CCC 2022

Proceedings of the Creative Construction e-Conference (2022) 012

Edited by: Miroslaw J. Skibniewski & Miklos Hajdu
https://doi.org/10.3311/CCC2022-012

Cold Storage Frost Heave Prevention

Douglas Sanford1 and Keith A. Rahn2

1
Auburn University, Auburn, USA, djs0079@auburn.edu
2
Auburn University, Auburn, USA, kar0023@auburn.edu

Abstract

Selecting a frost heave prevention method for cold storage facilities focuses on the issue of frost heave, the
prevention methods available, and the builders' preferences when it comes to applying those methods,
dependent on the region and size of the freezer. To achieve these objectives, qualitative data was collected
through literature review and individual telephone interviews. Builders from across the continental United
States were selected, vetted, and interviewed. The structured interviews were conducted to secure
professional opinions on which frost heave prevention method would be best utilized within a given square
foot size range. The interview responses were analyzed, along with region data on average winter
temperatures and frost depth, to discern the best prevention option. The data analysis revealed a
conceptual decision matrix for selecting the industry preferred prevention method within a given set of
variables. Recommendations were provided based on additional thematic data points for further research
to support or augment the decision matrix created in this research study.

© 2022 The Authors. Published by Diamond Congress Ltd.

Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the Creative Construction Conference 2022.

Keywords: cold storage, frost, heave, ice, temperature

1. Introduction

Cold Storage facilities face a range of conditions that can affect their optimal performance. There are many
factors to consider when building a cold storage facility, but possibly none more critical than frost heave
prevention. In its basic definition, frost heave is the upwards swelling of the soil as the cold storage facility
temperature causes the moisture in subsurface soil to freeze. Determining the level of frost heave
susceptibility is a vital step when designing a facility. Failure to protect a facility from frost heave can have
devastating effects on the concrete slab and other building structural elements. As the ice buildup applies
pressure from underneath, the slab can crack, and other structural members may shift, causing significant
damage to the overall building. The primary method of preventing frost heave is to add heat below the slab
to keep the moisture in the soil below from freezing. There are several methods of applying heat to the slab
substrate, and a properly designed system can ensure the structural stability of the slab for the life of the
facility.

Cold storage facilities consistently operating below 0 degrees Celsius (32°F) can freeze the moisture in the
soil below the slab unless a prevention method is applied. According to the International Association for
the Properties of Water and Steam, when liquid water is cooled, it contracts like one would expect until a
temperature of approximately 4 degrees Celsius (39°F) is reached. After that, it expands slightly until it
reaches the freezing point, 0 degrees Celsius (32F), and when it freezes, it expands approximately 9% [1]. A
9% expansion alone is not enough to cause substantial soil heave, but with specific soil characteristics,
additional moisture can be drawn to the freeze causing more and more expansion. The expansion will

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cause the soil beneath the structural slab to heave, thus applying increasing pressure and eventually
cracking and failure.

In the case of cold storage facilities, where the temperature is maintained below freezing, without a source
of under slab heating, the cold will penetrate downward through the substrate, freeze available moisture,
and continue to draw surrounding moisture, thus growing the ice lens, and subsequently heaving the frozen
substrate upward, damaging the slab and building structure. The drawing of moisture to the freeze zone
creates ice lenses, which is the accumulation of ice along the freezing plane. The ice lens will continue to
grow, causing soil displacement known as frost heave. Frost heave is a common condition where either
natural or artificial conditions freeze the soil.

To prevent the freezing of the building substrate, prevention methods have been developed. Currently,
there are four prevention methods used by builders; natural ventilation, forced ventilation, electric heat
systems, and forced glycol heat systems. These prevention methods vary in the ability to prevent the
formation of ice based on soil conditions and the amount of moisture present in the soil. Additionally, they
differ in installation and operating cost, creating a decision point for builders as it pertains to available funds
for installation and year-over-year operating expenses, all valued against the expected life of the facility.

2. Literature Review

Frost heaving is an interaction between soil and an architectural structure in which the freezing process
results in internal expansion of the soil. Frost heaving-induced pressure (FHIP) is generated by structures
resisting soil expansion. Freezing of moist soil is essentially a process of coupling heat and mass transfer.
When saturated fine-grained soil is subjected to a subfreezing temperature, part of the water in the soil
pores can solidify into ice, i.e., pore ice particles, close to soil particles and more tightly bound to them, a
film of unfrozen water remains. According to thermodynamics, this adsorbed water film has lower free
energy at a lower negative temperature. Therefore, a potential gradient can develop along the temperature
gradient. Water can be sucked from the warm portion to replace the amount of water lost due to freezing
and to feed the accumulation of pore ice. As the pore ice particles grow, they can finally contact each other
and form an ice lens, Figure 1, oriented perpendicular to the direction of heat and water flow. In fact,
significant frost heave observed in the field or laboratory is attributed to ice segregation and ice lens
formation associated with water migration [2].

Figure 2: Ice Lens [3]

It is observed that there exists a frozen zone between the growing ice lens and the frost front where the
warmest pore ice exists. Within this frozen fringe, the temperature drops from the freezing point at the
frost front to the segregational temperature at the warm side of the ice lens. In response to this
temperature drop, the pore water pressure, unfrozen water content, and permeability decrease through
the fringe. The water pressure at the warm side of the lens, which appears in suction, is affected by the

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segregational temperature and the overburden pressure. Unfrozen water content and the permeability
decay more or less exponentially with decreasing temperature, Anderson et al. (1973); Burt and Williams
(1976) [4].

2.1 Cold Storage Facilities Create Frost Heave Conditions

One of the most critical design considerations for a facility is the relationship between vapor pressure and
temperature and their effects on cold storage facilities. Cold air has a lower vapor pressure than warm air.
Warm air, therefore, moves toward cooler air. The ground/subsoil must be warmed above the freezing
point to keep the vapor from freezing beneath the slab. Warm air will force its way through the subgrade
until the vapor balances or adheres to the underside of an insulating layer. The freezer slab must also be
insulated to help maintain the freezer temperature, slow temperature loss, and stabilize the pressure with
the ground below the freezer floor. Cold storage Facilities create unintentional permafrost when the ground
beneath the facility drops below freezing and the moisture in the subgrade forms ice. As the ice expands,
it pushes up on the foundation, causing the floor to heave, illustrated in Figure 2. Floor heave can cause
significant damage to the building and disrupt operations [5].

Possible Structural
Damage to Walls & Roof

Cold Storage Freezer

Frost Heave
Floor Damage

Figure 3. Cold Storage Frost Heave Illustration [5]

As the ice expands, the freezer floor can heave, causing cracks in the floor and distortion of foundation
walls. Cracked, damaged floors, as illustrated in Figure 2, can render floor space unusable and potentially
dangerous for workers in the facility [5].

2.2 Cold Storage Building Standards

Two industry associations provide frost heave prevention guidance when building cold storage facilities.
The American Concrete Institute (ACI) is a leading global authority for the development, dissemination, and
adoption of its consensus-based standards, technical resources, and educational, training & certification
programs [6]. The American Society of Heating, Refrigeration, and Air Conditioning Engineers, Inc (ASHRAE)
is a global society advancing human well-being through sustainable technology for the built environment.
Through research, standards writing, publishing, and continuing educations [7]. The following sections
detail ACI and ASHRAE standards regarding frost heave prevention when building cold storage facilities.

The floor slab is considered a slab-on-ground. When insulation is used, it is generally extruded polystyrene
board, rigid polyurethane board, or cellular glass board insulation. The slip sheet is typically a polyethylene

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film (6 mil [0.15 mm] minimum thickness) used as a bond break between the slab and the insulation. The
insulation may be in single or multiple layers, depending on the thermal requirements. Insulation is typically
not required for a room at a temperature above 32 °F (0 °C). The vapor retarder/barrier is under the
insulation, and a polyethylene film (10 mil [0.25 mm] minimum thickness), 45 mil (1.14 mm) EPDM, or
bituminous materials in the form of liquid-applied coatings or composite sheets have been used. For
refrigerated buildings, vapor retarders/barriers are always installed on the warm side of the insulation.
Under the vapor retarder/barrier, there is either a soil base or a sub-slab. A sub-slab is often installed to
ease insulated floor-system construction, or it may encase a grid of heating pipes or conduits. For
refrigerated buildings with operating temperatures below freezing, an under-floor heating system is
required to prevent the ground from freezing and heaving. The insulated floor system may also be installed
over a structural slab supported by deep foundations such as piles [8].

Builders face several critical constraints when deciding which frost heave prevention method to install.
Once it is determined that frost heave prevention is required, attention shifts to selecting the appropriate
method for the facility and local conditions. As gleaned through the research, the costs, and risk require
considerable consideration in determining the frost heave prevention method to apply when building a
cold storage facility.

3. Research Methodology

Qualitative analysis using semi-structured interviews with twelve cold storage builders, to understand
builder preferences when applying frost heave prevention methods in varying conditions. Personal semi-
structured interviews of questions developed from the literature review. Each participate was asked
questions in a systematic structure with additional probing quetions where appropriate. Twelve cold
storage buidlers were identified to meet the creitieria for participation. Interveiw criteria ensured a solid
base of kowledge in the cold stoage freezer industy and frost prevention systems. The interview
participants, identified as builders A-M (Figure 3), were selected as builders of Cold Storage facilities within
climate regions of North America.

Figure 4. Winter State Temperature Averages [9]

Twenty-one companies were interviewed before selecting the specific twelve. Additionally, during the
process, a thirteenth company was identified that could provide two operators, an engineer, and a project
manager, to form a focus group. The focus group was reviewed for continuity of responses from other

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builders through the lens of different positions of the cold storage build spectrum. The vetting process
searched for either operations or project managers of cold storage freezer builds to capture a subject
matter experts' response to the questions. Participants included 9 Project Managers and 4 Operations
Managers. A minimum of 10 years' experience was required to participate. Figure 15 illustrates the
experience level in years with an average level of experience of the participants in the research group at 19
years. A total of 251 years' experience is represented.

4. Results and Discussion

All builders use some form of frost heave prevention method when building a cold storage freezer capable
of 32°F and below. Small facilities below 10,000 square feet range, it is a mix of opinions regarding natural
or forced ventilation systems. Some builders will not even entertain these systems, while others accept
them as a reasonable solution, given the right conditions, predominately warmer climates. Ventilation
systems need natural or manufactured heat in colder weather. In contrast, electric systems are preferred
in colder climates. One can then conclude natural and forced ventilation is primarily used in small facilities
in warmer climates and electric heat is primarily used in small to slightly larger facilities in colder climates.

Mid-sized facilities in the 10,000 to 50,000 square feet range, the opinions on prevention methods move
away from natural ventilation, with some comfortable using forced ventilation, especially with added heat
in colder climate areas. In contrast, electric systems take a more prominent role, and even glycol will be
considered. Given the size of the freezer, most likely, the glycol system would require an added heat source,
thus increasing the cost of operations. One can conclude forced air and electric heat is preferred for small
and slightly larger facilities in warmer regions and electric or glycol heat in colder regions.

Mid-sized facilities in the 50,000 to 100,000 square feet range, builders vacillate between electric and glycol.
Several conditions can move the needle on selecting a system, but none potentially more than the facility
refrigeration system. In this size range, either a split or centralized refrigeration system is used, allowing
builders to choose electric or glycol. If a split system is installed, electric heat and glycol heat can be used;
however, a heat source would be applied to the glycol. If a centralized system is installed, electric heat can
be used; however, now there is the option to apply a heat exchanger to the refrigeration system to heat the
glycol, thus, saving energy costs. One can conclude electric heat is preferred for mid-size and slightly larger
facilities in warmer regions and glycol heat in colder regions.

Larger facilities, especially above the 100,000 square feet range, the strategy becomes abundantly clear;
glycol is the preferred method. As the data illustrates, larger facilities typically have a centralized
refrigeration system, thus providing heat for the glycol. While electric heat can still be used, operations
costs are high. One can conclude Glycol heat is the preferred method for larger facilities in colder regions
and likely preferred in the warmer regions.

5. Conclusions and Recommendations

Although this research selected some of the top builders across the country, it was a limited sample size
with a limited data collection. In retrospect, the methodology did not provide an adequate platform for a
deep level of understanding of all the complex issues facing builders when selecting a frost heave
prevention method. As noted in the themes uncovered during the semi-structured interviews, many
additional factors need to be analyzed to create a usable method selection tool.

Other than ASHRAE or ACI, there is very little definitive instruction for builders to review when selecting a
frost heave prevention method. The research and interviews do provide a degree of fact and opinion on
which systems are more or less expensive to install, operate, maintain, and the degree of risk they
experience. See Table 1.

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Table 1: Frost Heave Prevention Method Costs & Risk (Sanford, 2021)

Prevention Method Installation Cost Operating Cost Failure Risk

Natural Ventilation Medium Low High
Forced Air Ventilation High Medium Medium
Electric Heat System Low High Low
Forced Glycol Heat Medium Medium Low

Based on the interview data analysis, additional research points are needed to provide a comprehensive
frost heave prevention method selection tool. Below is a list of data points necessary to further analyze the
factors impacting the decision process.

• Installation, operating, and maintenance costs per method by region and size
• Number of natural, forced, forced with heat, electric, glycol with heat exchangers and other heat
sources by region and size
• Number and location of failures by each method. The data can be evaluated to support regional build
assumptions
Ideally, future research should be conducted using a comprehensive survey designed to illicit these data
points from builders in a substantial and factual way to provide the researcher with enough information to
form a solid conclusion. Given the research information, interviews, and theme data, along with future
research data, the creation of a robust decision matrix is possible.

References

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[2] Huang, L., Sheng, Y., Wu, J., He, B., Huang, X., Zhang, X., 2020. Experimental study on frost heaving behavior of soil under
different loading paths. Cold Regions Science and Technology 169, 102905. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coldregions.2019.102905
[3] Sato, Atsuko, Takahiro Yamanashi, and Takayuki Adachi. “Incidents of Damage to Berm Drainage Ditches in Cold Region and
Countermeasures.” MATEC Web of Conferences 265 (January 1, 2019): 05019. https://doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/201926505019
[4] Frost Heave due to Ice Lens Formation in Freezing Soils | Hydrology Research | IWA Publishing [WWW Document], n.d. URL
https://iwaponline.com/hr/article/26/2/125/642/Frost-Heave-due-to-Ice-Lens-Formation-in-Freezing (accessed 10.25.21)
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[6] About ACI [WWW Document], n.d. URL https://www.concrete.org/aboutaci.aspx (accessed 9.5.21)
[7] About ASHRAE | ashrae.org [WWW Document], n.d. URL https://www.ashrae.org/about (accessed 9.5.21)
[8] ACI PRC-360-10 Guide to Design of Slabs-on-Ground [WWW Document], n.d. URL
https://www.concrete.org/store/productdetail.aspx?ItemID=36010&Language=English&Units=US_AND_METRIC (accessed
9.5.21)
[9] Winter Temperature Averages for Each USA State - Current Results [WWW Document], n.d. URL
https://www.currentresults.com/Weather/US/average-state-temperatures-in-winter.php (accessed 9.4.21).

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