY AND THE ENVIRONMEN
a. The organism in the environmen
What is a sample
- When you take a smaller representative part of a population
De ne ‘environment
- The total non-biological components of the ecosystem e.g. water, soil, ai
De ne ‘habitat
- The place where a speci c organism live
De ne ‘population
- All the organisms of a particular species found in an ecosystem
De ne ‘community
- The population of all species found in a particular ecosyste
Describe how a quadrat can be used to investigate the population size of an organism in two
different area
- Divide the sample areas into a gri
- Place quadrat randomly using a random number generato
- Count how many of the species is presen
- Repea
- Multiply to total are
- Repeat procedure for second are
What are biotic factors
- Biological (living) factors
- e.g. predation, parasitism, food availability, nesting sites, diseas
What are abiotic factors
- Non-biological (non-living) factors
- e.g. temperature, pH of soil, light intensity, number of daylight hour
b. Feeding relationship
De ne produce
- Plants which photosynthesise to produce foo
De ne consume
- Animals which eat plants or other animal
What is a decomposer
- Organisms which decay dead material and help to recycle nutrient
De ne parasit
- An animal which lives inside another animal, gaining food and causing harm to host anima
De ne predato
- An animal which kills and eats another anima

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De ne trophic leve
- Position in a food chain / we
- e.g. producer, primary consumer, secondary consumer, tertiary consume
What is meant by a food chain or food web
- Shows feeding relationship
- By showing which organism eats which organis
- Shows the ow of energy from producer to top consumer through trophic level
How does chemical energy ow through food chains/webs
- By feedin
What do the arrows in a food chain/web represent?
- Direction of energy transfe
Credit: EreborMountain for Shutterstock

Food Web
Secondary Consumers
(3rd trophic level)
Direction of energy Primary Consumers

transfer (2nd trophic level)
Producers
(1st trophic level)
What is a pyramid of numbers?

- They represent the number of organisms at each trophic level, irrespective of their biomass Credit: Martin Bailey for SwH Learning
Pyramid Of Numbers
(Not to scale)
Hawk (tertiary consumer) 2
Blue tit (secondary consumer) 500
Aphid (primary consumer) 10,000
Oak (producer) 1

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What is biomass
- The total amount of living material in an organism
How is biomass measured
- Organism kille
- Heated to remove wate
- Constant dry mass measure
What is a pyramid of biomass?
- They represent the total mass of organisms in each trophic level, irrespective of their numbe

Pyramid Of Biomass
(Not to scale)
Hawk (tertiary consumer) 2
Blue tit (secondary consumer) 500
Aphid (primary consumer) 10,000
Oak (producer) 1
Give the advantage and disadvantage of using a pyramid of biomas

- Advantag
- More accurate as organism’s size taken into accoun
- Disadvantag
- Data dif cult to obtain as dry mass require
Describe how a quadrat can be used to estimate plant biomass in a regio
- Divide the sample area into a gri
- Record the (dry) mass of plant using scale
- Remove any animals, soil etc
- Repea
- Multiply to total area
Explain why only 10% of energy is transferred from one trophic level to the nex
- Not all of the plant is eaten (in the case of producer → primary consumer
- Some parts are indigestible (in the case of producer → primary consumer
- Some energy lost in excretory products e.g. sweat, urin
- Respiration leads to loss of carbon dioxide and wate
- Maintenance of steady body temperature (e.g. homeostasis in cows)

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c. Cycles within ecosystem
Carbon cycl
- Carbon dioxide is absorbed by green plants in photosynthesis
- Carbon used to make glucose and protein
- Plants respire releasing carbon dioxid
- Plants eaten by animals and carbon becomes part of their bodie
- Animals respire releasing carbon dioxid
- Plants and animals die and are decomposed by microorganism
- Microorganisms respire, releasing carbon dioxide
- Complete combustion of fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide
Credit: Martin Bailey for Science with Hazel Ltd

Carbon Cycle
Carbon Dioxide
Respiration (Atmosphere) Combustion
Dissolves Photosynthesis
Respiration
Consumed Respiration
Plants Animals
Factories & Vehicle
Death Emissions
Death
Ocean Decomposers
Sedimentation
Fossilisation Extraction
Limestone & Shells Fossil Fuels
d. Human in uences on the environmen
How is acid rain made

- Acidic impurities in crude oil (a fossil fuel) → sulfur dioxide → sulfuric aci
- Nitrogen and oxygen react in car engines → nitrogen oxides → nitric aci
What effect does acid rain have?
- Destroys limestone buildings
- Kills tree
- Makes ponds too acidic leading to death of s
What produces carbon monoxide
- Incomplete combustio
What effect does carbon monoxide have on the body?
- Combines irreversibly with haemoglobin so less oxygen transported

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What is a greenhouse gas

- Gas that traps heat by re ecting infrared radiatio
Give examples of greenhouse gase
- Methane (cows, rice paddy elds
- Water vapou
- Carbon dioxide (burning fossil fuels
- Nitrous oxide (burning fossil fuels, car engines
- CFC
Where do CFCs come from
- Aerosols, fridge
What effect do CFCs have on the environment
- Damage ozone laye
- Contribute to greenhouse effec
Explain how the greenhouse effect causes global warmin
- Sun emits energy that enters Earth’s atmospher
- Energy absorbed and re-emitted by Earth’s surface as infrared (IR) radiatio
- Some IR radiation re ected back out into spac
- Some IR radiation absorbed by greenhouse gases
- Heat is trapped within Earth’s atmosphere
- As greenhouse gases levels increase, Earth’s average temperature increase
- Causing global warmin
How have humans contributed to the increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases
- Carbon dioxide produced by combustion of fossil fuel
- Methane produced by grazing cattle
- Methane released by rice paddy eld
- Deforestation results in more CO2 in atmospher
- Less photosynthesis occurrin
- CFCs from fridges and aerosols released into atmospher
What possible effects does an enhanced greenhouse effect have
- Global warmin
- Ice caps mel
- Sea levels rise
- Low lying land ood
- Destruction of habitat
- Loss of biodiversit
- Extreme weather
- Change in bird migration pattern
How can humans reduce the build up of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere
- Burn less fossil fuel
- Plant more trees / reduce deforestatio
- Use renewable energy (e.g. wind / solar
- Reduce cattle farming and use fewer paddy eld

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Describe the effects of excess fertilisers on the environmen

- Eutrophicatio
- Fertilisers are washed (leached) into river
- Water plants grow quickly - algal bloom
- Competition for sunligh
- Plants di
- Bacteria feed on the dead plant
- Bacteria use up all the oxygen in respiration
- Fish and other aquatic organisms die as not enough oxygen
Describe the effects of leached sewage on the environmen
- Bacteria feed on the organic matter in sewag
- Aerobic bacteria use up all the oxygen in respiratio
- Less oxygen dissolved in wate
- Fish and other aquatic organisms die as not enough oxygen

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5. USE OF BIOLOGICAL RESOURCE
a. Food productio
Crop plant
How do glasshouses and polythene tunnels increase crop yield

- Allow natural light in during summer, can provide arti cial light in winte
- Provide warmer environment than outside - trap heat energy (IR radiation), reduce convectio
- Can be heated electronically if it’s too cold outsid
- Provide humid atmosphere - reduce water loss by transpiratio
What effect does increasing carbon dioxide and temperature have on crop yield in glasshouses
- Increasing carbon dioxide → increases rate of photosynthesis → increases yiel
- Increasing temperature → increased growth and photosynthesis → increases yiel
How do fertilisers increase crop yield
- Replace lost nitrates and minerals in the soi
- Nitrates required for protein synthesis and DNA formation in plant
Why do farmers use pesticides
- Kill speci c pests that would otherwise damage cro
- Improve yiel
What are the advantages and disadvantages of using pesticides
Advantages Disadvantages
Effective at controlling pests Expensive
Readily available Persistent - may decompose slowly
Stored in tissues of living organisms

Easy to use (Bioaccumulation
Becomes more concentrated along a food
chain (Biomagni cation)
Toxic and not speci c - kill other insects
What is biological control?

- Introduction of a predator to prey on speci c pest
- e.g. ladybirds introduced to prey on aphid
What are the advantages and disadvantages of using biological control
Advantages Disadvantages
Non-toxic Never fully removes pest
Introducing alien species into an environment

Targets speci c pest only
can have undesired results
Self-sustaining Slow

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Microorganism
What is the role of yeast in the production of bread

- Yeast respire using sugar
- Yeast respires (aerobically at rst, then anaerobically) producing carbon dioxid
- Carbon dioxide makes bread ris
- When baked, gas bubbles expand to give bread its texture
How is yoghurt made
- Heat milk to 80-90°C
- To pasteurise milk (kill competing/pathogenic bacteria
- Sterilise container(s
- To prevent contaminatio
- Cool to approx 45°
- To prevent killing Lactobacillus bacteria when adde
- Bacteria added (Lactobacillus
- Leave for 6 hours at the optimum temperature (35°C) for the bacteri
- Anaerobic respiration converts lactose → lactic aci
What is a fermenter
- Vessel containing microorganisms used for fermentatio
- Used to produce large quantities of product from microorganisms
- e.g. insulin, penicilli
Credit: Wikimedia Commons

Fermenter
Agitation system (stirrer)
Feeding pump
System monitor
Nutrient medium
Sensors / Probes
Air
Reactor tank Thermal jacket
Aerator
Harvest pipe
How is temperature controlled in a fermenter

- Temperature recorder / monito
- Cooling jacke

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What are the suitable conditions within a fermenter

- Nutrients
- A controlled supply to feed microorganism
- pH
- Kept constant at optimum level by adding acid or alkali as necessary
- Air suppl
- Provides oxygen necessary for aerobic respiratio
- Temperature
- Respiration produces hea
- Enzymes denature / microorganisms die if too ho
- Maintains optimum temperature for growth and enzyme activit
- Agitation
- Microorganisms constantly stirre
- Gives more exposure to oxygen (for aerobic respiration) nutrients (for growth) and reduce
temperature (to keep it at optimum level
De ne isolated enzym
- Enzyme removed from host microorganis
b. Selective breedin
Describe selective breeding in plant

- Humans choose plants with desirable characteristics (e.g high yield, disease/pest resistance
- Cross pollinate selected plant
- Plants that grow with desirable characteristics are chosen and bre
- Process repeats over many generation
Describe selective breeding in animal
- Humans choose individual animals with desirable characteristics (e.g more milk production,
better quality fur
- Make them breed (or use arti cial insemination
- Offspring with desirable characteristics are bre
- Process repeats over many generation
Describe how selective breeding could be used to increase milk productio
- Cow with high milk yield chosen
- Bull with high milk yield mother chose
- Cow and bull bred
- Repeat process with high milk yield offsprin
- Over many generation
Describe the differences between selective breeding and natural selectio
- Humans choose parents in selective breedin
- Selective breeding is a faster proces
- No survival of the ttest with selective breedin
c. Genetic modi cation (genetic engineering
What is genetic engineering

- When genes are altered in microorganisms to code for desired product
- e.g. insuli

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What enzymes are used in genetic engineering

- Restriction enzymes - cut DNA at a speci c poin
- Ligase - joins the cut ends of DNA back togethe
What is a vector
- Anything used to transfer biological material
- e.g. a plasmid is used to transfer genes in genetic engineering
- e.g. mosquito that transfers plasmodium to humans when it bites the
Explain how plasmids and viruses can be used as vectors in genetic modi catio
Plasmid:
- Small circular pieces of DN
- Isolated from bacteri
- Desired gene inserted into plasmid to create recombinant plasmid
- Recombinant plasmids inserted back into bacteri
Virus
- Bacteriophage are a type of viru
- Desired gene inserted into bacteriophag
- Bacteriophage attaches to cell wall of bacteri
- Injects its genetic material (DNA
- Desired gene taken up by bacterial DN
Describe how large amounts of insulin can be genetically engineere
- Cut out insulin gene using restriction enzym
- Cut open plasmid in bacteria using same restriction enzym
- Stick insulin gene into plasmid using DNA ligase (forming recombinant plasmid
- Plasmid is the vecto
- Place in fermente
Give speci c uses of genetically modi ed plant
- Extend shelf lif
- Frost resistan
- ‘Golden rice’ contains beta carotene that prevents night-blindnes
- Resistant to herbicides (weedkillers
- Modi ed tobacco plants produce hepatitis B antigens - potential use in manufacturing vaccine
- Modi ed tobacco plants and soybeans produce antibodies to ght disease
What are the bene ts of genetically modi ed plants
- Increased salt toleranc
- More complete nutrition e.g. contains a good balance of proteins, carbohydrates, lipids,
vitamins and mineral
- Increased resistance to pathogen
- Increased tolerance to heat and drought
De ne transgeni
- Genes from one species transplanted into different specie
Provide an example of using transgenic animals to make human protein
- Trypsin damages liver and lung
- AAT is a human protein which stops trypsin attacking the liver and lung
- Some people don’t make enough AA
- Transgenic sheep are genetically engineered to produce AAT in their milk

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PRACTICAL SKILLS ASSESSED IN A WRITTEN EXAMINATION
When answering experimental design questions, you should always include

- Independent variabl
- The variable that is being change
- Dependent variabl
- The variable that is being measure
- Include how the dependent variable would be measure
- Sensible time frame for taking measurement
- Control variables (minimum 5
- The variables that are being kept constan
- Methods of ensuring reliabilit
What is the purpose of a control
- Allows a comparison to be mad
- Shows what would normally happen so comparison can be made when independent variable is
change
Common ways of improving an investigation

- Ensure equal sizes/volumes of samples are use
- Repeat the experiment at least 3 times and calculate the mea
- Test a wider range of values for the independent variabl
- Replicate experiment using different samples/specie
- Use larger sample siz
- Use random sampling method (e.g. random number generator
How to make an investigation more reliable
- Repeat experiment at least three times to increase number of observation
- Identify anomalous result
- Calculate mea
How to make an investigation more accurate
- Carry out more tests within existing rang
- Introduce method to ensure no double counting occur
- Use a narrower range (if appropriate
How to increase the validity of an investigation
- Make sure that all control variables are the same for each repeat/investigatio
- Collect a wide range of measurements/result
To ensure calculations of mean values are reliable
- Randomly choose sample areas/ elds of view to count subject of investigatio
- Count subject of investigation in several sample areas/ elds of vie
- Ensure all same species used/counted
- If taking samples from same organism, ensure same tissue/organ used
- Count a large number of sample areas/ elds of vie
When answering ‘describe’ questions
- Write what the data is showing e.g. trends, changes in rate, increases and decreases et
- If describing a graph, break the graph down into section
- Each section should be a describable featur
- e.g. constant rate from A to B, increasing rate from B to C
- Use data points provided in the question to illustrate descriptio

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When answering ‘explain’ questions

- Say why the results have come abou
- Use scienti c knowledge to explain any patterns and trend
- Make sure explanation is speci c to the questio
When answering ‘compare’ questions

- Each statement should include both pieces of dat
- e.g. both A and B remained constant for 2 hour
- e.g. the rate of increase of A was greater than that of B from 2 to 4 hour
When drawing diagrams

- Include a titl
- Use a sharp penci
- Labels should be outside the diagra
- Use ruled label line
- Do not cross label line
- Include a scale ba
- State magni catio
- Do not use shadin
- Use at least 50% of the available spac
When drawing graphs
- Label the x and y axi
- Include unit
- Use sensible scal
- Use at least 50% of the available spac
- Plot points accurately using an ‘X
- Draw line of best t if required

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The Perfect Answer

Revision Guide To... BIOLOGY

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About The Authors

Hazel Lindsey, Martin

Copyright © 2022 Hazel Lindsey, Martin Bailey. All rights reserved.

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a. Characteristics of living organism

The following characteristics all living organisms share

What does eukaryotic mean

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Credit: Martin Bailey for SwH Learning

Credit: Aldona Griskeviciene for Shutterstock

Cytoplasm Nucleoid (DNA)

How are carbohydrates stored in a) animals, b) plants, c) fungi

What are the 5 kingdoms

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What does multicellular mean

- Cell wall made

Unicellular - Can be either

Pathogenic? - Always - Sometimes - Sometimes - Sometimes

- HIV (causes AIDS) - Chlorella

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2. STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS IN LIVING ORGANISM

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What are the main organs in plants

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What are the 7 main organ systems found in humans

What elements are found in lipids (fats)

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What are oils

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What is the test for lipids

Credit: Virginia Caddick for SwH Learning

Positive result = Milky

What elements are found in proteins

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Give some examples of proteins found in the human bod

Testing For Protein

Add Biuret Reagent Positive Result =

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What elements are found in carbohydrates

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Heat In Water Bath

Add Sample To Water Positive Result =

What are starch and glycogen made up of

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Credit: Virginia Caddick for SwH Learning

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Effect Of pH On Enzyme Activity

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d. Movement of substances into and out of cell

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What is the word equation for photosynthesis

Why is the rate of photosynthesis low in the morning

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