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Production of cardboard from waste rice husk

Article in Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering · March 2015

DOI: 10.1016/j.jece.2014.11.013

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 Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 3 (2015) 52–59

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jece

Production of cardboard from waste rice husk

Pratima Jeetah * , Nisha Golaup, Karishma Buddynauth
Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of Mauritius, Réduit, Mauritius

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history: Rice husk does not have substantial commercial value and generally present an environmental problem
Received 17 July 2014 concerning its disposal. This investigation determines the suitability of producing cardboard from rice
Accepted 12 November 2014 husk, thus, reducing the amount of pulping material required from virgin wood. Maceration process was
used to produce cardboards from their pulps. For comparative evaluation, along with rice husk, bagasse
Keywords: and waste paper were used. The latter were blended in different ratios and their mechanical strength
Non-wood fibre determined. Rice husk contained 15.2% lignin, 20.56% ash with kappa number of 99.48 while bagasse had
Cardboard
13.70% lignin and 2.23% ash with kappa number of 88.39. The maceration period of rice husk and bagasse
Rice husk
Maceration
was between 6 and 15 days and 5–10 days with the corresponding pulp yield of 40.44–46.55% and
Mechanical strength 46.01–36.76%, respectively. The average lignin content of rice husk pulp and bagasse pulp was 3.09–2.9%
and 2.95–2.43%, respectively. The tensile index, edgewise crush resistance, average bursting index of
cardboard from rice husk was 11.31 N m/g, 1.11 kN/m and 0.84 kPa m2/g, respectively. For the rice husk
mixed bagasse cardboard, the optimal ratios were (20/80), (40/60), and (60/40) with a tensile index of
17.96, 16.66 and 12.94 N m/g, respectively. The edgewise compressive resistance was 2.91, 2.42 and
1.99 kN/m, respectively. The bursting index was 1.88, 1.55, and 1.26 kPa m2/g, respectively. The optimal
rice husk mixed waste paper ratio was (20/80) with a tensile index of 21.52 N m/g with an edgewise
compressive resistance of 2.75 kN/m and a bursting index of 1.35 kPa m2/g. Thus, these cardboards are
suitable for packaging as corrugating medium, wrapping and insulating board.
ã 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Introduction Some of the advantages of rice husk mills include:

Cardboard can be manufactured from virgin wood pulp. From
an environmental point of view, using virgin wood can be avoided
by utilization of other substitute. The increased demand for
wooden supplies can be met through enlarged utilization of forest
waste, increased utilization of waste paper, increased utilization of
non-wood fibrous plants, or other environmentally sound pulping
process [1]. Rice hulls are a by-product of the rice industry,
with a total of 75 million tons worldwide. Despite numerous
exploitations and broad researches have been proliferated, such
efforts are handicapped by the limitations of its low nutritive
properties, degradation resistance, abrasiveness, low apparent
density and high ash content, attributed to another form of
pollution phenomenon, rice husk ash [2]. Consequently, useful
applications for rice husk are required to solve this problem [3].
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +230 4037891; fax: +230 4647144.
E-mail addresses: p.jeetah@uom.ac.mu (P. Jeetah),
nisha.golaup@umail.uom.ac.mu (N. Golaup),
karishma.buddynauth@umail.uom.ac.mu (K. Buddynauth).

There is insignificant damage on ecological balance since they
are based on annually renewable raw materials often plentiful in
supply and with disposal problems.

No outflow of foreign exchange is needed to import raw
materials.

Sale of agricultural-residue provides further revenue to farmers
who have little other opportunities for outside income.

Employment is provided to rural labour.
Agricultural-residues like rice husk and bagasse are locally
available either for free or at a very small cost. The major cost in
such cases is incurred on collecting and transporting these raw
materials. Due to the bulk of these raw materials, transportation
can as well be a major cost factor in processing. Nearly all of these
raw materials are collected manually and as such the labour costs
constitute a big percentage of the total raw material costs. Thus, in
countries with very low labour rates, pulp production with these
raw materials can be extremely encouraging relative to wood
pulping [4]. Consequently, the possibility of manufacturing
cardboard from rice husk residues together with bagasse and

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2014.11.013
2213-3437/ ã 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 P. Jeetah et al. / Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 3 (2015) 52–59
waste paper was investigated. Their strengths were compared to
that of virgin fibres normally used in the production of cardboard
for packaging, to see whether the cardboard obtained from rice
hulls residues could replace to some extent the pulping material in
normal cardboard production. For that purpose, it was important
to determine the optimum pulping time in terms of yield, kappa
number and lignin content various mixtures of various mixtures of
waste papers and rice husk pulp and bagasse pulp and rice husk
pulp and to compare the mechanical properties of cardboards
manufactured from these mixtures. The optimal amount of virgin
fibre to be added also had to be determined so as to maintain
strength.
Fibre morphology in non-wood plants used in cardboard making
Morphological characteristics, such as fibre length and width,
are essential in estimating pulp quality of fibres [5]. Kiaie et al. [6]
stated that the flexibility coefficient of bagasse and rice residues is
included in high rigid fibres group and thick wall fibre group.
Consequently, they do not have efficient elasticity and they are
used more on fibre plate, rigid cardboard and cardboard
production [7]. Kiaie et al. [6] also concluded the following as
shown in Table 1.
Benefits of using rice husk include:

Use of local fibre sources would offer import substitution.

Rice husk are underutilized.

It will expand the economic viability of the existing paper mills
and lead to their revival.

Saving in foreign exchange will be attained by reducing the
amount of imported pulp and exportation of papers and paper
products to other countries.

Environmental problems on agricultural crop residues would be
tackled.
Materials and methods
Raw material
Rice husks and depithed bagasse were oven-dried and stored
for further use. The oven dried samples of bagasse were cut into
pieces of about 2 cm long following research done by Madakadze
et al. [30]. Waste papers were cut into small papers, about 2–3 cm
on a side and oven dried.
Production of cardboard
Pulping by cold maceration
The maceration fluid is prepared by mixing 1 part of 30%
hydrogen peroxide solution, 4 parts of distilled water, and 5 parts
of glacial acetic acid. The risk husks chips were then soaked in the
maceration mixture for days until digestion. The mixture was
thoroughly stirred each day. According to Ibrahim [8], digestion is
achieved when the pulp is formed, that is when the rice husk has
softened. The average room temperature was 29  C. At the end, the
Table 1
Biometric properties, chemical composition and morphology characteristics of bagasse and rice.
Source: [6].
Biometric properties
Fibre length: bagasse > rice (lowest)
Fibre diameter: bagasse (highest) > rice
Cell wall thickness: bagasse > rice (lowest)
Lumen width: bagasse > rice
53
pulps were washed and screened into accept and reject (the one
with knots and uncooked rice husk, due to incomplete reaction of
the sample with the macerating chemicals). Finally, the accepted
pulp was oven dried so as to determine the yield.
Determination of optimum maceration conditions, in terms of pulp
yield, kappa number and lignin content
Samples of 15 g of bagasse and rice husk were soaked in 80 ml of
the macerating liquor. They were allowed to macerate for 5, 6, 9, 10,
12, 15, 20 and 25 days. At the end, the pulps were washed with
equal bathing ratio and finally screened into accept and reject.
Determination of kappa number and lignin content for raw rice husk
600 ml of distilled water were added to 0.5 g of the rice husk.
75 ml of 4 N sulphuric acid and 75 ml of 0.1 N potassium
permanganate were mixed, and added to the above solution.
The mixture was stirred and its temperature was maintained at
25  C for about 10 min using a water bath. After 10 min, 15 ml of the
1 N potassium iodide was added to the mixture and stirred. 25 ml
of the mixture was titrated against 0.1 N sodium thiosulphate to
pale colour, two drops of starch indicator solution was added and
the titration continued to colourless solution.
The Hussain et al. [9] method was used to determine the kappa
number and lignin content:
P  No ¼ 75  v
P  No  f
K  No ¼
w
%L ¼ K  No  0:155
where P-No = permanganate number; v = titre value (ml); L = lignin
content; K-No = kappa number; f = correction factor (50%); and
w = weight of raw sample mixed with distilled water (g).
Pulp kappa number and lignin content of rice husk pulp
This method was used by Ibrahim [8] which was adapted from
TAPPI 236 om-06.
1500 ml of distilled water was added to 1.0 g of dry weight of
pulp and stirred thoroughly. 40 ml of 4 N sulphuric acid solution
was added to the mixture and stirred. After about 5 min, 40 ml of
0.1 N potassium permanganate was added and stirred. After
another 5 min, 5 ml of the 1 N potassium iodide was added and
stirred. The reaction temperature was noted. 25 ml of the solution
was titrated against the 0.1 N sodium thiosulphate to pale colour.
Two drops of starch indicator solution was added and the titration
continued to colourless solution.
Kappa number and the lignin content were evaluated as
follows:
P  No ¼ 40  v
u ¼ Tr  To
Chemical composition Morphology characteristics
Lignin: (highest) rice > bagasse Slenderness ratio: bagasse > rice
Cellulose: bagasse > rice Flexibility ratio: bagasse > rice
Extractive: bagasse > rice Runkel ratio: bagasse > rice
Ash: (highest) rice > bagasse –
54 P. Jeetah et al. / Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 3 (2015) 52–59

Table 2
Initial characteristics of the raw materials.
T ¼ u½1:8
Sample Moisture content Ash content (%) Kappa number Lignin
(%) (%)
K  No ¼ P  No  T
Rice husk 37.30 20.56 99.48 15.20
Bagasse 39.10 2.23 88.39 13.70
The kappa number K-No is corrected to 50% Waste paper 7.40 17.54 – –
%L ¼ K  No  0:147
where u = temperature difference ( C); v = titre value (ml);
Tr = reaction temperature ( C); To = ambient temperature ( C); obtained for rice husk was 37.3%, which fall between the values
and T = temperature ( C). of 31.0 and 38.3% reported by Zhang et al. [11]. Virgin fibres
demonstrate a slightly superior resistance to moisture than
Forming of cardboard sheets recycled fibres, however, as corrugated carton moisture content
Oven dried sample of the pulp corresponding to (200  4) g/m2 (16.4%) increases from 7.7% to 16.4%, edge compressive strength
was soaked in distilled water for at least 4 h. The pulp was washed reduces by 42.6%, compressive strength reduces by 52% [12].
and diluted to 1000 ml at 0.3% consistency for each sheet. Therefore, only when the moisture content of corrugated carton is
Disintegration was performed in the standard disintegrator at controlled at 8–10% can optimal mechanical properties of
18,000 rpm for 4 min and until all fibre bundles are dispersed corrugated carton be achieved.
(TAPPI 205 sp-12). The stock was poured on a sheet former; the
sheet formed on the wire screen was drain for about 5 min and Chemical composition
pressed at (400  10) kPa for 2 min  15 s and then released. The
sheets were dried in the conditioning room at 23  C and 50% RH. A The chemical compositions of rice husk and bagasse varies from
drying period of 2 days was appropriate (SCAN-CM 64:00). sample to sample depending on the type of paddy, geographical
conditions, sample preparation and method of analysis and also
Burst index (TAPPI 807 om-94) due to variations in climatic conditions (temperature, precipitation
Test piece of at least 100 mm  100 mm in area was clamped in and length of cultivation season), soil type (alluvial, luvisols
between the clamping rings. The bursting pressure was applied and black), methods of cultivation (transplanting and seeding) and
until the specimen is ruptured and the maximum pressure was type of fertilizer used [11].
recorded. Burst index X, in kPa m2/g was obtained as follows: Kiaie et al. [6] states that a high lignin content make the fibre
tougher and stiffer compared to other fibres. Panshin and Dezeeuw
P [13] stated that when producing cardboard, decreasing the value of
X¼
g lignin and ash causes an increase of yield of cardboard, a decrease
where P is the mean bursting strength, in kPa; g is the grammage, in consumption of chemical material and a decrease in cooking
in g m2/g. time. The kappa number and lignin content was 99.48 and 15.42%
for rice husk and 88.39 and 13.7% for bagasse, respectively. Thus,
Edgewise compressive strength (adapted from TAPPI 811 om-02) given that both rice husks and bagasse have low lignin content, the
The test specimen was cut to a height of 15 mm and length of yield of cardboard production will be higher and lesser chemicals
150 mm. The rate of platen movement for each rigid support will be required, thus, making such substitution of material
compression machines was set to 12.5  0.25 mm/min. A economically viable.
compressive force was applied to the specimen. Record the
maximum load in newtons and the specimen width. Digestion analysis

R ¼ 0:01F max
where R is the Edge crush resistance (kN/m); F max is the mean
value of the maximum force (N).
Results and discussion
The raw materials used was characterized as shown in Table 2.
Moisture content
Rice hulls are hygroscopic materials, i.e. they change their
equilibrium moisture content depending on temperature and
relative air humidity [10]. Many strength properties alter with
changes in moisture content. The average moisture content
Maceration analyses for the rice husk and bagasse are presented
in Tables 3 and 4. The moisture content of the uncooked samples of
rice husk and bagasse was found on the average to 37.3% and 18.8%,
respectively. The moisture content of bagasse was different from
the one calculated previously because of different collection and
storage procedures.
130.65 g of dry weight of rice husk was soaked in 1000 ml of the
macerated liquor. This yielded a bath ratio of 7.65:1. Bath ratio is
the ratio of volume of liquor in millilitre to mass of chips in grams.
116.95 g of dry weight of bagasse was soaked in 900 ml of liquor
with a bath ratio of 7.69:1. The pulp moisture content was found
to be 79.3% for rice husk and 84.98% for bagasse, this is required to
compute the pulp yield. The yield of rice husk was found to be
42.43% and bagasse was found to be 48.67%. The lower yield for rice

Table 3
Digestion analysis of rice husk.

Properties Green weight (g) Dry weight (g) Moisture content (g) % Moisture content Maceration fluid volume (ml) Bath ratio % Yield
Moisture content 208.4 130.65 77.75 37.3 – – –
Maceration analysis 208.4 130.65 77.75 37.3 1000 7.65:1 42.43
Pulp moisture content 140.3 30.01 110.29 79.3 – – –
Moisture content at optimum 35.1 30.4 4.65 13.4 220 7.24:1 –
maceration time
 P. Jeetah et al. / Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 3 (2015) 52–59 55

Table 4
Digestion analysis of bagasse.

Properties Green weight (g) Dry weight (g) Moisture content (g) % Moisture content Maceration fluid volume (ml) Bath ratio % Yield
Moisture content 146.9 116.95 29.95 18.8 – – –
Maceration analysis 146.9 116.95 29.95 18.8 900 7.69:1 48.67
Pulp moisture content 40.61 6.3 34.31 84.98 – – –
Moisture content at optimum 30 21 9 30.1 152 7.24:1 –
maceration time

husks could be as a result of incomplete maceration or due to
degradation of pulp by macerating chemicals.
Fibre colours
From the visual macroscopic evolution of the rice husk fibres,
the colour of the untreated rice husk and bagasse changes from
brown to brownish-orange after the treatment. These colour
changes are due to the removal of non-cellulosic materials and
other impurities such as lignin, hemicelluloses, pectin, and wax
upon chemical treatment of the rice husks.
Optimum maceration on pulp yield, kappa number and lignin content
To determine the optimum maceration time that yields the best
quality of pulp in terms of pulp yield, kappa number and lignin
content, 9 samples of equal weight of bagasse and rice husk were
macerated for 5, 6, 9, 10, 12, 15, 20, and 25 days with equal bath
ratio (Fig. 1).
Pulp yield
The rice husk showed no indication of being pulped up to
6 days; this is due to its chemical composition. Rice hulls have
higher amount of lignin as compared to bagasse, therefore, they
require more energy and chemicals. The pulp yield increased
during the 6th, 9th and 10th day for rice husk pulp with a pulp yield
40.44%, 45.35% and 46.55%, respectively. The optimal maceration
time for rice husk is therefore between 6 and 15 days. On the other
hand, bagasse showed short cooking time resulting in a pulp yield
of 6.02% on the 5th day. Optimal maceration time for bagasse in
terms of maximum pulp yield is between 5 and 10 days with a pulp
yield of 46.01–36.76%. Beyond 10 days, there is a loss of yield of
bagasse pulp.
The obstacle to the pulping of lignocellulosic waste is the
structure of lignocellulose which has evolved to resist degradation
owing to crosslinking between the polysaccharides (cellulose and
hemicellulose) and the lignin via ester and ether linkages [14,15].
Cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin form structures called
microfibrils, which are organized into microfibrils that mediate
structural stability in the plant cell [16].
According to Nieschlag et al. [17], a new fibre crop have to fit the
technical requirements for processing into pulp of suitable quality.
It must also be flexible to practical agricultural methods and
generate adequate dry matter and fibre yield at economically
attractive levels. It has also been shown that non-wood species
have higher pulp yields than those from wood species. Thus, the
rice husks and bagasse have good potential to be used in
the pulping process for cardboard manufacturing.
Lignin
Fig. 2 shows that for the increasing rice pulp yield that is during
the 6th, 9th and 10th days, the lignin content was reduced to 3.09%,
3.03% and 2.90%, respectively. In contrast, the lignin content for
bagasse was 2.96% during the maximum yield which in turns
correspond to the 5th day. The lignin content during the optimal
maceration time of bagasse during 5–10 days was between 2.95%
and 2.43%. Raw bagasse has a lignin content of 13.7% and rice husk
has a lignin content of 15.2%. This suggests that this material can
undergo bleaching more easily and with the utilization of lower
amounts of chemicals than other agricultural residues and virgin
wood [6].
The hydrogen peroxide reaction with the lignin is mainly to
break the bond between the basic building blocks [8]. Chemically
separated and bleached fibre is pure cellulose, and this has
particular significance in cardboard packaging products where
there is a necessity to prevent materials originating from the
packaging affecting the flavour, odour or aroma of the product [18].
Consequently, it is found that rice husks and bagasse are separated
more easily as they are more easily bleached implying that they are
more suitable for cardboard manufacturing than virgin wood.
3.5.3. Kappa number
According to TAPPI 236 om-06, the kappa number is a
fundamental test method for determining the level of lignin
16

14

12

10
% Lignin

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Maceraon Time, days
Maceraon of Rice Husk Maceraon of Bagasse

Fig. 1. Shows the variation of pulp yield with maceration time. Fig. 2. Variation of lignin with maceration time.
56 P. Jeetah et al. / Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 3 (2015) 52–59

120 waste paper respectively and Fig. 4 shows samples of the

cardboard manufactured.
100
Mechanical strength
80
Kappa Number

60
40
20
0
0 5 10 15 20
Maceraon Time, days
Maceraon of Rice Husk Maceraon of Bagasse
Fig. 3. Variation of kappa number with maceration time.
remaining in a sample of finished or in-process pulp. Therefore, it is
a measure of the completeness of the pulping process for chemical
and pulps, both bleached and semi-bleached. It is based upon the
reaction of a strong oxidizing chemical, potassium permanganate,
with lignin and small levels of certain other organic impurities
remaining in the pulp at various stages of its processing. It gives the
maker of the pulp valuable information about the properties of the
pulp and the cardboard made from it, particularly with reference to
the level of residual lignin present. ISO 302 (2012) mentioned that
the kappa number of cardboard ranges from 1 to 100.
Fig. 3 shows the variation of kappa number with maceration
time. The initial kappa number of the raw rice husk was 98.07. The
kappa number for rice husk pulp at maximum yield was 21, 20.6
and 19.7 for the 6th, 9th and 10th days, respectively. This indicates
a decreasing trend of kappa number with increasing maceration
time. This is because kappa number refers to the amount of
residual lignin in the pulp. Therefore as the lignin content
decreases, the kappa number will also decrease. The optimal
maceration time of 6–15 days corresponds to a kappa number in
the range of 21–13.3. Bagasse had a kappa number of 20.1 on the
5th days, which is during the maximum yield period and for the
optimal pulp yield it had a kappa number of 20.1–17.5. This value is
well within the range stated by the ISO 302 which implies that they
can be used for cardboard manufacturing.
Physical properties of cardboard
Tables 5 and 6 show the physical properties of cardboard
manufactured from rice husk pulp mixed with bagasse pulp and
Tensile strength
The strength, or force, needed to rupture a strip of the material
is known as the tensile strength. The material exhibits elastic
behaviour up to a certain point. This indicates that the force,
or stress, applied to the strip is proportional to the deformation or
elongation caused by the applied force. Consequently, if the force is
removed, the sample will recover its original shape. The tensile
value at the point of rupture will differ with the rate of applying the
25 load.
Fig. 5 shows that the maximum tensile index of cardboard made
from rice husk mixed bagasse was 17.96 N m/g and that of rice husk
mixed waste paper was 21.52 N m/g. Therefore, the optimal rice
husk mixed bagasse ratios were (20/80), (40/60), and (60/40) with
a tensile index of 17.96, 16.66 and 12.94 N m/g, respectively. Out of
the three mix, the best mix was found to be 20/80 as it gave the
highest tensile strength. The optimal rice husk mixed waste paper
ratios were (20/80), (40/60), and (60/40) with a tensile index
of 21.52, 18.59, and 16.23 N m/g, respectively, out of which the mix
of 20/80 was found to the best as it gave the highest tensile index.
The tensile index for rice husk mixed bagasse was lower as
compared to that of rice husk mixed waste paper.
The above finding does not support the statement that cellulose
fibres undergo a decrease in quality during recycling [19]. The main
reason could be the presence of strong binding agent in the waste
paper pulp which helps to prevent fibre damage.
Edgewise compression strength
It is the basic element in establishing the dynamic compression
strength of the container made from that board. As cardboard
shipping containers are often subjected to top loads and are
expected to withstand those loads, the edge crush capability of
cardboard is an essential characteristic. It is the major contributor
to the box stacking strength [20].
As per Fig. 6, the maximum edgewise compressive resistance of
cardboard made from rice husk mixed bagasse was 2.91 kN/m and
that of rice husk mixed waste paper was 2.75 kN/m. Therefore, the
optimal rice husk mixed bagasse ratios were (20/80), (40/60), and
(60/40) with an edgewise compressive resistance of 2.91, 2.42 and
1.99 kN/m, respectively. The optimal rice husk mixed waste paper
ratios were again (20/80), (40/60), and (60/40) with an edgewise
compressive resistance of 2.75, 2.49 and 1.82 kN/m, respectively
The edgewise compressive resistance of rice husk mixed paper was
lower as compared to rice husk mixed bagasse. This is because the

Table 5
Physical properties of cardboard made from rice husk pulp mixed bagasse pulp.

Classification of cardboard (% by mass rice husk) Bulk value (cm3/g) Basis weight/sheet (g/m2) Average thickness (mm) Density (kg/m3)
20 12.1 208 2.51 82.9
40 10.2 209 2.40 98.2
60 9.60 211 2.17 104
80 7.51 210 2.01 133

Table 6
Physical properties of cardboard made from rice husk pulp mixed waste paper pulp.

Classification of cardboard (% by mass rice husk) Bulk value (cm3/g) Basis weight/sheet (g/m2) Average thickness (mm) Density (kg/m3)
20 12.3 213 2.61 81.4
40 11.5 218 2.50 87.3
60 12.1 211 2.57 82.4
80 11.6 214 2.49 85.9
 P. Jeetah et al. / Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 3 (2015) 52–59 57

Fig. 4. Samples of cardboard from rice husk and bagasse and rice husk and waste paper.

strength of paper decreases, and the decay will amplify with each
successive recycling, which diminishes the cardboard making
potential of recycled cellulose fibre [26]. The edgewise compres-
sive strength was found to be much less than that of corrugated
cardboard, hence, cardboard manufactured from rice husk and
waste paper/bagasse cannot be used for shipping containers or for
stacking one on top of the other. It should be used for other
purposes.
Bursting strength
It describes the intensity of the cardboard in resisting a disc
shaped diaphragm trying to burst it. Other properties comprising
fibre length, fibre quality, internal sizing, and surface treatment as
well have an effect on the burst strength of cardboard.
25
20
Tensile Index, Nm/g
Fig. 7 shows the maximum bursting index of cardboard made
from rice husk mixed bagasse was 1.88 kPa m2/g and that of rice
husk mixed waste paper was 1.35 kPa m2/g. Therefore, the optimal
rice husk mixed bagasse ratios were (20/80), (40/60), and (60/40)
with a bursting index of 1.88, 1.55, and 1.26 kPa m2/g, respectively.
The optimal rice husk mixed waste paper ratios were again (20/80),
(40/60), and (60/40) with a bursting index of 1.35, 1.19, and
1.06 kPa m2/g, respectively.
The bursting index rice husk mixed paper was lower as
compared to rice husk mixed bagasse. Cardboard making
properties decay when recycled fibres go through the pulping
and papermaking processes as exhibited through a decline in fibre
swelling ability and loss in strength properties [26]. This will result
in a lower yield for a recycling mill, which will have negative
economic impacts [23]. The results of this deficit in flexibility and
conformability are inferior strength and less bonding amongst the
fibres, which result in a weaker, lower grade of cardboard.
However, weaker grades cardboard can be used in construction
or for decoration purposes, thus, rice husk can be used as a
substitute to maintain the strength of the fibres.

y = -0.1473x + 24.45
15 R² = 0.968 Mechanical behaviour of cardboard

The macro mechanical behaviour of cardboard is governed by

10 its microstructure. Mechanical clamping has resulted in more than
y = -0.0903x + 19.57
R² = 0.9206 50% of the rice husk cardboard specimens failing at the grips or
5
clamps. This is probably caused by the effect of cell-wall
compression at the fibre ends, likely contributing to premature
fibre failure. Fibres failing in the middle are preferred. These cases
0 represent an actual breaking mode of the fibre, as opposed to fibre
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 failure at the clamps. Another major issue encountered in
Percentage by mass Rice Husk
mechanical clamping is fibre slip. This occurs when the mechanical
Rice Husk pulp and Waste Paper pulp Rice Husk pulp and Bagasse pulp
clamping system cannot generate enough friction to hold the fibre
Fig. 5. Variation of tensile index with percentage by mass of rice husk. in place.
58 P. Jeetah et al. / Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 3 (2015) 52–59

3.5 advantage in various developing countries is the presence of

non-wood resources, a growing domestic market for paper,
3 reasonable labour costs, and absence of wood raw materials [4].
Edge Crush Resistance, kN/m

Principally, the choice is between virgin, or primary, fibre derived

2.5
from vegetation, of which wood is the main source, and recovered,
2 y = -0.0216x + 3.2383 or secondary, fibre derived from waste paper and paperboard.
R² = 0.9735 Three fibre sources were evaluated for production of cardboard.
1.5 These were rice husk, bagasse and waste paper. The maceration
condition of the agricultural residues used was studied for a period
1 y = -0.025x + 3.3843 of 25 days and their chemical composition was assessed. Optimal
R² = 0.9266
maceration condition for these pulping processes was determined
0.5
in terms of pulp yield, kappa number and lignin content. For
0 comparative evaluation of cardboard produced by bagasse and
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 waste papers, handsheet cardboards were mixed in different
Percentage by mass of Rice Husk ratios, and then physical properties and mechanical strength
Rice Husk pulp and Bagasse pulp Rice Husk pulp and Waste paper pulp properties were evaluated. They all exhibited standard qualities of
tensile index, edgewise compressive resistance and burst index
Fig. 6. Variation of edge crush resistance with percentage by mass of rice husk.
corresponding to TAPPI 494, TAPPI 811 and TAPPI 807, respectively.
The optimal rice husk to bagasse ratio and rice husk to waste paper
was both 20/80 which gave maximum tensile strength, edgewise
2 compression strength and bursting strength. Thus, these
1.8 cardboards are suitable for packaging corrugating medium,
Burst Strenght Index, kPa.m2/g

1.6
1.4
1.2
1 References
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0 [3] T. Lee, R. Othman, F. Yeoh, Development of photoluminescent glass derived
0 20 40
Percentage of by mass Rice Husk
Rice Huskp pulp and Bagasse pulp
Fig. 7. Variation of bursting strength index with percentage by mass rice husk.
Owing to the non-homogeneous and anisotropic nature of the
cardboard materials display complex mechanical behaviour,
frequently characterized by a highly anisotropic linear elastic
response (under moderate mechanical loading) and nonlinear
response (attributed to a plastic response) under high loading [25].
Chen et al. [26] suggest that the molecular structure deformation
mechanics are governing the inelastic flow of cardboard.
Mechanical behaviour is composed by means of linear part
followed-up by non-linear part. This phenomenon depends on
the cellulose fibres, the hydrogen bonds as well as the rate of the
moisture content. This more noticeable non-linearity can be
because the cardboard mechanical behaviour is more governed by
hydrogen bonds that are more requested than the cellulose fibres.
Conclusion
Rice husk is a valuable natural resource obtained from
agricultural waste [3]. The annual global quantity of rice husk
generated is 137 million tons. It has been noted that, rice millers
often dispose of the rice husk waste using open burning. This
situation directly leads to environmental concerns and becomes a
great environmental threat causing damage to the land and the
surrounding area in which it was dumped.
The industry’s dependence on virgin fibres must be reduced by
expansion in the use of recovered paper and growth in the use of
non-wood plant fibres. Use of non-wood plant fibres for pulp
production in Mauritius is not a matter of choice but an obligation.
Mauritius is not rich in wood resources. Its forests are restricted in
size and area available for future plantation. The economic
wrapping, insulating board and can also be used for decoration
purposes.
y = -0.0134x + 2.1011
R² = 0.9821
y = -0.0061x + 1.4504
R² = 0.9914
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