UNIT I

SIMPLE STRESSES & STRAINS

INTRODUCTION
Most of the machine and structural members are subjected to
tensile force, compressive force, shear force etc., while
transferring the external loads. It is very important to understand
the behaviour of materials under the influence of tensile force,
compressive force, shear force etc., for the effective design of the
machine and structural members.

1.1 Stress: When a body is subjected to some external force, the

body will offer resistance to external force. The resistance offered
by the body per unit cross sectional area is known as stress.
Stress = Force/Area
In SI Unit stress is expressed in N/m2, N/mm2

1.2 Strain:
When a body is acted upon by some external system of forces or
loads, it undergoes some deformation. This deformation per unit
length is known as unit strain or simply strain. It is denoted by €

     
   
Strain =

1.3 Types of Stresses

1) Tensile Stress
When a body is subjected to two equal and opposite axial pulls P,
then stress induced at any section of the body is known as tensile
stress. When a member is subjected to tensile load, there will be
decrease in cross-sectional area and an increase in length of the
member. The ratio of the increase in length to the original length
is known as tensile strain.
P P
Fig 1: Tensile Stress
Tensile stress = Tensile Force/Area
Tensile Strain = Increase in length/Original Length

2) Compressive Stress
When a body is subjected to two equal and opposite axial pushes
P, then the stress induced at any section of the body is known as
compressive stress. Due to compressive load there will be an
increase in cross sectional area and a decrease in length of the
body. The ratio of the decrease in length to the original length is
known as compressive strain.
P P
Fig 2: Tensile Stress
Compressive stress = Compressive Force/Area
Compressive Strain = Decrease in length/ Original Length

1.4 Elasticity & Elastic Limit

When an external force is applied on a body and it undergoes some
deformation. If the body returns back to its original shape and size
on complete removal of the load, the body is called elastic body.
This property by which any material regains its original shape and
size when load acting on it is completely removed is called
elasticity.
The property of a material by which it returns back to its original
position (i.e. shape and size) on the removal of external force or
load, is called elasticity.

1.5 Stress Strain Behaviour of Mild Steel

If tensile force is applied to a steel bar it will have some extension.

If the force is small the ratio of the stress and strain will remain
proportional. And the graph will be a straight line (up to point
A). So the O to point A is the limit of proportionality.
If the force is considerably large the material will experience
elastic deformation but the ratio of stress and strain will not be
proportional. (Point A to B). This is the elastic limit. Beyond that
point the material will experience plastic deformation. The point
where plastic deformations starts is the yield point which is show
in the figure as point C. C is the upper yield point. Resulting graph
will not be straight line anymore. D is the lower yield point. E is
the maximum ultimate stress. F is the breaking stress.

Hooke’s Law
“It states that within the elastic limit, stress is directly proportional
to strain”

Young’s modulus of elasticity

The ratio of stress to strain within the elastic limit is known as
young’s modulus of elasticity E. E is a proportionality constant
known as Modulus of elasticity or Young’s modulus of elasticity.
This constant of proportionality is called Young’s modulus of
elasticity and is given the symbol E.

1.6 Stress strain Behaviour of Concrete

Stress strain curve of concrete is a graphical representation of
concrete behavior under load. It is produced by plotting concrete
compress strain at various interval of concrete compressive
loading (stress). Concrete is mostly used in compression that is
why its compressive stress strain curve is of major interest.

The assumed stress-strain curve for concrete is given in IS

456:2000 and is parabolic from zero strain up to strain 0.002. From
then onwards up to strain 0.0035 stress remains constant at the
value 0.446 fck.

1.7 Mechanical Properties of Materials

Elastic Material:
A material which regains its original size and shape on removal
stress is said to be elastic stress.

Plastic material:
A material which can undergo permanent deformation without
rupture aid to be plastic material. This property of the material is
known as plasticity. Plasticity is important when a material is to be
mechanically formed by causing the material to flow.

Ductile Material:
A material which undergoes considerable deformation without
rupture is said to be ductile material. The major portion of
deformation is plastic.

Brittle Material:
A material which ruptures with little or no plastic deformation is
said to brittle materials.

Set of Permanent set:

The deformation or strain remaining in a body after removal of
stress is known as permanent set. This is due to elastic property of
material.

Elastic limit:
The greatest stress that a material can take without permanent set
on the removal of stress is known as elastic limit.

Proportionality limit:
The greatest stress that a material can take without deviation from
straight line between stress and strain is known as proportionality
limit.

Endurance limit or Fatigue limit:

The greatest stress, applied infinite number of times, that a material
can take without causing failure is known as endurance limit or
fatigue limit.

Ultimate Strength:
The maximum stress material can take is known as ultimate
strength. Ultimate strength is equal to maximum load divided by
original area of cross section.

Modulus of Resilience: The energy stored per unit volume at the

elastic limit is known as modulus of resilience.

Modulus of Toughness:
The amount of work required per unit volume to cause failure,
under static loading, is called modulus of toughness.

Modulus of Rupture:
The ultimate strength in flexure or torsion is known as modulus of
rupture.
Strain hardening:
The increase in strength after plastic zone due to rearrangement of
molecules in the material.
Proof stress:
The stress which is just sufficient to cause a permanent set
(elongation) equal to a specified percentage of the original gauge
length.

Elastic Strain:
Elastic strain is a dimensional change that occur in a material due
to the application of loads and disappears completely on the
removal of the loads.

Plastic Strain:
It is a dimensional change that occurs in a material due to
application of the loads and does not disappear after the removal
of the loads.

Ductility and malleability:

The plastic response of material to tensile force is known as
ductility and plastic response to compression force is known as
malleability. The elongation and reduction of area of test piece
tested to failure in tension are generally taken as measures of
ductility of material.
Creep:
The long term deflection due to sustained (constant) loads.

Example 1: A circular rod of diameter 20 mm and 500 mm long

is subjected to a tensile force 45 KN. The modulus of elasticity for
steel may be taken as 200 KN/mm2. Find stress, strain and
elongation of the bar due to applied load.

Soln:
Given data
P = 45 KN,
E = 200 KN/mm2,
L = 500 mm
Diameter, d= 20 mm

Area A = π/4 X d2 = 314.15 mm2

Stress σ = P/A
= 45 X 1000/314.15 = 143.2 N/mm2
Strain e = σ/E
= 143.2/200 X 1000 = 0.00071
Elongation δL = PL/AE
= 4.5 X 1000 X 500/(314.1 X 200 X 1000)
= 0.358 mm
1.8 Bars with Varying Cross Section
A bar with cross sections varying in steps and subjected to
axial load is as shown in figure below. Let L1, L2, L3 be the length
of each portion and A1, A2, A3 be the cross sectional areas.

Fig 5: Bars with varying cross section

dL = dl1 + dl2+ dl3

= PL1/A1E + PL2/A2E + PL3/A3E

2. The bar shown in figure 6 is tested in universal testing

machine. It is observed that at a load of 40 KN the total
extension of the bar is 0.285 mm. Determine the Young’s
Modulus of the materials.

Fig: 6

Soln: Extension of Portion 1 DL1 = PL1/A1E

 = 40 X 1000X160/(π/4 X 252)E
Extension of Portion 2 DL2= PL2/A2E
= 40X 1000X 240/(π/4 X 202)E
Extension of Portion 3 DL3= PL3/A3E
= 40X 1000X 160/(π/4 X 252)E

Total Extension DL = DL1 + DL2 + DL3

Solving we get E =198714.72 N/mm2

1.9 Deformation in Compound Bar

A circular tapering bar of length L is subjected to an axial force P
as shown in figure 7. Let big end and small end diameter be d1 and
d2 respectively. Consider an element of diameter dx and length dx
at a distance of x from the big end.

Diameter of the element where

    .!
  1      "
   #
   
Where #  "
$
%
Cross sectional area of the element = Ax = (d1- Kx) 2

Deformation in the element

&'( %&(
)(* $*  – ,(-
dLx = =
" %&(
Deformation in the Bar dL = ./ $*  – ,(-
%&  '
 1 – ,( 2
0 ,

%& 5 5
4 676  67 6
$*3  .'  – (/
= ]
8 8

%&  
=$* , 4-  
9
%&'  – -
=
$*  – -
4  -
9
%&'
dL = $*  -

3. A rod tapers uniformly from 30 mm to 15 mm diameter in a

length of 300 mm. If the rod is subjected to an axial load of 600
N. Find the extension of the rod. Take E = 2 x 105.

%&' % ( :/// ( ;//

Soln: dL  
$*- $ ( - ( /< ( ;/ ( <
= 0.025 mm
1.10 Composite bar
A composite bar made of two bars of different materials rigidly
fixed together so that both bars strain together under external load.
In certain application it is necessary to use a combination of
elements or bars made from different materials, each material
performing a different function. In overhead electric cables or
Transmission Lines for example it is often convenient to carry the
current in a set of copper wires surrounding steel wires.
The latter being designed to support the weight of the cable over
large spans. Such a combination of materials is generally termed
compound bars.

The main considerations while solving a composite bar problem

is
1) strain in all the materials is same. This is because elongation or
contraction is same in the composite bar.
2) Total load on the composite bar is sum of loads on each bar
Consider a composite bar shown in the figure. Let P be total load
on the bar
A1,A2-area of bars (1) and (2)
E1,E2-young’s modulus of the bar (1)and(2)
P1,P2-load carried by the bar (1) and (2)
L1 & L2–length of the composite bar
P=P1+P2
Stress in bar(1) σ1=P1/A1
Strain in bar (1) = ε1=p1/E1=P1/A1E1
Elongation dLl =PL1/A1E1
similarly dL2 =PL2/A2E2
Total Elongation dL =dL1 + dL2

4. A Reinforced concrete column of size 230 mm X 400 mm has

8 steel bars of 12 mm diameter as shown in figure 9. If the column
is subjected to an axial compression of 600 KN, find the stresses
developed in steel and concrete. Take modular ratio as 18.67.
Soln: Area of steel As = (π/4) X 122 X 8 =904.7 mm2
Area of Concrete AC = 230 X 400 – (904.7) = 91095.2 mm2
PS + PC = 600 …… (1)
DLS = DLC
PSL/ASES = PCL/ACEC
PS = AS/AC X ES/EC X PC
PS = (904.7 / 91095.2) X 18.67 X PC
PS = 0.1854 PC
Substituting in (1), we get Pc = 600/1.1854 = 506.1 KN
PS = 600 – 506.1 = 93.8 KN
Stress in Concrete σc= PC/AC = 506.1 / 91095.22 X 1000 = 5.5
N/mm2
Stress in Steel σs = PS/AS = 93.8 / 904.7 X 1000 = 103.7 N/mm2
Elastic Constants
The various elastic constants in strength of materials are
1. Young’s modulus or modulus of elasticity
2. Modulus of rigidity or Shear Modulus
3. Bulk Modulus

Young’s Modulus: (E)

It is defined as the ratio of tensile stress or compressive stress to
the corresponding strain within elastic limit. It is denoted by
symbol E. It is also known as modulus of elasticity or elastic
modulus.
Where
E = Young’s Modulus
σ = Tensile or compressive stress
e = Tensile or compressive strain
The SI unit of Young’s modulus is N/mm2.

Modulus of Rigidity: (G)

It is defined as the ratio of shear stress to corresponding shear
strain within elastic limit. It is also known as shear modulus. It
is represented by C or G or N.

Where
τ = Shear stress
ɸ = Shear strain
The SI unit of C is N/mm2
Bulk Modulus (K)
It is defined as the ratio of direct stress to the corresponding
volumetric strain within elastic limit. It is denoted by K.

σ = Direct stress
(dV/V) = Volumetric strain
Poissons’s Ratio (υ or 1/m)
It is experimentally found that when a body is stressed within
elastic limit, the ratio of lateral strain to the linear strain bears a
constant ratio. Mathematically,
=>?@A>B C?A>DE
 FGEH?>E?
=DE@>A C?A>DE
This Constant is known as Poisson’s ratio and is denoted by 1/m
or µ.

Volumetric Strain (εv)

It is the ratio of the change in volume to the original volume.

  I JK ML

 L JK L
Volumetric strain =

Where, δV = Change in volume

V = Original Volume

Relation between E, G & K


E = 2O1  K
-
E = 3Q1  R
STU
E = ;UVT

5. A material has young’s modulus E = 200 Gpa and Poisson’s

ratio v = 0.3. Determine modulus of rigidity G and bulk modulus
K.
Soln:
Modulus of rigidity
E = 2G (1 + 1/m)
2 x 105 = 2 x G (1 + 0.3)
G = 0.8 x 105 N/mm2

Bulk Modulus E = 3K (1 – 2/m)

2 x 105 = 3K (1 – 2 X 0.3)
K = 1.67 x 105 N/mm2

6. A steel bar of 30 mm square cross-section and 2.4 m long is

subjected to a tensile load of 500 KN. If the Poisson’s ratio is 0.25,
find the increase in volume. Take E = 200 KN/mm2.
Soln: Given A = 30 x 30= 900 mm2, 1/m = 0.25,
E = 200 KN/mm2= 200 x 103 N/mm2
Let δv = Increase in Volume
Volume of the bar V= 900 x 2400 = 2160 x 103 mm3
Young’s modulus E = σ / ε = P /A.E
<// W /;
Strain ε = S// W -// W /; = 2.8 X 10-3

Volumetric Strain δv/v = ε (1 – 2/m)

= 2.8 x 10-3 (1-2x0.25) = 1.4 x 10-3
δv = v x 1.4 x 10-3 = 2160 x 103 x 1.4 x 10-3 = 3024 mm3
1.11 Principle Stresses & Strains
In any loaded member, there exists a three mutually perpendicular
planes on which the Shear stress vanishes (zero),the Three planes
are called principal planes and the normal force acting on that
principal plane are called principal stresses

In an un-deformed member, there Exists Three mutually

perpendicular line Elements that remain perpendicular after
application of load. The Three line Elements are called Principal
strains at that point.

Normal stress on an arbitrary plane

σn = σx cos2ϴ

Maximum and Minimum Normal Stress

Rotating the stress state of a stress element can give stresses for
any angle. But usually, the maximum normal or shear stresses are
the most important. Thus, this section will find the angle which
will give the maximum (or minimum) normal stress.
The magnitude of normal stress will be maximum and minimum
when cos2ϴ =1 and cos2ϴ = 0
Maximum normal Stress σ1 = σx cos20 =σx
Minimum Normal Stress σ2 = σx cos2 90 =0

Maximum Shear Stress

Like the normal stress, the shear stress will also have a maximum
at a given angle, θτ-max. This angle can be determined by taking a
derivative of the shear stress rotation equation with respect to the
angle and set equate to zero.
\  \]
τx Z y Z   HDE2^  _] cos 2^
2
dτx Z y Z
 \  \]dGH2^  2_] sin 2^  0
^
\  \]
tan 2j_  k>   4 9
2_]
When the angle is substituted back into the shear stress
transformation equation, the shear stress maximum is

\  \]-
_k>  l  _] -
2

The minimum shear stress will be the same absolute value as the
maximum, but in the opposite direction. The maximum shear
stress can also be found from the principal stresses, σ1 and σ2, as
4mn  mo 9
τk> 
-
Example 7: For a given loading conditions as shown in figure 11
the state of stress in the wall of a cylinder is expressed as follows:
(a) 85 MN/m2 tensile
(b) 25 MN/m2 tensile at right angles to (a)
(c) Shear stresses of 60 MN/m2 on the planes on which the stresses
(a) and (b) act; the sheer couple acting on planes carrying the 25
MN/m2 stress is clockwise in effect.

Calculate the principal stresses and the planes on which they act.
What would be the effect on these results if owing to a change of
loading (a) becomes compressive while stresses (b) and (c) remain
unchanged?

Fig 11: Stresses acting in wall of cylinder

Soln: The principle stresses are given by the formula
σ1 & σ2
= \  \]  1/2q\  \]2  4_]

-

= 85  25   1/2q85  252  4 u 60


-

σ1 = 122 MN/m2
σ2 = -12 MN/m2 (Compressive)
For finding out the planes on which the principle stresses act
2_]
tan 2j  4 9
\  \]
The solution of this equation will yield two values q i.e. they q1
and q2 giving q1= 31071' & q2= 121071'
(b) In this case only the loading (a) is changed i.e. its direction had
been changed. While the other stresses remains unchanged hence
now the block diagram becomes.

Fig 12: Stresses acting in wall of cylinder

Again the principal stresses would be given by the equation.
1
 \  \]  1/2q\  \]2  4_]
2
= 85  25   1/2q85  252  4 u 60

-

σ1 = 51.4 MN/m2
σ2 = -111.4 MN/m2
Again for finding out the angles use the following equation
2_]
tan 2j  4 9
\  \]
- w :/
tan 2j 
x<-<

ϴ =-23.74°

Temperature Stresses
Increase or decrease of temperature of a free body causes the body
to expand or contract and no stresses are induced. However, if the
deformation of the body is constrained, some stresses are induced
in the body, and such developed stresses are called temperature
stresses which may be tensile or compressive based on either the
contraction is prevented or extension is prevented.
A bar, whose ends are fixed to rigid supports, so that the expansion
is prevented, is considered. Let the length of the bar be l subjected
to an increase in temperature T°. The expansion of the bar will be.
δl = LαT
Where α is the coefficient of thermal expansion of the material of
the bar
Temperature Stress = αTE

8. A rod is 2 metres long as 10˚C. Find the expansion of the rod

when the temperature is raised to 80˚ C. If this expansion is
prevented, find the stress in the material. Take E = 1 x 105 N/mm2
and α = 0.000012 per˚ C.
Soln:
Given
α = 0.000012/°C,
E = 1 x 105 N/mm2

Rise in Temperature T= 80 – 10 = 70˚C

Free Expansion = LαT = 0.000012 x 70 x 2 x 1000 = 1.68 mm

Temperature Stress = αTE = 0.000012 x 70 x 1 x 105 = 84 N/mm2