Chapter 11

SCATTERING
 11.1 INTRODUCTION

11.1.1 Classical Scattering Theory

In classical mechanics the trajectory of particle is determined.

A particle is scattered off a target.
Before scattering there are two parameters: E and b, energy and impact parameter.
After the scattering, the scattering angle θ is the parameter. (it is independent from φ
because of the axial symmetry)
• θ(b) determines the trajectory.

========================================================
Example 11.1 Hard-sphere scattering. Suppose the target is a billiard ball, of radius
R, and the incident particle is a BB, which bounces off elastically.
In terms of the angle α,
the impact parameter is b = R sin α,
the scattering angle is θ = π − 2α,
so    
π θ θ
b = R sin − = R cos (1)
2 2 2

(
2 cos−1 (b/R), if b ≤ R
θ= (2)
0, if b ≥ R

=======================================================
Particles incident within an infinitesimal patch of cross-sectional area dσ → solid angle
dΩ
The larger dσ is proportional to dΩ
differential (scattering) cross-section:

dσ = D(θ)dΩ (3)

In terms of the impact parameter

dσ = b db dφ; dΩ = sin θdθdφ

so
dσ b db
D(θ) = = (4)
dΩ sin θ dθ

=====================================================
Example 11.2 Hard sphere scattering ( continued)
 
db 1 θ
= − R sin (5)
dθ 2 2
so
R2
 
R cos(θ/2) R sin(θ/2)
D(θ) = = (6)
sin θ 2 4

================================================
The total cross-section: Z
σ≡ D(θ)dΩ (7)

In the case of hard-sphere scattering,

Z
σ = (R 2 /4) dΩ = πR 2 (8)

This is expected, it is the cross-sectional area of the sphere;

Suppose we have a beam of incident particles, with uniform intensity (or luminosity, or
flux)
L ≡ number of incident particles per unit area per unit time
The number of particles entering area dσ per unit time, is dN = Ldσ
This is nothing but the number of particles scattered into dΩ, = LD(θ)dΩ, so

1 dN
D(θ) = (9)
—————————————–
Problem 11.1 Rutherford scattering. An incident particle of charge q1 and kinetic
energy E scatters off a heavy stationary particle of charge q2 .
(a) Derive the formula relating the impact parameter to the scattering angle.
" #2
q1 q2
D(θ) = (10)
16π0 E sin2 (θ/2)

(b) Determine the differential scattering cross-section. Answer:

(c) Show that the total cross-section for Rutherford scattering is inf finite. We say that
the 1/r potential has “infinite range”; you can’t escape from a Coulomb force.
——————————————————————–
 11.1.2 Quantum Scattering Theory

In the quantum theory of scattering, (1) an incident plane wave, ψ(z) = Aeikz , traveling
eikr
in the z direction,(2) after scattering produce an outgoing spherical wave r
Solutions to the Schrödinger equation of the general form
( )
ikz eikr
ψ(r , θ) ≈ A e + f (θ) , for large r (11)
r

Note that the wave number k is √

2mE
k≡ (12)
~

The whole problem is to determine the scattering amplitude f (θ);

It tells you the probability of scattering in a given direction θ,
and it is related to the differential cross-section.
• The probability that the incident particle ( with speed v , passing through dσ, in time
dt, is
dP = |ψincident |2 dV = |A|2 (vdt)dσ
This is equal to the probability that the particle scatters into dΩ

|A|2 |f |2
dP = |ψscattered |2 dV = (vdt)r 2 dΩ
r2
Hence
dσ
D(θ) = = |f (θ)|2 (13)
dΩ

——————————————
Problem 11.2 Construct the analog to Equation 11.12 for one-dimensional and
two-dimensional scattering.
—————————————-

11.2 PARTIAL WAVE ANALYSIS

11.2.1 Formalism

Separation of variables in radial coordinates:

ψ(r , θ, φ) = Rl (r )Ylm (θ, φ) (14)

where Ylm is a spherical harmonics (Equation 4.32)

u(r ) = rRl (r ) satisfies the radial equation
" #
~2 d 2 u ~2 l(l + 1)
− + V (r ) + u = Eu (15)
2m dr 2 2m r2
 l(l+1)
At very large r where V ≈ 0 and r2
≈ 0so

d 2u
≈ −k 2 u
dr 2

Solution:
u(r ) = Ceikr + De−ikr
So at very large r ,
eikr
R(r ) ∼
r

In the intermediate region

d 2u l(l + 1)
2
− 2
u = −k 2 u (16)
The general solution is a linear combination of spherical Bessel functions:

u(r ) = A r jl (kr ) + B r nl (kr ) (17)

and spherical Hankel functions are defined:

(1) (2)
hl (x) ≡ jl (x) + inl (x); hl (x) ≡ jl (x) − inl (x) (18)

===============================
(1) (2)
TABLE 11.1: Spherical Hankel functions, hl (x) and hl (x).

(1) eix (2) e−ix

h0 = −i ; h0 = i
x x

(1) i 1 (2) i 1
h1 = (− − )eix ; h1 = ( − )e−ix
x2 x x2 x

(1) 3i 3 i (2) 3i 3 i
h2 = (− − 2 + )eix ; h2 = ( − 2 + )e−ix
x3 x x x3 x x

(1) 1
hl → (−i)l+1 eix
x

(2) 1 l+1 −ix

hl → (i) e for x  1
x
=========================================
(1) (2)
At large r , hl (kr ) behaves like eikr /r , whereas hl (kr ) does like e−ikr /r ;
for outgoing waves, we need spherical Hankel functions of the first kind:
(1)
R(r ) ∼ hl (kr ) (19)

Outside the scattering region

 
 
(1)
X
ψ(r , θ, φ) = A eikz + Cl,m hl (kr )Ylm (θ, φ) (20)
 
l,m

The first term is the incident plane wave, and the sum for the scattered wave.
Since V = V (r ) the wave function cannot depend on φ. So only terms with m = 0
survive r
0 2l + 1
Yl (θ, φ) = Pl (cos θ) (21)
4π
p
Redefine the expansion coefficients, Cl,0 ≡ i l+1 k 4π(2l + 1)al :
∞
( )
(1)
X
ikz l+1
ψ(r , θ) = A e + k i (2l + 1)al hl (kr )Pl (cos θ) (22)
l=0

al is called the l-th partial wave amplitude.

( )
eikr
ψ(r , θ) ≈ A eikz + f (θ) (23)
r
where
∞
X
f (θ) = (2l + 1)al Pl (cos θ) (24)
l=0

The diff. cross section is

XX
D(θ) = |f (θ)|2 = (2l + 1)(2l 0 + 1)al∗ al 0 Pl (cos θ)Pl 0 (cos θ) (25)
l l0

and the total cross section is

∞
X
σ = 4π (2l + 1)|al |2 (26)
l=0

11.2.2 Strategy

eikz
satisfies the Schrödinger equation with V = 0. And the general solution to the
Schrödinger equation with V = 0, in the radial coordinates is
X
[Al,m jl (kr ) + Bl,m nl (kr )]Ylm (θ, φ)
l,m

They should be related. Keeping the regularity at r = 0 we have

∞
X
eikz = i l (2l + 1)jl (kr )Pl (cos θ) (27)
l=0
This is known as Rayleigh’s formula.
In the exterior region, solution has the form
∞ h i
(1)
X
ψ(r , θ) = A i l (2l + 1) jl (kr ) + ikal hl (kr ) Pl (cos θ) (28)
l=0

========================================================================
Example 11.3 Quantum hard-sphere scattering. Suppose
(
∞, for r ≤ a
V (r ) = (29)
0, for r > a

The boundary condition, then, is

ψ(a, θ) = 0 (30)
so
∞ h i
(1)
X
i l (2l + 1) jl (ka) + ikal hl (ka) Pl (cos θ) = 0 (31)
l=0

it follows that
jl (ka)
al = −i (1)
(32)
khl (ka)
the total cross section is
∞ 2
4π X jl (ka)
σ= (2l + 1) (33)
k2 (1)
kh (ka)
l=0
This is “exact”.
low-energy scattering: ka  1. (Since k = 2π/λ, the wavelength is much greater than
the radius of the sphere.)

jl (z) jl (z) jl (z)

(1)
= ≈ −i
hl (z) jl (z) + inl (z) nl (z)
" #2
2l l!z l /(2l + 1)! i 2l l!
≈ −i = z 2l+1 (34)
−(2l)!z −l−1 /2l l! 2l + 1 (2l)!

and
∞
" #4
4π X 1 2l l!
σ≈ 2 (ka)4l+2
k 2l + 1 (2l)!
l=0

But we’re assuming ka  1, so the higher powers are negligible– keep only the l = 0
term. So
σ ≈ 4πa2 (35)

Not that the total cross section is four times of geometrical cross section of the hard
sphere.
———————————————————
Problem 11.3 Prove Equation 11.33, starting with Equation 11.32. Hint: Exploit the
orthogonality of the Legendre polynomials to show that the coefficients with different
values of l must separately vanish.
——————————
Problem11.4 Consider the case of low-energy scattering from a spherical delta-
function shell:
V (r ) = αδ(r − a)
where α and a are constants. Calculate the scattering amplitude, f (θ), the differential
cross-section, D(θ), and the total cross-section, σ. Assume ka  1, so that only the
l = 0 term contributes significantly. (To simplify matters, throw out all l 6= 0 terms right
from the start.) The main problem, of course, is to determine a0 . Express your answer
in terms of the dimensionless quantity β ≡ 2maα/h2 . Answer: σ = 4πa2 β 2 /(1 + β)2 .
————————————–

11.3 PHASE SHIFT

Consider a one-dim. scattering problem from a localized potential V (x) on the half line
x < 0.

A wave incident from the left

ψi (x) = Aeikx (x < −a) (36)

is entirely reflected
ψr (x) = Be−ikx (x < −a) (37)

In the interaction region (−a < x < 0), the amplitude of the reflected wave has got to
be the same as that of the incident wave, by conservation of probability.
But it need not have the same phase. If there were no potential at all (just the wall at
x = 0), then B = −A, since the total wave function (incident plus reflected) must
vanish at the origin:
 
ψ0 (x) = A eikx − e−ikx (V (x) = 0) (38)

If (V (x) 6= 0), the wave function takes the form

 
ψ(x) = A eikx − ei(2δ−kx) (V (x) 6= 0) (39)

The whole theory of scattering reduces to the problem of calculating the phase shift7 δ
(as a function of k , and hence of the energy E = h2 k 2 /2m), for a spec- ified potential.
In the three-dimensional case, the incident plane wave (Aeikz ) carries no angular
momentum in the z direction (Rayleigh’s formula contains no terms with m 6= 0), but it
includes all values of the total angular momentum (l = 0, 1, 2, . . .).
Because angular momentum is conserved, each partial wave (labelled by a particular
l) scatters independently, with (again) no change in amplitude only in phase. If there is
no potential at all, then ψ0 = Aeikz , and the lth partial wave is

(l)
ψ0 = Ai l (2l + 1)jl (kr )Pl (cos θ) (V (r ) = 0) (40)
But
1 h (1) (2)
i 1 h i
jl (x) = hl (x) + hl (x) ≈ (−i)l+1 eix + i l+1 e−ix (x  1) (41)
2 2x
So for large r

(l) (2l + 1) h ikr i

ψ0 ≈ A e − (−1)l e−ikr Pl (cos θ) (V (r ) = 0) (42)
2ikr
The second term in square brackets represents an incoming spherical wave.
The first term is the outgoing wave; it picks up a phase shift δl
(2l + 1) h i(kr +2δl ) i
ψ (l) ≈ A e − (−1)l e−ikr Pl (cos θ) (V (r ) 6= 0) (43)
2ikr

In Section 11.2.1 the whole theory was expressed in terms of the partial wave
amplimdes al ; now we have formulated it in terms of the phase shifts δl . There must be
a connection between the two. Indeed, comparing the asymptotic (large r) form of
Equation 11.23
 
(2l + 1) h ikr i (2l + 1)
ψ (l) ≈ A e − (−1)l e−ikr + al eikr Pl (cos θ) (44)
2ikr r
we find
1  2iδl  1
al = e − 1 = eiδl sin(δl ) (45)
2ik k
Then
∞
1X
f (θ) = (2l + 1)eiδl sin(δl )Pl (cos θ) (46)
k
l=0
and the total cross section is
∞
4π X
σ= 2
(2l + 1) sin2 (δl ) (47)
k
l=0

——————————————————-
Problem 11.5 A particle of mass m and energy E is incident from the left on the
potential

0,
 (x < −a)
V (x) = −V0 , (−a ≤ x ≤ 0)

∞, (x > 0)

√
ikx
(a) If the incoming wave is Ae (where k = 2mE/h), find the reflected wave.
Answer:

k − ik 0 cot(k 0 a) −ikx
 
Ae−2ika , where k 0 = 2m(E + V0 )/~
p
0 0
e
k + ik cot(k a)

(b) Confirm that the reflected wave has the same amplitude as the incident wave.
(c) Find the phase shift δ (Equation 11.40) for a very deep well (E  V0 ). Answer:
δ = −ka.
——————————————————-
Problem 11.6 What are the partial wave phase shifts (δl ) for hard-sphere scattering
Jt(J ← φc → (Example 11.3)?
——————————————————–
Problem 11.7 Find the S-wave (l = 0) partial wave phase shift δ0 (k ) for scattering
from a delta-function shell (Problem 11.4). Assume that the radial wave function u(r )
goes to 0 as r → ∞. Answer:
" #
ka 2mαa
− cot−1 cot(ka) + , where β ≡
β sin2 (ka) ~2

——————————————————————–
 11.4 THE BORN APPROXIMATION
11.4.1 Integral Form of the Schrödinger equation
The time-independent Schrö"dinger equation,
~2
− 52 +V ψ = Eψ (48)
2m
can be written as
(52 + k 2 )ψ = Q (49)
where √
2mE 2m
k≡ and Q ≡ 2 V ψ (50)
~ ~
This is in the form of the Helmholtz equation. Keep in mind, that the inhomogenous
term depends on ψ
Green function
(52 + k 2 )G(r) = δ 3 (r) (51)
Integral representation of ψ:
Z
ψ(r) = G(r − r0 )Q(r0 )d 3 r0 (52)

Proof
Z h i
(52 + k 2 )ψ(r) = (52 + k 2 )G(r − r0 ) Q(r0 )d 3 r0
Z
= δ 3 (r − r0 )Q(r0 )d 3 r0 = Q(r)
Fourior transform
1
Z
G(r) = eis·r g(s)d 3 s (53)
(2π)3/2
Then
1
Z h i
(52 + k 2 )G(r) = (52 + k 2 )eis·r g(s)d 3 s
(2π)3/2
But
52 eis·r = −s2 eis·r (54)

and
1
Z
δ 3 (r) = eis·r d 3 s (55)
(2π)3
so
1 1
Z Z
(−s2 + k 2 )eis·r g(s)d 3 s = eis·r d 3 s
(2π)3/2 (2π)3
It follows that
1
g(s) = (56)
(2π)3/2 (k 2 − s2 )

Putting this back

1 1
Z
G(r) = eis·r d 3s (57)
(2π)3 (k 2 − s2 )
Now, r is fixed, as far as the s integration is concemed, so we may as well choose
spherical coordinates (s, θ, φ) with the polar axis along r (Figure 11.8). Then
s · r = sr cos θ, the φ integral is trivial (2π), and the θ integral is

π
π eisr cos θ 2 sin(sr )
Z
eisr cos θ sin θdθ = − = (58)
0 isr 0 sr

1 2
Z ∞ s sin(sr ) 1
Z ∞ s sin(sr )
G(r) = ds = ds (59)
(2π)2 r 0 k 2 − s2 4π 2 r −∞ k 2 − s2

(Z )
i ∞ seisr
Z ∞ se−isr
G(r) = ds − ds
8π 2 r −∞ (s − k )(s + k ) −∞ (s − k )(s + k )
i
= (I1 − I2 ) (60)
8π 2 r
We use the Cachy’s integral formula
f (z)
I
dz = 2πif (z0 ) (61)
(z − z0 )

In the case of I1 , eisr goes to zero when s has a large positive imaginary part; for this
one we close above. The contour includes the singula pt. s = +k :
I " isr # " #
se 1 seisr
I1 = ds = 2πi = iπeikr (62)
s+k s−k s + k s=k

In the case of I1 , e−isr goes to zero when s has a large negative imaginary part;
I " −isr # " #
se 1 se−isr
I2 = − ds = −2πi = −iπeikr (63)
s−k s+k s−k s=−k

Conclusion:
i h i eikr
G(r) = 2
(iπeikr ) − (−iπeikr ) = − (64)
This, finally, is the Green’s function for the Helmholtz equation–the solution to Equation
11.52. (If you got lost in all that analysis, you might want to check the result by direct
differentiation–see Problem 11.8.) Or rather, it is a Green’s function for the Helmholtz
equation, for we can add to G(r) any function

(∇2 + k 2 )G0 (r) = 0 (65)

(a) (b)
The solution:
m eik |r−r0 |
Z
ψ(r) = ψ0 (r) − V (r0 )ψ(r0 )d 3 r0 (66)
2π~2 |r − r0 |
where ψ0 satisfies the free Schrödinger equation,

(52 + k 2 )ψ0 = 0 (67)

—————————————————-
Problem 11.8 Check that Equation 11.65 satisfies Equation 11.52, by direct sub-
stitution. Hint: ∇2 (1/r ) = −4πδ 3 (r)12
——————————————————
Problem 11.9 Show that the ground state of hydrogen (Equation 4.80) satisfies the
integral form of the Schrödinger √
equation, for the appropriate V and E (note that E is
negative, so k = iκ, where κ ≡ −2mE/}).
———————————————————–

11.4.2 The first Born approximation

Suppose V (r0 ) is localized about r0 = 0. We want to calculate ψ(r) at points far away
from the scattering center. Then |r|  |r0 | for all points that contribute to the integral in
Equation 11.67, so
 r · r0 
|r − r0 |2 = r 2 + r02 − 2r · r0 ∼
= r2 1 − 2 2 (68)
r
and
|r − r0 | ∼
= r − r̂ · r0 (69)
Let
k ≡ k r̂ (70)
then
eik |r−r0 | ∼
= eikr e−ik·r0 (71)
thus
eik |r−r0 | ∼ eikr −ik·r0
= e (72)
|r − r0 | r
(In the denominator we can afford to make the more radical approximation |r − r0 | = ∼ r;
in the exponent we need to keep the next term. If this puzzles you, try writing out the
next term in the expansion of the denominator. What we are doin g is expanding in
powers of the small quantity (r o/r ), and dropping all but the lowest order.)
We represent
ψ0 (r) = Aeikz (73)
an incident plane wave. For large r ,

m eikr
Z
ψ(r) ∼
= Aeikz − eik·r0 V (r0 )ψ(r0 )d 3 r0 (74)
2π~2 r
scattering amplitude

m
Z
f (θ, φ) = − e−ik·r0 V (r0 )ψ(r0 )d 3 r0 (75)
2π~2 A
So far, this is exact. Now we invoke the Born approximation
0
·r0
ψ(r0 ) ≈ ψ0 (r0 ) = Aeikz0 = Aeik (76)

where
k0 ≡ k ẑ (77)
inside the integral.
In the firs Born approx.

m
Z
0
f (θ, φ) ∼
=− ei(k −k)·r0
V (r0 )d 3 r0 (78)
2π~2
for the low energy scattering

m
Z
f (θ, φ) ∼
=− V (r)d 3 r, (low energy) (79)
2π~2

=======================================================
Example 11.4 Low-energy soft-sphere scattering. Suppose
(
V0 , if r ≤ a
V (r) = (80)
0, if r > a

In this case the low-energy scattering amplitude is

 
m 4 3
f (θ, φ) ∼
=− V0 πa (81)
2π~2 3

(independent of θ and φ), the differential cross-section is

!2
dσ 2mV0 a3
= |f |2 ∼
= (82)
dΩ 3~2
the total cross-section is !2
2mV0 a3
σ∼
= 4π (83)
3~2

============================================
For a spherically symmetrical potential, V (r) = V (r ) –but not necessarily at low
energy–the Bom approximation again reduces to a simpler form. Define

κ ≡ k0 − k (84)

and let the polar axis for the r0 integral lie along κ, so that

(k0 − k) · r0 = κr0 cos θ0 (85)

Then
m
Z
f (θ) ∼
=− eiκr0 cos θ0 V (r0 )r02 sin θ0 dr0 dθ0 dφ0 (86)
2π~2
We are left with
2m
Z ∞
f (θ) ∼
=− rV (r ) sin(κr )dr , (spherical symmetry) (87)
~2 κ 0

The angular dependence of f is carried by κ; in Figure 11.11 we see that

κ = 2k sin(θ/2) (88)

===============================================
Example 11.5 Yukawa scattering. The Yukawa potential (which is a cmde model for the
binding force in an atomic nucleus) has the form

e−µr
V (r ) = β (89)
r
where β and µ are constants. The Born approximation gives

2mβ ∞ −µr 2mβ

Z
f (θ) ∼
=− 2 e sin(κr )dr = − 2 2 (90)
~ κ 0 ~ (µ + κ2 )

==================================================
Example 11.6 Rutherford scattering. If we put in β = q1 q2 /4π0 , µ = 0, the Yukawa
potential reduces to the Coulomb potential, describing the electrical interaction of two
point charges. Evidently the scattering amplitude is

2mq1 q2
f (θ) ∼
=− (91)
4π0 ~2 κ2
or
q1 q2
f (θ) ∼
=− (92)
16π0 E sin2 (θ/2)
The differential cross-section is the square of this:
" #2
dσ q1 q2
= (93)
dΩ 16π0 E sin2 (θ/2)
which is precisely the Rutherford formula (Equation 11.11). It happens that for the
Coulomb potential, classic a1 mechanics, the Bom approximation, and quantum field
theory all yield the same result.
====================================================
Problem 11.10 Find the scattering amplitude, in the Bom approximation, for soft-
sphere scattering at arbitrary energy. Show that your formula reduces to Equation
11.82 in the low-energy limit.
——————————————————–
Problem 11.11 Evaluate the integral in Equation 11.91, to confirm the expression on
the right.
———————————————————
Problem 11.12 Calculate the total cross-section for scattering from a Yukawa potential,
in the Bom approximation. Express your answer as a function of E.
—————————————————
Problem 11.13 For the potential in Problem 11.4,
(a) calculate f (θ), D(θ), and σ, in the low-energy Bom approximation;
(b) calculate f (θ) for arbitrary energies, in the Bom approximation;
(c) show that your results are consistent with the answer to Problem 11.4, in the
appropriate regime.

11.4.3 The Born Series

The Born approximation is similar in spirit to the impulse approximation in classical

scattering theory. In the impulse approximation we begin by pretending that the particle
keeps going in a straight line (Figure 11.12),
and compute the transverse impulse that would be delivered to it in that case:
Z
I= F⊥ dt (94)

scattering angle is
θ∼
= tan−1 (I/p) (95)

where p is the incident momentum. This is, if you like, the ”first-order” impulse
approximation (the zeroth-order is what we started with: no deflection at all).
The integral form of the Schrodinger equation reads
Z
ψ(r) = ψ0 (r) + g(r − r0 )V (r0 )ψ(r0 )d 3 r0 (96)

where ψ0 is the incident wave,

m eikr
g(r) ≡ − 2
(97)
is the Green’s function (into which I have now incorporated the factor 2m/h2 , for
convenience), and V is the scattering potential. Schematically,
Z
ψ = ψ0 + gV ψ (98)

Suppose we take this expression for ψ, and plug it in under the integral sign:
Z ZZ
ψ = ψ0 + gV ψ0 + gV gV ψ (99)

Formal series for ψ:

Z ZZ ZZZ
ψ = ψ0 + gV ψ0 + gV gV ψ0 + gV gV gV ψ0 + · · · (100)

This is the basic of Feynman diagrams

—————————————————-
Problem 11.14 Calculate θ (as a function of the impact para− meter) for Rutherford
scattering, in the impulse approximation. Show that your result is consistent with the
exact expression (Problem 11.1(a)), in the appropriate limit.
—————————————————–
Problem 11.15 Find the scattering amplitude for low-energy soft-sphere scattering in
the second Born approximation. Answer: −(2mV0 a3 /3h2 )[1 − (4mV0 a2 /5h2 )].